TOPIC 9 .
Optoelectronics
Definition - What does Optoelectronics mean?
Optoelectronics is the field of technology concerned with electronic device application to the
sourcing, detection and control of light.
It involves the design, manufacture and study of electronic hardware devices that, as a
result, converts electricity into photon signals for various purposes such as medical
equipment, telecommunications and general science.
Good examples are X-ray machines used in hospitals and fiber optic technology for
telecommunication.
Explanation of Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics, in the context of science, deals with light, its detection, creation and
manipulation for various purposes.
This includes X-rays, gamma rays, infrared, ultraviolet and of course visible light.
These devices are basically transducers, devices that convert one form of energy into another
form of energy, and can either be electrical-to-optical, which usually means that the machine
produces light by using electrical energy, or they can be optical to-electronic, which means that
the device is a detector of light and transforms the detected light signals into equivalent electrical
signals for computer processing.
Optoelectronics use the quantum mechanical effect of light on materials used in electronic devices
such as semiconductors. These effects are:
• Photovoltaic or photoelectric — This is the direct conversion of light into electricity, which is
the effect taken advantage of by solar cells.
• Photoconductivity — This is an electrical phenomenon wherein a material becomes more
conductive to electricity through the absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared,
ultraviolet and visible light. It is used in charge-coupled device (CCD) imaging sensors.
• Stimulated emission — This is a process where a light photon interacts with an excited molecule
which causes it to drop to a lower energy level, resulting in the emission or "liberation" of an
identical photon which is transferred to the electromagnetic field. This process is used in laser
diodes and quantum cascade lasers.
• Radiative recombination — Electrons are transitioned from the valence to the conducting band in
semiconductors, resulting in a carrier generation and recombination effect which produces light.
This process is how LEDs produce light.
Optoelectronics should not be confused with electro-optics, as this field is a wider branch of
physics that deals with the interaction of electric fields and light, without concern if an
electronic device is involved or not. What Are Optoelectronics?
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The term optoelectronics is a specific discipline of electronics that focuses on light-emitting or light-
detecting devices.
Light-emitting devices use voltage and current to produce electromagnetic radiation (i.e., light).
Such light-emitting devices are commonly used for purposes of illumination or as indicator
lights.
In contrast, light-detecting devices, such as phototransistors, are designed to convert received
electromagnetic energy into electric current or voltage. Light-detecting devices can be used for
light sensing and communication. Examples of these include darkness-activated switches and
remote controls. In general terms, light-detecting devices work by using photons to liberate bound
electrons within semiconductor materials.
Figures 1 through 4 show a variety of optoelectronic devices.
Figure 1. Incandescent lamp.
Figure 2. LEDs. Image courtesy of Sinisa Maric.
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Figure 3. Photoresistor. Image courtesy of Michigan State University (PDF).
Figure 4. Solar cell. Image courtesy of SparkFun
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A Review of Photons
Photons are the fundamental units of electromagnetic radiation (EMR).
Photons have a frequency of propagation, and we classify EMR based on this frequency—
microwave EMR, infrared EMR, optical EMR, and so forth. The human eye is sensitive to
optical EMR, which is further categorized into colors. Color is not an inherent property of
photons; rather, photons have frequency, and human beings interpret these different frequencies
as different colors.
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Some Physics Behind Photons
The relationship between a photon's frequency and its wavelength (λ) is given by:
λ=ν/f (in units of meters)
where
• ν = velocity, or speed, of the photon (units of m/s)
• f = frequency (in units of Hz)
In free space, ν is the speed of light (c = 3.0 × 108 m/s). But in other media, such as glass, ν
becomes slower than the speed of light.
OPTOELECTRONICS CLASSIFICATION
1. LIGHT EMITTING DEVICES- CONVERT CURRENT TO LIGHT
• LED
• LASER DIODE
• LCD
2. LIGHT DETECTING DEVICES- CONVERT LIGHT TO CURRENT
• LDR/PHOTORESISTOR
• PHOTODIODE, PHOTOTRANSISTOR
• SOLAR CELL
1. Light Emitting Diode (LED) (FORWARD BIASED)
As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light when energized.
This type of diode emits light when a forward current passes through it. When forward biased,
Electrons recombine with holes, Energy is released as light. This process is called spontaneous
emission.
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Construction of LED
Broadly speaking, the LED structures can be divided into two categories:
1. Surface-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the PN junction
plane.
2. Edge-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the PN junction plane
The figure below shows the construction of a surface-emitting LED. As seen from this
figure, an N-type layer is grown on a substrate and a P-type layer is deposited on it by
diffusion. Since carrier recombination takes place in the P-layer, it is kept upper most. The
metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of the P-layer so as to allow more
central surface area for the light to escape. LEDs are manufactured with domed lenses in
order to lessen the reabsorption problem. A metal (gold) film is applied to the bottom of the
substrate for reflecting as much light as possible to the surface of the device and also to
provide cathode connection. LEDs are always encased in order to protect their delicate
wires.
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Working of LEDs
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) produces light through a process called electroluminescence, which happens
when electric current passes through a semiconductor material. The colour of light depends on the energy
band gap of the semiconductor in simple terms, the type of material used determines the wavelength (and
therefore the colour) of the light emitted.
• Red LEDs are usually made from Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) or Gallium Arsenide Phosphide
(GaAsP).
• Green LEDs often use Gallium Phosphide (GaP).
• Blue LEDs are made from Gallium Nitride (GaN).
• White LEDs are created either by combining red, green, and blue LEDs together or by using a blue
LED coated with a phosphor material that converts some of the blue light into yellow, which mixes to
appear white.
When voltage is applied, electrons move across the junction of the semiconductor. As they recombine with
“holes” in the material, they release energy in the form of photons (light). The energy of these photons and
therefore their colour depends directly on the semiconductor material’s band gap.
In simple terms, different materials glow in different colours when electricity passes through them, and
by carefully choosing or combining these materials, LEDs can produce the wide range of colours we see in
phone screens, TVs, and decorative lighting.
Applications of LED
• General Lighting: Used in homes, offices, and street lights due to efficiency and long lifespan.
• Displays: Applied in TVs, smartphones, and digital billboards for bright, colorful images.
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• Indicators: Common in electronic devices as status lights showing power or activity.
• Automotive Lighting: Used in headlights, brake lights, and dashboards for durability and clarity.
• Medical Devices: Provides precise illumination in surgical instruments and diagnostic equipment.
• Traffic Signals: Ensures clear, energy-saving lights for road safety.
• Decorative Lighting: Used in festivals, signage, and architectural designs for vibrant effects.
2. Laser diode (LD)
This is type of diode similar to the LED but it emits coherent light of high intensity.
A Laser Diode is a semiconductor device that emits coherent light (laser) when current flows through it.
Construction;
The construction of a laser diode, is similar to a light emitting diode (LED). It uses gallium arsenide doped with
elements such as selenium, aluminium, or silicon to produce P type and N type semiconductor materials. While
a laser diode has an additional active layer of undoped (intrinsic) gallium arsenide have the thickness only a
few nanometers, sandwiched between the P and N layers, effectively creating a PIN diode (P type-Intrinsic-N
type). It is in this layer that the laser light is produced.
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Laser Diode
Construction
Operation
A laser diode works by producing a very organized and powerful beam of light. When we connect it to a
power supply in forward bias, many electrons gain energy and move across the junction. These energized
electrons want to return to a lower energy level. In an ordinary LED, they release light randomly. But in a
laser diode, when one photon of light is produced, it triggers other excited electrons to release light that is
exactly the same color, same direction, and perfectly aligned. This triggering process is called stimulated
emission. The light keeps bouncing back and forth inside the device, becoming stronger each time more
identical photons are produced. When the light becomes strong enough, it comes out as a thin, straight, very
focused beam. That is why laser light is sharp and powerful, unlike the scattered light from an LED.
A laser diode is a special type of semiconductor device that produces coherent, highly focused light. Like an
LED, it works on the principle of electroluminescence, where electrons and holes recombine in a
semiconductor material to release photons (light). However, the key difference is that a laser diode uses a
process called stimulated emission inside a carefully designed optical cavity.
The diode is built with two parallel mirrors at the ends of the semiconductor. One mirror is fully reflective,
while the other is partially transparent. When current flows through the diode, electrons recombine with holes
and emit photons. These photons bounce back and forth between the mirrors, stimulating more electrons to
emit photons of the same energy and phase. This repeated amplification produces a narrow, intense beam of
light that is coherent (all waves are in step) and monochromatic (single colour/wavelength).
The colour of the laser depends on the semiconductor material used:
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) → infrared lasers (used in CD/DVD players).
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) → blue and violet lasers (used in Blu-ray players).
• Aluminium Gallium Indium Phosphide (AlGaInP) → red lasers (used in laser pointers).
Why Laser Diodes Are Special
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• Coherent light: All waves are in phase, so the beam is sharp and focused.
• Monochromatic: Produces a single colour, unlike LEDs which spread light across a range.
• Directional: The beam doesn’t scatter like LED light; it stays narrow and can travel long distances.
Working Principle:
1. Electron-hole recombination: When forward biased, electrons move from n-region to p-region.
2. Photon emission: Recombination releases energy as photons (light).
3. Stimulated emission: Photons stimulate more photons of the same wavelength → coherent light.
4. Optical cavity effect: Mirrors at ends reflect light → amplifies intensity → laser beam exits from one
side.
Characteristics of Laser Diode:
• Monochromatic (single wavelength)
• Coherent and directional light
• Fast response time
Applications:
• Optical Communication: Used in fiber-optic systems to transmit data at high speeds with minimal
signal loss.
• Data Storage: Reads and writes information on CD, DVD, and Blu-ray discs using a focused laser
beam.
• Medical Instruments: Provides precise light for surgeries, dental treatments, and diagnostic
equipment.
• Industrial Tools: Applied in cutting, welding, engraving, and barcode scanning with high accuracy.
• Consumer Electronics: Powers devices like laser printers, optical mice, and laser pointers as
compact light sources.
• Security and Sensing: Used in rangefinders, motion sensors, and tripwires for reliable detection.
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Feature LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Emission of Radiation)
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Full Form Light Emitting Diode
Radiation
Size & Power Small, low power, long-lasting Bigger, needs more power, slightly less reliable
How Light is Photon generated by spontaneous
Photon generated by stimulated emission
Made emission
Type of Light Divergent, not coherent Monochromatic, coherent, focused beam
Types Surface emitter, Edge emitter Semiconductor Laser, Gas Laser
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LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Feature LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Emission of Radiation)
Speed /
Fast Faster than LED
Response
Bandwidth Moderate High
Current
50 – 100 mA Threshold current 5 – 40 mA
Required
Feedback Not needed Feedback required for proper laser action
Indicator lights, screens, simple
Use Example Barcode scanners, fiber optics, precision cutting
electronics
Notes:
• LEDs are easy to use for simple circuits.
• Lasers give strong, focused light and are used where precision matters.
• In TVET labs, LEDs are safe and visible; lasers require safety precautions (goggles recommended).
3. Liquid Crystals Display (LCD)
A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organic compound) which flows like a liquid at room
temperature but whose molecular structure has some properties normally associated with solids
(examples of such compounds are: cholesteryl nonanoate and p-azoxyanisole).
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Construction of LCD
As shown in figure (a), a liquid crystal ‘cell’ consists of a thin layer (about 10 µm) of a liquid
crystal sandwiched between two glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside
faces.
With both glass sheets transparent, the cell is known as transmitive type cell. When one glass is
transparent and the other has a reflective coating, the cell is called reflective type. The LCD does
not produce any illumination of its own. It, in fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it
from an external source for its visual effect. The display consists of a thin layer of liquid crystal
material placed between two glass plates and two polarizing filters. In the absence of an applied
voltage, the liquid crystal molecules are arranged in a twisted formation that rotates the plane of
polarized light, allowing light from the backlight to pass through both polarizers so the pixel
appears bright.
Working of LCD
The two types of display available are known as (i) field-effect display and (ii) dynamic
scattering display.
An LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) operates by electrically controlling the passage of light through a liquid
crystal layer to produce images. It does not generate light by itself; instead, it uses a backlight (commonly
LEDs) as a light source. An LCD, or Liquid Crystal Display, is a type of screen that uses liquid crystals to
control light and form images.
Unlike other displays such as OLED, an LCD does not produce its own light. Instead, it relies on a backlight
(usually LEDs) that shines through the screen. The liquid crystals are sandwiched between two layers of glass
with tiny electrodes and polarizing filters. Each pixel on the screen has liquid crystals that can twist or align
when a voltage is applied. This twisting action controls how much light from the backlight passes through.
To create colors, each pixel is divided into three sub-pixels with red, green, and blue filters. By adjusting
how much light passes through each sub-pixel, the screen can mix these colors to display any image. For
example, if all three sub-pixels are fully open, the pixel looks white; if they are all closed, it looks black; and
by mixing different amounts of red, green, and blue, millions of colors can be produced.
In a phone or desktop screen, millions of these pixels are arranged in a grid. The computer or phone’s
graphics processor sends signals to control the voltage at each pixel, making the liquid crystals adjust and
allowing the backlight to shine through in just the right way. This happens very quickly, so the screen can
show moving pictures, videos, and animations smoothly.
In simple terms, an LCD works like a light valve system: the backlight provides the brightness, and the
liquid crystals act like tiny shutters that open and close to let the right amount of colored light through,
creating the images we see on our screens.
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As shown in figure (b), a digit on an LCD has a segment appearance. For example, if number 5
is required, the terminals 8, 2, 3, 6 and 5 would be energized so that only these regions would
be activated while the other areas would remain clear
Applications of LCDs
o Televisions and Monitors: Used in TVs, desktop screens, and laptops to display clear images
with low power consumption.
o Mobile Devices: Applied in smartphones, tablets, and handheld gadgets for compact,
lightweight displays.
o Digital Instruments: Found in calculators, watches, and measuring devices to show digits and
symbols.
o Automotive Displays: Used in dashboards and navigation systems for easy-to-read
information.
o Industrial Equipment: Provides display panels in machinery, medical instruments, and
control systems.
o Advertising and Signage: Used in billboards and information boards for bright, visible
content.
4. Light depended resistor (LDR)/PHOTORESISTOR –
These are resistors whose resistance value depends on light intensity.
Definition:
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance changes according to the intensity of light
falling on it. It is also called a photoresistor.
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It is a type of optoelectronic sensor that's used for detecting light in the environment.
LDR works by sensing changes in illumination and converting them into electrical signals that can be
read off from its two terminals.
This makes it an essential tool in many automation systems because it helps detect objects wit hout any
physical contact with them.
Structure:
• Made of semiconductor materials like cadmium sulfide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe).
• Has two terminals with a thin layer of semiconductor material between them.
• Light falls on the semiconductor, causing its resistance to change.
Working Principle:
• LDR works on the principle of photoconductivity:
o In darkness: Few electrons are free → resistance is high (in megaohms).
o In light: Photons excite electrons → more free electrons → resistance decreases (few hundred
ohms).
• Current through LDR increases as light intensity increases.
OPERATION
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An LDR, or Light Dependent Resistor, is a special type of resistor whose resistance changes
according to the amount of light falling on it. In darkness, its resistance is very high, while in bright
light its resistance becomes very low. This property makes it useful in burglar alarm circuits. In such a
system, the LDR is positioned so that it normally receives a steady amount of light. When an intruder
opens a door, window, or box, the light conditions suddenly change. This change in light alters the
resistance of the LDR, which in turn changes the voltage across it. The voltage variation is fed to a
transistor amplifier, causing the transistor to switch on. Once the transistor is activated, it drives a
buzzer or siren, and the alarm sounds. In this way, the LDR acts as a light-sensitive switch: under
normal conditions the alarm remains silent, but any disturbance in light caused by an intrusion triggers
the circuit, producing a warning signal.
An LDR, or Light Dependent Resistor, is widely used in automatic street lighting systems because its
resistance changes with the amount of light falling on it. During the daytime, when sunlight is present,
the LDR receives light and its resistance becomes very low. This low resistance keeps the control
circuit balanced in such a way that the transistor or relay connected to the lamp remains off, so the
street light does not glow. As evening approaches and darkness sets in, the light falling on the LDR
decreases, causing its resistance to rise sharply. This increase in resistance changes the voltage across
the circuit, switching on the transistor or relay, which in turn powers the lamp. In this way, the street
light automatically turns on at night and switches off during the day without human intervention. The
LDR acts like a light-sensitive switch, ensuring energy is saved and the lamps operate only when
needed.
Applications:
• Burglar Alarms: Detect sudden changes in light when a door or window is opened, triggering the
alarm.
• Street Lights: Sense darkness at night to switch lights on automatically and turn them off during the
day.
• Light Intensity Meters: Measure brightness levels in laboratories and photography equipment.
• Automatic Brightness Control: Adjust screen or lamp brightness depending on ambient light
conditions.
• Solar Trackers: Help align solar panels by detecting sunlight intensity for maximum efficiency.
5. Photo diode (REVERSE BIAS)
This is the type of diode that allows current to flow through it when light is shining on it and
blocks the current when in the dark.
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Definition:
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into electrical current. It is similar to a regular
diode, but is specifically designed to respond to light. It converts light energy into electrical energy.
It is essentially a light sensor that generates an electric current when light falls on it.
It is also known as a light detector, light sensor, or photo sensor. The phenomenon through which the light
energy is converted into electrical energy is called the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell or solar panel consists
of an array of photodiodes also called photovoltaic cells that convert solar energy into electrical current.
OPERATION
A photodiode operates by converting light energy into a small electrical current using the photoelectric effect.
It is a P–N junction semiconductor device that is usually operated under reverse bias to improve sensitivity
and response speed.
When light photons strike the junction, they transfer their energy to electrons in the semiconductor material,
creating electron–hole pairs. The built-in electric field at the junction immediately separates these charge
carriers: electrons are pulled toward the N-region and holes toward the P-region. This movement of charge
carriers generates a photocurrent in the external circuit. The magnitude of this current is directly proportional
to the intensity of the incident light, which makes the photodiode suitable for light detection and
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measurement applications such as optical communication systems, remote control receivers, and light
sensors.
Photodiodes are often used in burglar alarms and access control systems. A common setup is an infrared
beam system: an infrared LED sends a beam across a doorway or corridor, and a photodiode on the other
side receives it. As long as the beam is uninterrupted, the photodiode produces a steady current. If someone
passes through and breaks the beam, the light to the photodiode is cut off, the current drops, and the circuit
triggers an alarm. This makes photodiodes reliable “light detectors” for monitoring entry points.
A photodiode is simply like an electronic “eye” that senses light or radiation. In X-ray machines, it detects
invisible rays to help form images. In security systems, it watches for interruptions in a light beam to signal
intrusions.
STRUCTURE/CONSTRUCTION
• P-N junction or PIN junction semiconductor
o PIN photodiode has an intrinsic (undoped) layer between the P and N regions → improves
light absorption and speed.
• Transparent window on top to allow light to enter.
• Metal contacts for connecting to an external circuit.
Working Principle:
Photodiodes work based on the photoelectric effect:
1. Photon absorption:Light (photons) hits the semiconductor → energy is absorbed → electron-hole
pairs are generated.
2. Electric field effect: Built-in electric field of the P-N junction separates electrons and holes →
electrons move to n-side, holes to p-side.
3. Current generation: Movement of electrons in the external circuit produces a photocurrent, which is
proportional to light intensity.
4. Operation Modes:Photovoltaic mode (zero bias): Works like a solar cell, generates voltage when
exposed to light.
o Photoconductive mode (reverse bias): Increases response speed; small reverse voltage applied
→ faster current change.
Applications:
• Light Sensing: Converts light intensity into electrical current for use in optical communication and
light meters.
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• X-ray Detection: Detects high-energy radiation by converting X-rays into electrical signals for
medical imaging and monitoring.
• Security Systems: Monitors infrared beams across doorways, where any interruption reduces
current and triggers alarms.
• Optical Switching: Used in fiber-optic networks to detect and control light signals.
• Industrial Automation: Acts as a sensor in machines to detect presence, position, or movement using
light beams.
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6. SOLAR CELL (Photovoltaic Cell)
7.
Definition:
A Solar Cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.
A solar cell operates by converting light energy directly into usable electrical power through the photovoltaic
effect. Like a photodiode, it is also a P–N junction semiconductor device, but it is specifically designed for
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power generation rather than light sensing. When sunlight falls on the surface of the solar cell, photons with
sufficient energy create electron–hole pairs within the semiconductor material. The internal electric field at
the P–N junction separates these charge carriers, driving electrons toward the N-side and holes toward the P-
side. This separation creates a potential difference (voltage) across the terminals of the cell. When an external
load is connected, electrons flow through the external circuit, producing electrical current and delivering
power to the load. Unlike a photodiode, a solar cell is optimized to generate maximum voltage and current
without requiring an external bias supply.
Structure:
• P-N junction semiconductor (usually silicon)
• Top layer: Transparent conductive layer to allow light in
• Metal contacts: On top and bottom for current collection
Working Principle:
1. Photon absorption: Sunlight hits semiconductor → electrons get energy to jump to conduction band
→ electron-hole pairs are formed.
2. Separation by P-N junction: Built-in electric field at junction drives electrons to n-side, holes to p-
side.
3. Current generation: Electrons flow through an external circuit → produces electric current.
4. Voltage generation: P-N junction creates potential difference → electric power output.
Applications:
• Solar panels for electricity: Convert sunlight directly into electrical power for homes, industries, and
renewable energy grids.
• Solar-powered calculators: Use small solar cells to run basic electronics without batteries.
• Remote sensing devices: Provide power to sensors and instruments in locations where conventional
electricity is unavailable.
• Space satellites: Supply continuous energy in orbit by harnessing sunlight, ensuring long-term
operation of satellite systems.
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