LEARNING MATERIAL

OF
MATHEMATICS - ll

Prepared By: Dr. Soumyarani Mishra

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

& HUMANITIES
C.V RAMAN POLYTECHNIC
BHUBANESWAR
A. ALGEBRA
MATRICES AND DETERMINANT

MATRICES:

[History of the Matrix: The matrix has a long history of application in solving linear
equations. They were known as arrays until the
derived from mater mother) was coined by James Joseph Sylvester in 1850, who
understood a matrix as an object giving rise to a number of determinants today called
minors, that is to say, determinants of smaller matrices that are derived from the original one
by removing columns and rows. An English mathematician named Cullis was the first to use
modern bracket notation for matrices in 1913and he simultaneously demonstrated the first
significant use of the notation A=(ai,j )to represent a matrix where ai,j refers to the element
found in the ith row and the jth column. Matrices can be used to compactly write and work
with multiple linear equations, referred to as a system of linear equations. ]

Definition
Matrix (whose plural is matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers (or other mathematical
objects), arranged in rows and columns, for which operations such as addition and
multiplication are defined. The numbers are called the elements, or entries, of the matrix.
Generally the capital letters of the alphabets are used to denote matrices and the matrices
are commonly written in box brackets or parentheses ([ ] , ( ))
Example:

order m×n, where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns..
Example:

A is a matrix of order 2×3 ( matrix with two rows and three columns)

B is a matrix of order 3×2 ( matrix with three rows and two columns)

Types of matrices:
1. Row matrix: Matrix with a single row is called a row matrix

A is a row matrix (1×3) with one row and 3 columns

B is also a row matrix (1×n) with 1 row and n columns.

2. Column matrix: Matrix with a single column is called a column matrix

is a column matrix (3×1) with 3 rows and 1 column

 is column matrix(n×1) with n rows and 1 column.

3. Null matrix: a matrix is said to be a null matrix or zero matrix if all its entries are zero
it is noted by Om×n, if it has m rows and n columns.
Example:

4. Square matrix: if the number of rows and columns of a matrix are equal the it is said
to be a square matrix..
Example:

A is a square matrix(3x3) of order 3 where number of rows and columns are each 3.

5. Diagonal matrix : a square matrix of which the non -diagonal elements are all zero is
called a diagonal matrix.
Example:

A is a diagonal matrix of order n

Example:

is a diagonal matrix of order 3

6. Scalar matrix: if the diagonal elements of a diagonal matrix are all equal it is called a
scalar matrix.
Example:

is a scalar matrix of order 3

7. Identity matrix: if the diagonal elements of a diagonal matrix are all unity (1) , it is
called a unit matrix.
Example:

I3= is a unit matrix of order 3

A unit matrix is also called identity matrix. A unit matrix of order n is denoted by I n or I.
8. Transpose of a matrix: Transpose of a matrix is obtained just by changing its rows
into columns and columns into rows. It is denoted by AT OR Al
Example:
T l
If or
T
is (2x3) matrix whereas is (3x2) matrix)

T
If , then = (both are (3x3) matrices)

Algebra of matrices
a) Equality of matrices: Two matrices and are said to be equal if and only if
i. The order of is equal to that of
ii. Each element of is equal to the corresponding element of B.
Example:
= x= 1 and y= 2

But,

As the order of is 2×1 where as order of is 1×2.

b) Addition of matrices: The sum of two matrices A and B is the matrix such that each of
its elements is equal to the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B. The sum is
denoted by A+B .Thus the addition of matrices is defined if they are of same order and is not
defined when they are of different orders.
Example:

If

is defined as the order of A and B are same (3×3)

Which is also of order (3×3)

If and

Then =

Three matrices of order( 2×3) are added and the sum is a matrix of the order (2 ×3) .

If ,

Then A+B is not defined as the order of A and B are not same
Properties:
1. The addition of matrices is commutative
If A and B are two matrices of same order, then A+B = B+A
Proof:
Let (aij) and (bij) be two matrices of same order
Then,
Example:

If ,

Then

Hence

2. The matrix addition is associative

If A,B and C are three matrices of same order, then
Proof:
Let be three matrices of same order.
Then,

Example:

3. Zero matrix (O) is the identity matrix for addition

Proof:
Let Then,
Example:
4. Additive inverse of a matrix
The matrix in which each element is the negative of the corresponding element of a given
matrix A, is called the negative of A and is denoted by ( A). The matrix A is called the
additive inverse of the matrix A.
i.e If
and aij aij
Example:

If

and

i.e
Again if . Then is the additive inverse of and is the additive inverse of .

c) Subtraction
The subtraction of two matrices A and B of the same order is defined by

Example:

If

= + =

d) Product of a matrix and a scalar

The product of a scalar m and a matrix A , denoted by mA is the matrix whose elements is m
times the corresponding elements of A . Thus if ,
If aij aij
Example:

Example:

e) Matrix multiplication
Multiplication of two matrices is defined if and only if the number of columns of the left matrix
is the same as the number of rows of the right matrix. If is a (mxp) matrix and is a (pxn)
matrix, then their matrix product is the (mxn) matrix whose entries are given by
product of the corresponding row of and the corresponding column of .i,e the elements
in the ith row and jth column of is the sum of the products formed by multiplying each
element in the ith row of by the corresponding element in the jth column of .
i.e
If aij is a ( mxp) matrix
and bij is a (pxn) matrix
Then, cij is a (mxn) matrix, where cij=

Example:

If

The product, is defined because number of column of A = number of rows of B.

In this case the order of is (2×3)
We have,

Applying cij= , we get,

Example:

If

Then the product is defined and given as

= =

Properties:
1. The multiplication of matrices is Not always commutative that is if A and B are any
two matrices then

case-1: If are matrices of different orders such that the product is defined, but
is not defined or
Example:

If
Therefore

case-2: If are square matrices of same order, then the product are both
defined.
But , in general

Example-1:

But in some cases matrix multiplication is commutative i.e.

Example-2

Hence

Example-3:

2. The multiplication of matrix is associative

If are three matrices such that the products (AB)C and A(BC)are defined,
Then

Example: Let Then

Therefore,

3. Identity matrix of multiplication

The identity matrix of multiplication for the set of all square matrices of a given order is the
unit matrix of the same order.
Example-1:
If then we have,

Therefore,
Example-2:

If

i.e

DETERMINANT

To every square matrix of order n, we can associate a number (real or complex) called
determinant of the matrix A, written as det . In the case of a 2 × 2 matrix the
determinant may be defined as
If

Notes:
i. Only square matrices have determinants.
ii. For a matrix is read as determinant of and not, as modulus of

Determinant is used in the solution of linear algebraic equations.

Consider the two equations,
 a1x + b1y +c1 =0
a2x + b2y +c2 =0
Solving this system of equations, we get
x=(b1c2 b2c1)/(a1b2 a2b1)
and y =(c1a2 c2a1)/(a1b2-a2b1)
This solution exists, provided a1b2-a2b1
The quantity (a1b2-a2b1)determines whether a solution of the linear equation exists or not and

is denoted by the symbol , which is called a determinant of order 2.

Thus a1b2-a2b1

Similarly, the system of equation

a1x +b1y+c1z+d1= 0
a2x+b2y+c2z+d2 = 0
a3x+b3y+c3z+d3 = 0
admits a solution if, (a1b2c3 a1b3c2 +a3b1c2 a2b1c3+ a2b3c1 a3b2c1
The above expression can be denoted by

, which is called a determinant of order 3

i.e a1b2c3 a1b3c2 +a3b1c2 a2b1c3+ a2b3c1 a3b2c1

Minor and cofactor

Minor: Minor of an element of the determinant of matrix A is the determinant obtained by
deleting ith row and j th column, and it is denoted by .

In a determinant

Minor of a11 = = M11

Minor of a12 = = M12 and so on.

Cofactor: The cofactor of an element aij is defined as ( 1)i+jMij where Mij is the minor of aij .
It is denoted by Cij
i.e Cij = cofactor of aij =(-1)i+jMij
C11 = (-1)1+1M11 = M11
C12=(-1)1+2M12 = -M12
 C13 =(-1)1+3M13 = M13 and so on..

Expansion of determinants
Example:
(a) For determinants order 2

= a11a22- a21a12

(b) For higher order determinants:

A determinant is evaluated by expanding the determinant by the elements of any row (or
any column) as the sum of products of the elements of the row (column)with the cofactors of
the respective elements of the same row (column). Thus There are six ways of expanding a
determinant of order 3 corresponding to each of three rows ( , and ) and three
columns ( , ) and each way gives the same value.

= =a1 +b1 +

= a1(b2c3-b3c2) b1(a2c3-c2a3)+c1(a2b3- b2a3)

=a1C11 + b1C12 + c1C13
(where Cij is the cofactor of the element corresponding to ith row jth column)
The above expansion has been made using the elements of the 1st row
Example:

Let = =2 -3 +4

= 2(4+3) -3(-2-12) +4(1-8)

= 2(7) -3(-14) + 4(-7)
=14 +42 -28 =56-28 =28

Properties of determinant:
Property 1: The value of the determinant is not altered by changing the rows into columns
and the columns into rows.
i.e where
Example:

L.H.S = = a1b2 a2b1

R.H.S= a1b2 a2b1

Example:
= , as

= 10 12= 2
 = 10 12= 2

Property 2: If two adjacent rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged then the sign
of the determinant changes without changing its numerical value.
Example:
= (changing 1st and 2nd row)

Or = ( changing 1st and 2nd column)

As,
= =a1b2 a2b1

= = a2b1 a1b2= - (a1b2 a2b1)=

Example:

= = 2 12 = 10

= =12 2 = 10 =

Property 3: if two rows or two columns of a determinant are identical then the value of the
determinant is zero.

Example: (Two rows are equal)

=a1b1- a1b1= 0

= =0

Example: (Two columns are equal)

=a1b1- a1b1= 0

= =0

Property 4: If each elements of any row or any column is multiplied by the same factor then
the determinant is multiplied by that factor
As,

As,

Example :

Note:
If any two rows or any two columns in a determinant are proportional, then the value of the
determinant is also zero.

Property 5 : If elements of a row or a column in a determinant can be expressed as the sum

of two or more elements, then the given determinant can be expressed as the sum of two or
more determinants of the same order.
Example:

=R.H.S
 Property 6: If to each element of a row or a column of a determinant the equimultiples of
corresponding elements of other rows (columns) are added, then value of determinant
remains same.
Example:

L.H.S= = +

= R.H.S

Notes:
[Link] all the elements of a row (or column) are zeros, then the value of the determinant is zero.
II.
[Link] all the elements of a determinant above or below the main diagonal are zeros, then the
value of the determinant is equal to the product of diagonal elements.

Adjoint of a Matrix :
If A is a square matrix, then the transpose of the matrix of which the elements are cofactors
of the corresponding elements on A is called the adjoint of A and denoted by Adj A.
Example:

If

where is the cofactor corresponding to the element .

Then cof )T (Transpose of the cofactor matrix)

Example 1:

Let

Here =1, = 3, = 2, =1

T
=

Example 2:
Here
= = 1-2 = -1, =- = -(2-4) = 2, = = 0,

= - = -(2-1) = -1, = =1-2 = -1, =- = -(1-4) = 3,

= = 4-1 = 3, =- = 0, = = 1-4 = -3

Theorem-1

Proof;-

= = =

If | is zero matrix. In this case the matrix is said to be a singular

matrix.

Inverse of a Matrix:
If are two square matrices of the same order such that
Then is called the multiplicative inverse of

If is a non-singular matrix, then exists and the inverse is given by

= )

Proof:
From theorem-1, we have
Or, I

Therefore, =

Example1

A is a non-singular matrix. Hence exists.

We know that

= ( )

Here
,

= ,

)T = =

= ( )=

Example 2:

Hence exists.

Here

We know that

= ( )= =

Example 3

Let,
 =1(1-6) -1(2-2)+1(6-1) = -5-0+5 = 0

i.e is a singular matrix.

Hence, inverse of does not exists.

Example 4

Let,

Then,

=1(2-1) 2(4-1)+ 3 (2-1)

=1-6+3= -
Hence exists
Now
,
,
, ,

T
= =

We know that,
= ( )

= =

Consider the equations in two variables

x+ y=
x+ y=
Solving these two equations by using cross multiplication method we have
i.e

Where,

D=

= = =

Therefore, x = , y=

Consider the equations in three variables

x+ y+ z
x+ y+
x+ y+
Here,

D=

Now multiplying D by x, we have

xD =

= ( +y )

= =

Or xD =

Or,

Similarly, we can show that and

Where,

= ,

Therefore,

Example 1
Consider,

Here D= = 1-6 = -
The system admits a solution

Example 2
Consider,

Here D=

The system does not possess a solution.

Example 3
Consider,

Here, D=

=1 +2 +1

Similarly, ,
So, the system has infinite number of solution.

Example 4
Consider,

Here D=

=1 -2 +3

=1(36-2) -2( 18-3) +3 (4 -12)

= 34 32 24

=-
The system of equations admits a solution
Similarly, we have,

rule.

x= ,

Solution of simultaneous linear equations by matrix inverse method

Let us consider two linear equations with two variables
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
The above system of equations can be written as
AX = B

Where A = X= and B=

Or, X=A-1B
,

if Then the system admits solution.

Similarly, for three linear equation with three variables

The above system of equations can be written in matrix form as

, where

Then,

Or, ,

If Then the system admits solution

Example 1
Consider the following system of linear equations
3x-4y = 1
2x + y = 8
The above system can be written as

Where

Or,

Here, = 3-(-8

So, the system of equations admits solution.

Here,

)T =

So that, we have

Hence, and =2

Example 2
Let us consider the system of equations,

The system of equations can be written in matrix form as

Or,

So, exist and the system admits solution.

We have,

So that,

)T =

So that, we have,

=(1/-7 ) = (1/-7)

Hence,

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find the minors and cofactors of all the elements of the matrices

(i) (ii)

Sol:
(i) Given

Let and are the minor and cofactors of the element , then
M11 = 4, C11=(-1)1+1M11=4
M12= -1, C12=(-1)1+2M12=1
M21=3, C21=(-1)2+1M21=-3
M22 =2, C22=(-1)2+2M22=2

(ii) Given

Let and are the minor and cofactors of the element .Then,

, C11=(-1)1+1M11= -10

, C12=(-1)1+2M12= -1
 , C13=(-1)1+3M13= 7

, C21=(-1)2+1M21= 0

C22=(-1)2+2M22= 1

C23=(-1)2+3M23= -2

, C31=(-1)3+1M31= 5

, C32=(-1)3+2M32= -1

, C33=(-1)3+3M33= -3

Expanding with respect to 1st column

Q- 3: Solve

Sol:

Q- 4: Expand by using properties of determinant

Solution:

( )

=(x-y)(y-z)

Q- 5 :Factorize

Solution:
 = (Taking xyz common factor from R3)

( R1 R2, R2 R3)

= ( )

( )

Now by expanding we get

Q- 6: Prove that

Proof:

=(a+b+c)

= (a+b+c)

( )

=(a+b+c)

=(a+b+c)(a+b+c)2= (a+b+c)3
Q- 7 Solve

Solution:

Given

Or, 2(2x+1)-3x = 5
Or, 4x+2 -3x = 5
Or, x+2 = 5
Or, x=3

Q- 8: Verify that [ ]T = T T
where

Sol:

T
=

T T
Again, = =

T T
=

Hence, [ ]T = T T

Q- 9: Write down the matrix , if aij = 2i+3j

Sol:

Q-10: Construct a 2×3 matrix having elements aij = i+j

Sol:
EXERCISE

1. 02 Marks Questions

I. Evaluate .

II. Solve .

III. Find the minor and cofactor of the elements 4 and 0 in the determinant .

IV. Evaluate .

V. What is the maximum value of .

VI. Without expanding evaluate ,

VII. Without expanding, find the value of .

VIII. If X + Then find X.

IX. Find and , if .

2. 05 Marks Questions

I. Solve

II. Prove that .

III. Prove that

IV. Prove that

V. Prove that

VI. Prove that

VII. Prove that

VIII. Prove that , where and .

IX. Find the adjoint of the matrix

X. If , find adjoint of A.

XI. Find the inverse of the matrices

XII.
XIII. Solve by matrix method :

3. 10 Marks Questions

I. Prove that , where , and are the angles of a triangle.

II. Prove that , where .

C. Two-dimensional Geometry

Introduction:
Coordinate geometry is a branch of mathematics which deals with the systematic study of
geometry by use of algebra. It was first initiated by French Mathematician Rene Descartes
(1596- Hence it is also known as
Cartesian Co-Ordinate Geometry.

Fundamental concept:
In two-dimensional co- ordinate geometry, the position of point on the plane is defined with
- After determining the
Coordinates of the point on a line or curve on the plane, we will find out distance between
two points, internal and external division, area of closed figure (Triangle ), slope of the lines,
consistency of lines ,equations of line and circle using algebra.

Coordinate system:
A system in a plane which involves two mutually
perpendicular lines which intersect at the origin
and measured with equal units to form a orthogonal
system called Cartesian co-ordinate system.
This system is used to specify the location of a point
in 2D. (Fig 3.1)

Coordinate axes:
The intersecting lines are called coordinates axes.
The horizontal line is called x-axis.
The vertical line is called y- axis
The point of intersection of axes is called the origin.
Origin:
The point where both the axis meet/intersect is called origin and its coordinates are (0,0).
From origin towards right through x -axis, ox is measured as +ve units and towards left from
origin ox is ve. Similarly, from origin towards up through y axis, oy is +ve and towards
down oy is ve.
Coordinates:
A pair of numbers which locates the points on the coordinate plane is called its coordinates.
It is denoted as an order pair (x , y) .
-axis is known as abscissa or x-coordinate.
-axis is known as ordinate or y-coordinate.
Quadrant:
The coordinate axes divide the plane into four equal parts,
called quadrants named as
xoy (1st Quadrant)
x o y (2nd Quadrant)
x oy (3rd Quadrant)
xoy (4th quadrant )

Representation of any point (x, y) on the Cartesian plane:

Coordinates of any point on x -axis are (x,0)
Coordinates of any point on y -axis are (0, y)
Example:
Any point A(2,3) is located at 2 unit distance from y -axis measured on ox (positive direction
of x-axis right to origin) and 3 units distance from x-axis measured on OY (positive direction
of Y axis) .so its lies in 1st quadrant . (figure3.2)
Similarly points B(-2,3),C(-2,-3) and D(2,-3) are located in 2nd ,3rd and 4th quadrant
respectively as shown in figure.

Distance formula:
Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two given points in the coordinate plane. (Fig 3.3)

PQR is a right-angle triangle.

By Pythagoras theorem,
PQ2 = PR2 + QR2
Or, PQ2 = (x2 x1)2+ (y2 y1)2

Or, PQ =
is the required distance between two given points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2).
Or,

Distance between a point from the origin:

Distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O (0, 0) is

OP = =

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find the distance between the points P (1, 2) and Q (2, -3).
Sol:
The distance between the points P (1, 2) and Q (2, -3) is
 |PQ|= = = units.

Q-2: If the distance between the points (3, a) and (6, 1) is 5 find a .
Sol: Given the distance between the points (3, a) and (6, 1) = 5
Using distance formula,
=5
Or, 9+ =25 (Squaring both sides)
Or,
Or, 1-a = ±4
Or, a=5, -3

Q-3: If O(0, 0), A(1,0), B(1.1) are the vertices of the triangle, what type of triangle is ?
Sol:
Given O(0, 0), A(1,0), B(1, 1) are the vertices of the triangle
Using distance formula,
|OA|= =1
|OB|= =
|AB|= =1
Therefore, OA =AB and + |=
right-angle isosceles triangle.

Division/Section formula
Internal division
Let A ( , ) and B , ) be two given points. Suppose P (x, y) is a point on AB which
divides the line AB in the ratio m:n internally i.e. .

Fig 3.5

From the figure, APQ and triangle PCB are similar.

Hence, , Or,
Now, ,
Or,
Or,
Or,
and
Or,
 Or,
Or,
Hence, the coordinates of point P are
Note: Midpoint formula
If R is the midpoint of the line joining P ( , ) and Q , ),
Then the co-ordinates of R are .

External division:
If A ( , ) and B , ) be two given points.
Let P(x, y ) be any point, which divides the line AB
in the ratio m:n externally, then

Then the co-ordinates of the point P are

(Similar type of proof as with internal division).

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining the points P (1, 2) and Q
(3, 4) in the ratio 2:1 internally.
Sol:
Given P (1, 2) and Q (3, 4) be two points.
Let R be the point which divides PQ internally in the ratio 2:1.
Using internal division formula, the co-ordinates of point R are

Q-2: Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining the points P(2,3) and Q
( 3, 1) in the ratio 3:2 externally.
Sol:
Let R be the point which divides PQ, joining P(2,3) and Q( 3, 1), externally in the ratio 3:1.
Using external division formula,
The co-ordinates of point R are

Q-3: Find midpoint of the line joining P(2, 3) and Q(4, 5).
Sol:
Let R be the midpoint of the line joining P(2, 3)and Q(4,5).
Using the mid-point formula, the co-ordinates of R are

Q-4: In what ratio does the point divide the line segment joining the points and
?
Sol:
Let the point divides the line segment joining the points and in the
ratio .
Then the co-ordinates of point C are .
Therefore,
Or,
Or,
Or,
Hence, the point C divides AB externally in the ratio 5:8.

Q-5: In what ratio does the x-axis divide the line segment joining the points (2, 3) and (5,
6)?
Sol:
The co-ordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points (2, 3) and (5,
6) internally in the ratio K:1 are .
As, this point lies on x-axis, where y-co-ordinate of every point is zero.
Therefore, , Or, , Or,
Hence, the required ratio is 1 : 2.

Centroid of a triangle:

A( ), B( ) and C( ).
Let D, E, F are the midpoints of the side BC, AC and AB
respectively.
Coordinates of D, E and F are
and respectively.
Let be a point which divides the median AD
Fig.3.8
internally in the ratio 2:1.

So, the co-ordinates of are

Similarly, Let and be points which divide the median BE and CF internally in the ratio
2:1.
So, the co-ordinates of and are .
Since the co-ordinates of the points are and same i.e. ,
So, the points and are not different points but the same point.
Hence, the point having co-ordinates common to AD, BE and CF and
divides in the ratio 2:1., which is known as the centroid.

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find the co-ordinates of centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (0, 6), (8, 12) and (8,
0).
Sol:
We know that, the co-ordinates of the centroid of a triangle with vertices
and are .
Therefore, The co-ordinates of the centroid of the triangle with vertices (0, 6), (8, 12) and (8,
0) are
Q-2: Two vertices of a triangle are (1, 2), (3, 5) and its centroid is at the origin. Find the co-
ordinates of the third vertex.
Sol:
Let the co-ordinates of the third vertex of the triangle be (x, y).
So, the coordinates of the centroid of a triangle with vertices (1, 2). (3, 5) and (x, y) are given
by ,
Given the centroid is at the origin, (0, 0).
Therefore, and , Or, and .
Hence, the co-ordinates of the third vertex are ( 4, 7).

Area of a triangle

Let ABC be a triangle with vertices and .

Now, Area of ABC Area of trapezium ABLM
+ Area of trapezium AMNC
Area of the trapezium BLNC
We know that, Area of a trapezium=
Area of ABC

This can also be conviniently expressed in the determinant form as

Notes:
1. If the vertices are taken in anti-clockwise sense, then the area calculated of the
triangle will be positive, where as if the points are taken in clockwise, then the area
calculated will be negative. But, if the vertices are taken arbitrarily, the area
calculated may be positive or negative.
In case, the area calculated is negative, we consider the numerical /absolute i.e.
positive value.
2. To find the area of a polygon, we divide the polygon into some triangles and take the
sum of numerical values of area of each triangle.

Co-linearity of three points:

Points A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3) are collinear, if they lie on a straight line i.e. area of
ABC = 0,

i.e.

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find the area of triangle whose vertices are A (4, 4), B (3, 2), and C ( 3, 16).
Sol:
4 4 1
1
Area of the ABC = 3 2 1
2
3 16 1
1
2
1 1
2 2
Area of triangle= 27 27 square units

Q- 2: , so that area of the triangle having vertices A (0, 0)1 B (1, 0) and C
(0, a ) is 10 units.
Sol:
Given Area of ABC =10 units
0 0 1
1
Or, 1 0 1 10
2
0 a 1
Or, 1(a 0) = 20
Or, a = 20 units

Q-3: Find the value of a so that A (1, 4), B (2, 7) and C (3, a) are Collinear.
Sol:
Given A (1, 4), B (2, 7) and C (3, a) are Collinear
Therefore, Area of ABC = 0
1 4 1
1
Or, 2 7 1 0
2
3 a 1
Or, 1 (7 a) 4 (2 3) + 1 (2a 21) = 0
Or, 7 a + 4 + 2a 21 = 0
Or, a = 10
 traight Line
Theorem: Every first-degree equation in and represents a straight line.
Proof:
Let be a first-degree equation in and , where and are constants.
Let and be any two points on the curve represented by .
Then, and .
Let be any point on the line segment joining and . Let divides in the ratio K:1.
Then, the co-ordinates of are .
So, we have,

.
lies on the curve represented by , and hence every
point on the line segment joining P and Q lies on .
Hence, represents a straight line.

Slope(Gradient) of a line:
The tangent of the angle made by a line with the positive direction of the axis in
anticlockwise sense is called slope or gradient of the line.
Generally, the slope of a line is denoted by m.
Hence, , axis
in anticlockwisedirection... (Fig: 3:9)

Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10

Note: 1. In (fig 3.10) L1 is the line parallel to x axis So = 0o m = tan0o = 0

So, slope of the line parallel to x axis is zero.
Note [Link] line L2 is perpendicular to x-axis or parallel to y-axis, so =90o m= tan90o , is
not defined
So slope of the line parallel to y-axis (vertical line) is not defined.
Note 3: Slope of a line equally inclined to both the axes is +1 or 1 , as the line makes with
and angle with
Slope of a line joining two points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2):
Let P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) be two points on a line
making an angle with positive direction of x-axis.
y y1 (fig 3.11)
m=tan = = 2
x2 x1
y y1
Slope of the line PQ is given by, m= 2
x2 x1

Conditions of parallelism and perpendicularity:

1. Two lines L1 and L2 are parallel:
Let 1 and 2 be the angle of inclination of the
parallel lines L1 and L2.
From fig (3.12), we have 1 = 2
tan 1 = tan 2
m1 = m2
i.e. Two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal. Fig 3.12
2. Two lines are perpendicular to each other
Let 1 and 2 be the angle of inclination of the
perpendicular lines L1 and L2.
From Fig. 3.13, we have
2 = 90 + 1
tan 2 = tan (90 + 1)
m2 = cot 1 =
1
m2 =
m1
Fig. 3.13
m1m2 = 1
i.e. two lines are perpendicular if their product is equal to 1.

Some Solved Problems

Q- 1: Find Slope of a line joining P (2, 3) and Q (1, 4).
Sol:
y2 y1 4 3 1
Slope of the line joining P (2, 3) and Q (1, 4) = m = 1
x2 x1 1 2 1
Q- 2: Find slope of the line perpendicular to a line joining P (1, 2) and Q (3, 5).
Sol:
y2 y1 5 2 3
Slope of the line PQ joining P (1, 2) and Q (3, 5)=
x2 x1 3 1 2
1
So, slope of the line perpendicular to PQ = 2/3
3/ 2
(Since product of their slopes is -1)

Q- 3: Find slope of the line parallel to the line joining P (1, 4) and Q (2, 6).
Sol:
6 4 2
Slope of the line PQ, joining P (1, 4) and Q (2, 6)= 2
2 1 1
So, slope of the line parallel to PQ = 2. (Since slopes of parallel lines are equal)
Angle between two lines

Fig 3.14

1 and m2
i.e m1 1 and m2 2,

1 2 are the angle of inclinations of two lines.

From Fig. 3.14,

Or,
Or,
The other angle between the lines is given by
So,
Therefore, the angle ( ) between the lines with slopes and is given by

Note:
The condition of lines to be parallel and perpendicular can also be deduced from the relation

For parallel lines, ,

Or,
Or, (Slopes are equal)
and for perpendicular lines, ,
Or,
Or
Or,
Or, (Product of their slopes equal to 1)

Some Solved Problems:

Q-1: If and are three points, find the angle between BA and BC.
Sol: Let and be the slopes of BA and BC respectively.
 and
Let be the angle between BA and BC.

Therefore, the angle between BA and BC

Q-2: Determine so that the line passing through (3, 4) and ( , 5) makes angle with the
positive direction of -axis.
Sol: The slope of the line passing through (3, 4) and ( , 5)
Again, the line makes angle with the positive direction of -axis,
So its slope .
Therefore, , Or,

Intercepts of a line on the axes

If a straight-line cuts x-axis at A and the y axis at B,
then the lengths OA and OB are known as the intercepts of the
line x-axis and y-axis respectively.
The intercepts are positive or negative according as the line
meets with positive or negative directions of co-ordinate axes. Fig 3.15
From Fig. 3.15, OA= x-intercept, OB=y-intercept.
OA is positive or negative according as A lies

Different forms of equation of a straight line

1. Slope - intercept form:
Let the given line intersects -axis at
and makes an angle with -axis.
Then .
Let be any point on the line.
From Fig 3.16,.
Clearly and .
From triangle , we have

Or,
Or, , is the required equation of the line.

Notes:
1. If the line passes through the origin, then or .
Therefore, the equation of a line passing through the origin is given by .
2. If the line is parallel to x-axis, then m=0.
Therefore, the equation of a line parallel to x-axis is y=c.
3. If the line is perpendicular to x-axis, then slope of the line is not defined But .
 Therefore, the equation of a line perpendicular to x-axis is . where is the
x-intercept. So, i.e. is the equation of line perpendicular
to axis

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find equation of the line which has slope 2 and y intercept 3.
Sol:
Given Slope = m =2 and y-intercept , c = 3
Using slope intercept form,
Equation of straight line with slope and y-intercept is given by
y = mx + c
Or, y = 2x + 3
Or, 2x y + 3 = 0

Q-2: Find the equation of a line with slope 1 and cutting off an intercept 2 units on the
negative direction of y-axis.
Sol:
Let be the slope and be the y-intercept of the required line
Given and c= 2.
The equation of the line with slope and y-intercept is given by

Or,
Or,

Q-3: Find the equation of a straight line which cuts off an intercept of 5 units on negative
direction of y-axis and makes an angle of with the positive direction of x-axis.
Sol:
Here slope,
and y-intercept,
Using slope intercept form
Therefore, the equation of the required line is Or,

2. One point - slope form:

Let the line with slope m passe through Q(x1, y1)
Let P(x,y) be any point on the line .
y y1
Then slope of the line is given by m =
x x1
Therefore, is the equation of required line.

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find equation of the line which passes through (1,2) and slope 2.
Sol:
Using one point-slope form,
Equation of the line passes through (x1, y1) =(1,2) and slope m=2 is given by
y y1 = m (x - x1)
Or, y 2 = 2 (x - 1)
Or, 2x y=0

Q-2: Determine the equation of line through the point (4, 5) and parallel to x-axis.
Sol:
Since the line is parallel to x-axis, slope , m = 0.
Using point-slope form,
Equation of the line passes through (x1, y1) =(4, 5) and slope m=0 is given by
y y1 = m (x - x1)
Or,
Or,

Q- 3: Find equation of the line which bisects the line segment joining P (1, 2) and Q (3, 4) at
right angle.
Sol:
Let R be the mid-point of the line joining
P (1, 2) and Q (3, 4).
1 3 2 4
So, co-ordinates of R are R , = R (2, 3)
2 2
4 2 2
Now, slope of PQ = mPQ = 1
3 1 2
The line LR passes through R (2, 3) and perpendicular to the PQ. (Fig 3.17)
1
So Slope mLR = = 1
1
Equation of the line LR which passes through the point (2, 3) and slope -1 is
y - y1 = m (x - x1)
Or, y - 3 = 1 (x - 2)
Or, y 3 = x + 2
Or, x + y 5 = 0

3. Two-point form:
Let m be the slope of a line passing through two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
y2 y1
Slope,
x2 x1
the equation of the required line is
y y1 = m (x x1) ( one point slope form )
y2 y1
Putting m = in above equation, we get
x2 x1
, is the equation of required line.

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find equation of the line which passes through two points P (1, 2) and Q (3, 4).
Sol:
Let m be the slope of the line PQ joining the points P (1, 2) and Q (3, 4).
Slope
Here, and
Using two-point form,
Equation of the required line is
y y1 = m (x - x1)
Or, y 2 = 1 (x - 1)
Or, x y + 1= 0

Q-2: Prove that the points (5, 1), (1, 1) and (11, 4) are collinear. Find the equation of the
line on which these points lie.
Proof:
Let the given points be A(5, 1), B(1, 1) and C(11, 4).
Then the equation of the line passing through A(5, 1) and B(1, 1) is

Or,
Or,
Put and in the above equation, we get, ,
Clearly, the point C(11, 4) satisfies the equation .
Hence, the given points A, B and C lie on the same straight line and whose equation is
.

4. Intercept form:
Let AB be a straight line cutting the x-axis and
y-axis at A( ) and B(0, b) respectively. (Fig 3.18).
Let intercept and
Let y-intercept
Therefore, using two-point form,
The equation of the required straight line passing
through A( , ) and ( )
By two point form, its equation is given by

Or,
Or,
Dividing both sides by
Or, , is the equation of line in intercept form.

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find equation of the line which has x-intercept is 2 and y intercept equal to 3 .
Sol:
Given x-intercept and y-intercept
Using intercept form,
Equation of the straight line is

Or,
Or,
Q-2: Find the equation of the straight line which makes equal intercepts on the axes and
passes through the point (2, 3).
Sol:
Let the equation of the line with intercepts and is .
Since it makes equal intercepts on the co-ordinate axes, then
Equation of the line is Or,
The line passes through the point .
So, Or,
Hence, the equation of the required line is Or, .

Q-3: Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (3, 4) and the sum
of the intercepts on the axes is 14.
Sol:
Let the equation of the line with intercepts and be (1)
Given, the line passes through the point (3, 4).
Or, (2)
Also given that, sum of intercepts = 14 i.e. (3)
Solving equations (2) and (3), we have,

Or,
Or,
Or, and
For , the value of and for , the value of .
Putting the values of and in equation (1), we get
and
Or, and are the equations of the required lines.

5. Normal Form / Perpendicular Form:

Let be the line whose equation is to be obtained. From draw perpendicular on ,
then , .
Let be any point on . From draw perpendicular on -axis.
Then,
Therefore, . From , we have, .
Therefore .
 Fig.3.19

Hence,
.
Therefore, .
is the equation of required line and known as normal or perpendicular form

Some Solved problems

Q-1: Find equation of the line which is at a distance 2 from the origin and the perpendicular
from the origin to the line makes an angle of with the positive direction of axis.
Sol:
The required line is 2 unit distance from the origin,
i.e. the perpendicular distance from the origin to the required line, .
Let be the angle make by the perpendicular from the origin with positive axis.
.
and given that
Using normal form, the equation of the required line is
x cos + y sin = p
Or, x cos 30 + y sin 30 = 2
Or, x +y =2
Or,

Transformation of general equation in different standard forms

The general equation of a straight line is which can be transformed to
various standard forms as discussed below.

To transform in the slope intercept form

We have .
Or,
Or, , which is of the form , where , .
Thus, for the straight line ,
Slope

and

Note. To determine the slope of a line by the formula , transfer all terms
in the equation on one side.

To transform in intercept form

We have
Or,
Or,
Or, , which is of the form .
Thus, for the straight line ,
Intercept on -axis
Intercept on -axis

Note. As discussed above the intercepts made by a line with the coordinate axes can be
determined by reducing its equation to intercept form. We can also use the following method
to determine the intercepts on the axes:
For intercepts on -axis, put in the equation of the line and find the value of .
Similarly, to find -intercept, put in the equation of the line find the value of .

To transform in the normal form .

We have (1)
Let (2)
Be the normal form of .
If the equations (1) and (2) represent the same straight line.
Therefore,

Or, and (3)

Or,

Or,
Or,
But denotes the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the line and is always
positive. Therefore,
Putting the value of in (3), we get .
Therefore, equation (2) takes of the form
Or,
which is the required normal form of the line .

Note. To transform the general equation to normal form we perform the following steps:
(i) Shift the constant term on the RHS and make it positive
(ii) Divide both sides by .

Some Solved Problems

Q-1 : Transform the equation of the line to
(i) slope intercept form and find its slope and -intercept.
(ii) intercept form and find intercepts on the coordinate axes.
(iii) normal form and find the inclination of the perpendicular segment from the origin
on the line with the axis and its length.
Sol:
(i) We have or .
This is the slope intercept form of the given line. Therefore, slope and -
intercept .
(ii) We have or .

This is the intercept form of the given line. Therefore, -intercept , -intercept .
(iii) We have
Or,
Or,

Or, .

This is the normal form of the given line. Therefore, , and .

Since and both are positive, therefore is in first quadrant and is equal to .
Hence and .

Q-2: Reduce the lines and to the normal form and hence
determine which line is nearer to the origin.
Sol:
The equation of the given line is
Or,
Or,

Or, .
This is the normal form of and the length of the perpendicular from the origin
to it is .
Again, the equation of second line be
Or,
Or,

Or, .
This is the normal form of and the length of the perpendicular from the
origin to it is .
Clearly, , therefore the line is nearer to the origin.

Q-3: Find the equation of a line with slope and the length of the perpendicular from the
origin equal to .
Sol:
Let be the intercept on -axis.
Then the equation of the line is (1)
Or,
Or, (Dividing both sides by )

Or, , which is the normal form of (1),

Therefore RHS denotes the length of the perpendicular from the origin. But the length of the
perpendicular from the origin is .
Therefore, .
Putting in (1), we get
which is the required equation of the required line.

Q-4: Find equation of the line which passes through P (1, 2) and parallel to the line x + 2y +
3 = 0.
Sol:
The given line is x + 2y + 3 = 0
So, slope m =
Since the required line is parallel to the given line.
Equation of the required line passes through P (1, 2) and is
y - y1 = m (x x1)
Taking
1
y 2= (x 1)
2
Or, 2y 4 = x + 1
Or, x +2y 5 = 0

Q-5: Find equation of the line which passes through (2, 3) and perpendicular to the line 3x +
2y + 5 = 0.
Sol:
The equation of given line is 3x + 2y + 5 = 0
Slope
Since requires line is perpendicular to the given line,
therefore
So, the equation of the required line which passes through (2, 3) and slope 2/3 is
y y1 = m (x - x1)
2
Or, y 3= (x 2)
3
Or, 3y 9 = 2x 4
Or, 2x 3y + 5 = 0

Equation of a line parallel to a given line

Let be the slope of the line .
Then slope, .
Let be the -intercept of the required line.
Therefore, the equation of the required line is
(Using slope-intercept form)
Or,
Or,
Or, where .
Therefore, the equation of a line parallel to a given line is ,
where is a constant.
Note. To write a line parallel to a given line, we keep the expression containing and
same and simply replace the given constant by a new constant . The value of can be
determined by some given condition.

Equation of a line perpendicular to a given line

Let be the slope of the given line and be the slope of a line perpendicular to the given
line.
Then and . (Using perpendicular condition)
Therefore, .
Let be the -intercept of the required line. Then its equation is

Or,
Or,
Or, , where .
Therefore, the equation of a line perpendicular to a given line is
, where is a constant
Note. To write a line perpendicular to a given line
(i) Interchange and .
(ii) If the coefficients of and in the given equation are of the same sign, make them of
opposite signs and if the coefficients are of opposite signs, make them of the same
sign.
(iii) Replace the given constant by a new constant , which is determined by a given
condition.

Some Solved problems

Q- 1: Find the equation of the line which is parallel to and passes through
the point .
Sol.
The equation of any line parallel to the line is
(1)
The line passes through the point .
Thus, .
Putting in (1), we get which is the required equation of line.

Q-2: Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point and
perpendicular to the line .
Sol.
The equation of a line perpendicular to is
(1)
The line passes through the point .
Thus, .
Putting in (1), we get which is the required equation of line.

Intersection of two lines:

Let the equations of two lines be
L1: A1x + B1y + C1= 0 and L2: A2x + B2y + C2= 0
Slope of L1 and Slope of L2
If two line are parallel, i.e. L1 L2, then Or,
If two lines are not parallel to each other they will intersect at a point and solving both the
equations, we get the point of intersection.

Concurrency:
Three lines are said to be concurrent if they pass through a common point.
Some Solved Problems
Q-1: Find equation of the line which passes through the point of intersection of two given
lines 2x y 1 = 0 and 3x 4y + 6 = 0 and parallel to the line x + y 2 = 0.
Sol:
To find the point of intersection of two given lines 2x y 1 = 0 and 3x 4y 4 = 0,
we solve these equations. We get x = 2 and y = 3
The co-ordinate of point of intersection of two given lines is (2, 3)
Now Slope of the given line x + y 2 = 0 is
A 1
mgiven = 1
B 1
Since the required line is parallel to the given line x + y 2 = 0 .
Therefore, Slope mreq = mgiven (two lines are parallel)
Or, mreq = 1
So equation of the line passes through the point (2, 3) with slope -1 is
y 3 = 1 (x 2)
Or, x + y 5 = 0

Q--2: Find equation of the line which passes through the intersection of the lines x + 3y + 2 =
0 and x 2y 4 = 0 and perpendicular to the line x + 2y 1 = 0.
Sol:
Slope of the given line x + 2y 1 = 0 = m given = (m= )
Slope of the required line( ) perpendicular to the line x + 2y 1 = 0 is mreq = =2
To find the intersection point of two lines x + 3y + 2 = 0 and x 2y 4 = 0, we solve these
8 6
equations and we get x , y ,
5 5
8 6
So, equation of the required line( ) passes through the point , and slope m = 2 is
5 5
6
y 2 x 8
5 5
22
Or, 2x y 0
5
Or, 10x 5y 22 = 0

Perpendicular distance:
(Length of perpendicular from a point P(x1, y1) to a line Ax + By + C = 0 )
 is the length of perpendicular from the point P(x1, y1) to the line AB which has equation
Ax + By + C = 0
Ax1 By1 C
PM
2 2
A B

Note: The length of the perpendicular from

the origin to the line is .
Fig 3.21

Some Solved Problems

Q- 1: Find length of perpendicular from a point (2, 3) to a line 3x y + 4 = 0.
Sol:
The length of perpendicular from a point (2, 3) to a line 3x y + 4 = 0 is
6 3 4 7
d =
9 1 10

Q- 2: Find distance between two parallel lines x + y + 1 = 0 and 2x + 2y + 3 = 0.

Sol:
From Fig 3.22,
MN =distance between two parallel lines.
=ON OM
ON= length of perpendicular from (0, 0) to
the line x + y + 1 = 0
1(0) 1(0) 1 1
is
1 1 2
OM= length of perpendicular from (0, 0) to Fig 3.22
2x + 2y - 3 = 0
3 3
is

Therefore,
Alternate method
The distance of the st. line x + y + 1 = 0 from the origin is given by

The distance of the st. line 2x + 2y + 3 = 0 from the origin is given by

Since the lines are on the same side of origin

We have,
The distance between the lines =
Note: If the lines are on the opposite sides of the origin, then
The distance between the lines =
Distance between two parallel lines:
If two lines are parallel, then they have the same distance between them throughout.
Therefore, to find the distance between two parallel lines choose an arbitrary point on any
one of the line and find the length of the perpendicular on the other line. To choose a point
on a line give an arbitrary value to x or y, and find the value of other variable.

Some Solved Problems

Q-1: Find the distance between the parallel lines and .
Sol:
Putting in , we get .
Therefore, is a point on the line .
Now, the length of the perpendicular from to is given by
units

Q-2: Find the equation of lines parallel to at a unit distance from it.
Sol:
Equation of any line parallel to is
(1)
Putting in , we get .
Therefore, is a point on .
Length of perpendicular from the point on the line is given by
, which is the distance between two lines.
Given that, Distance between two lines
Or,
Or,
Or, or
Putting the values of in equation (1), we get or , which are
the equations of required lines.

Circle
Definition:
A circle is the locus of a point which moves on a plane in such a way that its distance from a
fixed point is always constant. The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the
constant distance is called the radius of the circle.

In the Fig 3.23, is the moving point, is the centre and is the radius.

1. Standard form (Equation of a Circle with given centre and radius)

Let C( , ) be the centre of the circle and radius of the circle be .
Let be any point on the circumference of the circle.
Then,

By distance formula,
r

Fig 3.23
Or,

Which is the equation of the circle having centre at and radius , which is known as
standard form of equation of a circle.
Note: If the centre of the circle is at origin, and radius , then the above standard
equation of the circle reduces to .

Some Particular Cases:

The standard equation of the circle with centre at and radius , is
(1)

Fig. 3.24 Fig 3.25 Fig 3.26

(i) When the circle passes through the origin

From the Fig 3.24, In right angle triangle ,
i.e.
Then eqn (1) becomes,

Or,
(ii) When the circle touches axis
In the Fig 3.25, Here,
Hence, the eqn (1) of the circle becomes,

Or,
(iii) When the circle touches axis
In the Fig 3.26, Here,
Hence, the eqn (1) of the circle becomes,

Or,

Fig 3.27 Fig 3.28 Fig 3.29

(iv) When the circle touches both the axes
In the Fig, 3.27, Here,
Hence, the eqn (1) of the circle becomes,

Or,
(v) When the circle passes through the origin and centre lies on - axis
Here, and
Hence, the eqn (1) of the circle becomes,

Or,
(vi) When the circle passes through the origin and centre lies on y- axis
Here, and
Hence, the eqn (1) of the circle becomes,

Or,

Some Solved Problems

Q- 1: Find equation of the circle which has centre at (2, 3) and radius is 4 .
Sol:
According to the standard form, the equation of circle with centre at and radius r is
2 2
(x - ) + (y - ) = r
Equation of the circle with centre at (2, 3) and radius 4 is,
(x - 2)2 + (y - 3)2 = (4)2
Or, x2 + y2 4x 6y + 13 =16
Or, x2 + y2 4x 6y 3 = 0

Q- 2: Find equation the circle which has centre at (1, 4) and passes through a point (2, 6).
Sol:
Given be the centre and be the radius of
the circle. The circle passes through the point
=r
Or, r (By using distance formula)
Or, 1 4 r
Or, r = 5
By using standard form of the circle, Fig 3.30
Equation of the circle with centre at C(1,4) and radius is
2
(x - 1)2 + (y - 4)2 =5
Or, x2 + y2 2x 8y + 1 + 16 =5
Or, x2 + y2 2x 8y + 12 = 0

Q- 3: Find equation of the circle whose centre is at (5, 5) and touches both the axis.
Sol:
The centre of the given circle is at (5, 5).
Since the circle touches both the axes,
 radius,
According to the standard form,
Equation of the circle with centre at C(5,5)
and radius is
(x 5)2 + (y 5)2 = (5)2
Or, x2 + y2 10x 10y + 25 = 0

Q- 4: If the equation of two diameters of a circle are and , and the

radius of the circle is 5, find the equation of the circle.
Sol:
Let the diameters of the circle be AB and LM, whose equations are respectively,
(1)
and (2)
Since, the point of intersection of any two diameters of a circle is its centre and by solving
the equations of two diameters we find the co-ordinates of the centre.
Solving eqns. (1) and (2), we get and
Therefore, co-ordinates of the centre are and radius is 5.
Hence, equation of required circle is

Or,
Or,

Q-5: Find the equation of a circle whose centre lies on positive direction of axis at a
distance 6 from the origin and whose radius is 4.
Sol:
Given, the centre of the circle lies on positive -axis
at a distance 6 units from origin.
The centre of the circle lies at the point .
Hence, equation of the circle with centre at C(0, 6) and

Or,
Or,
Fig 3.32
2. General form

Theorem: The equat ion always represents a circle whose

centre is at and radius is .
Proof:
The given equation is
Or,
Or,
Or,
Which is in the standard form ( i.e. ) of the circle with centre at
Hence the given equation represents a circle whose centre is
i.e.

And radius

Notes : Characteristics of the general form of equation of circle

The characteristics of general form of a circle are
i. It is quadratic( of second degree) both in and .
ii. Coefficient of Coefficient of .
iii. It is independent of the term , i.e. there is no term containing .
iv. Contains three arbitrary constants i.e. , and .

Note : To find the centre and radius of the circle, which is in the form
, where ,
Divide both sides of the equation by coefficient of or (i.e. ) to get
,
Which is in the general form of the circle
Hence, the co-ordinates of the centre are

and radius

Example-1:
Let the equation of a circle be
To find the centre and radius of the above circle, divide by coefficient of i.e. 25, as

Or,
Or,
Or, ,
which is the general form of circle with centre at and radius

Example-2:
Consider the equation of a circle
Or,
Or, ,
Which, is in the general form of circle.
Centre
and radius

Example-3:
Let the equation of the circle be x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y + 2 = 0.
Compare this given equation with the general equation of the circle,
.
Here, 2gx = 4x, 2fy = 6y, and c = 2
So, g = 2, f = 3 and c = 2
Now, Centre is at (-g, -f) = (-2, -3) and r

Some Solved Problems:

Q-1 : Determine which of the circles and is
greater.
Sol:
The equations of two given circles are

and
In 1st circle ,

radius
Similarly, In 2nd circle ,
radius
Since, , So, the 2nd circle is greater.

Q-2: Find the equation of the circle concentric with the circle and
having radius 10 units.
Sol:
The coordinates of the centre of the given circle, ,are
.
Since the required circle is concentric with the above circle , the centre of the required circle
and above given circle are same.
Centre of the required circle is at .
Hence, the equation of the required circle with centre at and radius 10 is

Or,

Q-3: Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at the point (4, 5) and passes through
the centre of the circle: .
Sol:
The co-ordinates of the centre of the circle are
.
Therefore, the required circle passes through the point .
Given, the centre of the required circle is at
 radius of the required circle
Hence, the equation of the required circle with centre at

Or,

Q-4: Find the equation of the circle concentric with the circle
and having its area equal to sq. units.
Sol:
The equation of given circle is
Or,
Centre .
Since the required circle is concentric with the above circle , the centre of the required circle
and above given circle are same.
Centre of the required circle is and let
Again, Given Area of the required circle
Or,
Or, units
Therefore, the equation of the required circle with centre at and radius is

Or,

Q-5: Find the equation of the circle concentric with the circle
and having its circumference equal to 6 sq. units.
Sol:
The equation of given circle be
Or,
centre .
Since the required circle is concentric with the above circle, the centre of the required circle
and above given circle are same.
Centre of the required circle is and let
Again, Given, circumference of the required circle
Or,
Or, units
Therefore, the equation of the required circle with centre at and radius is

Or,

Equation of a Circle satisfying certain given conditions

The general equation of a circle involves three unknown
quantities and called the arbitrary constants. These three constants can be
determined from three equations involving and . These three equations can be
obtained from three independent given conditions. We find the values of and by
solving these three equations, and putting these values in the equation of circle, we get the
required equation of circle.
Some Solved Problems:
Q-1: Find equation of the circle passes through the points (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1).
Sol:
Let the equation of the circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
Since, the circle (1) passes through the points (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). We have,
, Or. (2)
, Or, (3)
and, , Or, (4)
Putting the values of g, f and c in equation (1), we get

x2 + y2 + 2 x+2 y+0=0

Or, x2 + y2 x y = 0, is the equation of required circle.

Q-2: Find the equation of the circle passes through the points , and . Also,
Find the centre and radius.
Sol:
Let the equation of the circle be
(1)
Since, the circle (1) passes through the points (0, 2), (3, 0) and (3, 2) i.e these points lie on
the circle (1), we have,
,
Or, (2)

Or, (3)
and,
Or, (4)
On solving equations (2), (3) and (4),
Eqns (2)+(3) : (5)
Eqns (5)-(4) :
Putting the value of in (2) and (3), we get
Or,
Or,
Putting the values of and in the general eqn of circle (1), we get

Or, , is the equation of required circle.

Now, the centre of the circle

and radius

Q-3: Find the equation of the circle which passes through the origin and cuts off intercepts
and from the positive parts of the axes.
Sol:
Let the equation of the circle be
 (1)

Since, the circle passes through the origin

and cuts off the intercepts and from the positive axes.
So, the circle passes through the points
, and . We have,
, Or, (2)
, Or, (3)
and , Or, (4)
Putting the values of and in the equation of circle (1), we get
is the equation of required circle.

Q-4: Prove that the points (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3) and (0, 0) are concyclic.
Sol:
Note : To prove that four given points are concyclic (i.e. four points lie on the circle), we find
the equation of the circle passing through any three given points and show that the fourth
point lies on it.
Let the equation of the circle passing through the points (0, 0), (2, 4) and (3, 1) be
(1)
Since the point (0, 0) lies on circle (1),we have,
, Or, (2)
Again, since the point (2, 4) lies on circle (1),we have,
,
Or, ,
Or, (3)
Also, since the point (3, 1) lies on circle (1),we have,
,
Or, ,
Or, (4)
Now, solving equations (3) and (4), we get
and
Putting the values of , and in the equation of circle (1), we get
, (5)
is the equation of circle. Now, to check the 4th point (3, 3) lies on the circle (5),we put
and in eqn (5),
,
Therefore, the point (3, 3) satisfies the equation of circle (5) and lies on the circle.
Hence, the given points are concyclic.

Q-5: Find the equation of circle which passes through (3, 2), ( 2, 0) and has its centre on
the line .
Sol:
Let the equation of the circle be
(1)
Since, the circle (1) passes through the points (3, 2) and ( 2, 0) i.e these points lie on the
circle (1),we have
Or, (2)
and
Or, (3)
Again, the centre of circle (1) lies on the line
(4)
Now, solving equations (2), (3) and (4), we get
eqn(2)-eqn(3) : (5)
eqn(4)+eqn(5): , Or,
i.e Or,
i.e , Or,
Putting the values of and in the equation of circle (1), we get

Or, is the equation of required circle.

Q-6: Find the equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle ABC whose vertices are A(1,
5), B(5, 7) and C( 5, 1).
Sol:
Let the equation of the circle be
(1)
Since, the circle circumscribing the triangle ABC with vertices A(1, 5), B(5, 7) and C( 5,
1), So, the circle (1) passes through the points A(1, 5), B(5, 7) and C( 5, 1).
Therefore,
,
Or, (2)

Or, (3)
and
Or, (4)
On solving equations (2), (3) and (4), we get
eqn(3)-eqn(2): , Or, (5)
eqn(3)-eqn(4): , Or, (6)
eqn(5)-eqn(6): , Or,
i.e , Or,
i.e , Or,
Putting the values of and in the equation of circle (1),

Or, is the equation of required circle.

3. Diameter form (Equation of a circle with given end points of a diameter)

Let and be two end points of diameter
of a circle. Let be any point on the circle.
Join and .
( An angle on a semi-circle is right angle)
Now, slope of and slope of

Fig 3.34
Since
By condition of perpendicularity, the product of their slopes
Or,
Or.
Or.
is the equation of circle with end points of a diameter and , which is known as
the diameter form of equation of circle.

Some Solved Problems:

Q- 1 : Find equation of a circle whose end points of a diameter are (1, 2) and ( 3, 4).
Sol:
We know that, equation of the circle with end points and of a diameter is

Given, the end points of diameter are (1, 2) and ( 3, 4).

Therefore, the equation of the circle is
(x 1) (x + 3) + (y 2) (y + 4) = 0
Or, x2 + 2x 3 + y2 + 2y 8 = 0
Or, x2 + y2 + 2x + 2y 11 = 0

Q-2: Find the equation of the circle passing through the origin and making intercepts 4 and 5
on the axes of co-ordinates.
Sol:
Let the intercepts be and .
The co-ordinates of A and B are and
respectively.
Since , therefore AB is the diameter.
According to the diameter form,
Equation of the circle with end points and
of diameter AB is

Or,
EXERCISE

1. 02 Mark Questions
i. Find the distance between two points (3, 4) and (3, 5).
ii. Find slope, x intercept and y intercept of the line. .
iii. Determine the area of the triangle with the vertices at (0,0), (4,0) and (4,10).
iv. Find the slope of the line which makes an angle of 45o with x-axis.
v. Find the slope of a line which passes through the points (3, 2) and ( 1, 5).
vi. Determine so that the line passing through (3, 4) and ( 5) makes angle with
the positive direction of axis.
vii. If A( 2, 1), B(2, 3) and C( 2, 4) are three points, find the angle between BA and BC.
viii. Find slope of the line whose equation is y+2=0.
ix. Find slope of the line joining the point (-k,-k) and the origin.
x. Find the slope a line perpendicular to the line joining the points (6, 4) and (2, 12).
xi. Without using Pythagoras theorem, show that the points A(0, 4), B(1, 2) and C(3, 3)
are the vertices of a right angled triangle.
xii. Find the equation of a line with slope 2 and y-intercept is .
xiii. Find the equation of a straight line cutting off an intercept of units on negative
direction of axis and being equally inclined to the axis.
xiv. Determine the equation of a line through the point( 4, 3) and parallel to axis.
xv. Find the point of intersection of the lines whose equations are and
.
xvi. Determine the x-intercept and y- intercept of the line .
xvii. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and parallel to the line
.
xviii. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and perpendicular to the line
.
xix. Find the equation of the line which is at a distance 3 from the origin and the
perpendicular from the origin to the line makes an angle of with the positive
direction of .
xx. Reduce the equation to the intercept form and find the - and -
intercepts.
xxi. Find the distance of the point (4, 5) from the straight line .
xxii. Find centre and radius of the circle 2x2 + 2y2 5x + 6y + 2 = 0.
xxiii. Find the equation of the circle whose two end points of a diameter are and
.

2. 05 Mark Questions
i. Find the co-ordinates of a point whose distance from (3, 5) is 5 units and from (0, 1)
is 10 units.
 ii. A line AB is of length 5. A is the point (2, 3). If the abscissa of the point B is 5, prove
that the ordinate of the B is 1 or 7.
iii. Show that the points ( 2, 3), (1, 2) and (7, 0) are collinear.
x y
iv. If the points (a, 0), (0, b) and (x, y) are collinear, prove that 1
a b
v. Show that the points (7, 3), (3, 0), (0, 4) and (4, 1) are the vertices of a rhombus.
vi. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining (2, 3) and (-3, -4) divided by x- axis
and hence find the co-ordinates of the point.
vii. Find the ratio in which the line cuts the line segment joining (3,-1) and
(8, 9).
viii. If the vertices of a right angled ABC are (0, 0) and (3,0), then find the third vertex.
ix. Determine the ratio in which the line joining the points (3,4) and (-3,-4) divided by the
origin.
x. Show that the points (a, b+c), (b, c a) and (c, a+b) are collinear.
xi. For what value of k, the points (k, 1), (5, 5) and (10, 7) are collinear.
xii. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the points
A(2, 3) and B(6, 5).
xiii. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (3, 4) and the sum of its
intercepts on the axes 14.
xiv. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (1, 3) and
(3, 1).
xv. Find equation of the circle whose centre is on x-axis and the circle passes through (4,
2) and (0, 0).
xvi. Find Co-ordinates of the point where the circle x2 + y2 7x 8y + 12 = 0 meets the
co-ordinates axes and hence find the intercepts on the axes.
xvii. Find equation of the circle which passes through the points (0, 0), (1,2) and (2,-1).
xviii. Find the equation of the circle which touches the lines , and .
xix. Find the equation of a circle passing through the point and which is concentric
with the circle .
xx. Show that the points and are concyclic.

3. 10 Mark Questions
i. If the point (x, y) be equidistant from the points and
prove that .
ii. Find the area of a quadrilateral whose vertices are (1, 1), (7, 3), (12, 2) and (7, 21).
iii. The area of a triangle is 5. Two of its vertices are (2, 1) and (3, 2). The third vertex
lies on . Find the third vertex.
iv. Find equation of the circle whose centre is on the line 8x + 5y = 0 and the circle
passes through (2, 1) and (3, 5).
v.
equation to the circle circumscribing the square is .
 VECTORS
INTRODUCTION:-
In our real life situation we deal with physical quantities such as distance, speed,
temperature, volume etc. These quantities are sufficient to describe change of position, rate of change of
position, body temperature or temperature of a certain place and space occupied in a confined portion
respectively.
We have also come across physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum
etc, which are of different type in comparison to above.
Consider the figure-1, where A, B, C are at a
distance 4k.m. from P. If we start from P, then
covering 4k.m. distance is not sufficient to describe
the destination where we reach after the travel, So
here the end point plays an important role giving
rise the need of direction. So we need to study
about direction of a quantity, along with magnitude.

OBJECTIVE
After completion of the topic you are able to :-
i) Define and distinguish between scalars and vectors.
ii) Represent a vector as directed line segment.
iii) Classify vectors in to different types.
iv) Resolve vector along two or three mutually perpendicular axes.
v) Define dot product of two vectors and explain its geometrical meaning.
vi) Define cross product of two vectors and apply it to find area of triangle and parallelogram.
Expected background knowledge
i) Knowledge of plane and co-ordinate geometry
ii) Trigonometry.
Scalars and vectors
All the physical quantities can be divided into two types.
i) Scalar quantity or Scalar.
ii) Vector quantity or Vector.
Scalar quantity: - The physical quantities which requires only magnitude for its complete specification is
called as scalar quantities.
Examples: - Speed, mass, distance, velocity, volume etc.

Vector: - A directed line segment is called as vector.

Vector quantities:- A physical quantity which requires both magnitude & direction for its complete
specification and satisfies the law of vector addition is called as vector quantities.
Examples: - Displacement, force, acceleration, velocity, momentum etc.
Representation of vector:- A vector is a directed
line segment where A is the initial point and B is
the terminal point and direction is from A to B. (see
fig-2).
Similarly is a directed line which represents a vector
having initial point B and terminal point A.

Notation: - A vector quantity is always represented by

example . It is also represented by a single small letter with an arrow or bar mark over it. For example
.
Magnitude of a vector: - Magnitude or modulus of a vector is the length of the vector. It is a scalar
quantity.
Magnitude of
Types of Vector: - Vectors are of following types.
1) Null vector or zero vector or void vector: - A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary
direction is called as a null vector and is denoted by .
Clearly, a null vector has no definite direction. If = , then is a null (or zero) vector if

For a null vector initial and terminal points are same.

2) Proper vector: - is a proper vector.
3) Unit vector : - A vector whose magnitude is unity is called a unit vector. Unit vectors are denoted by a
small letter with ^ over it. For example .
Note: - The unit vector along the direction of a vector is given by

=
4) Co-initial vectors:- Vectors having the same
initial point are called co-initial vector.

In figure-4, , , , and are Co-initial

vectors.

5) Like and unlike vectors: - Vectors are said to be like if they have same direction and unlike if they
have opposite direction.
6) Co-Linear vectors:- Vectors are said to be
co-linear or parallal if they have the same line of
action. In f figure-5 and are collinear.
7) Parallel vectors: - Vectors are said to be
parallel if they have same line of action or have line
of action parallel to one another. In fig-6 the vectors
are parallel to each other.

8) Co-planner Vectors: - Vectors are said to be

co-planner if they lies on the same plane. In fig-7
vector are coplanner.

9) Negative of a vector: - A vector having

same magnitude but opposite in direction to that of
a given vector is called negative of that vector. If
is any vector then negative vector of it is written as
-
opposite to each other as shown in fig-8.
10) Equal Vectors: - Two vectors are said to be
equal if they have same magnitude as well as
same direction.
Thus =
Remarks:- Two vectors can not be equal

Vector operations
Addition of vectors: -
Triangle law of vector addition: - The law states that If two vectors are represented by the two sides of a
triangle taken in same order their sum or resultant is represented by the 3rd side of the triangle with
direction in reverse order.
As shown in figure-10 and are two vectors
represented by two sides OA and AB of a triangle
ABC in same order. Then the sum is
represented by the third side OB taken in reverse
order i.e. the vector is represented by the
directed segment and the vector be the
directed segment , so that the terminal point A of
is the initial point of . Then represents the
sum (or resultant) ( . Thus =
( is called triangle law of
addition of the vectors.
Note-2 Since any side of a triangle is less than the sum of the other two sides

Parallelogram law of vector addition: - If and

are two vectors represented by two adjacent side
of a parallelogram in magnitude and direction, then
their sum (resultant) is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal which is passing
through the common initial point of the two vectors.
As shown in fig-II if OA is and AB is then OB
diagonal represent .
i.e. =
Polygon law of vector addition: - If , and
are the four sides of a polygon in same order then
their sum is represented by the last side of the
polygon taken in opposite order as shown in
figure-12.

Subtraction of two vectors

If and are two given vectors then the subtraction of from denoted by - is defined as addition of
- with . i.e. - = + (- ).
Properties of vector addition:- i) Vector addition is commutative i.e. if & are any two vectors then:-
=
ii) Vector addition is associative i.e. if , , are any three vectors,
then ( + (
iii) Existence of additive identity i.e. for any vector , is the additive
identity i.e. = = where is a null vector.
iv) Existence of additive Inverse :- If is any non zero vector then - is
the additive inverse of , so that = (- =
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar : -
If is a vector and k is a nonzero scalar then the multiplication of the vector by the scalar k is a vector
denoted by k or times that of .
i.e k
=k .
= (-k) <0 .
The direction of k is same as that of if k is positive and opposite as that of if k is negative.
k and are always parallel to each other.
Properties of scalar multiplication of vectors :-
If h and k are scalars and are given vectors then
i) k ( )=k +k
ii) ( h+k) = h + k , (Distributive law)
iii) (hk) = h(k , (Associative law)
iv) 1. =
v) 0. =
Position Vector of a point
Let O be a fixed point called origin, let P be any other point, then the vector is called position vector of
the point P relative to O and is denoted by .
As shown in figure-13, let AB be any vector , then
applying triangle law of addition we have
+ = where = and =
=> = - = -
= (Position vector of B) ( Position vector of A)
Section Formula:- Let A and B be two points with
position vector and respectively and P be a
point on line segment AB , dividing it in the ration
m:n. internally. Then the position vector of P i.e. is
given by the formula: =
If P divides AB externally in the ratio m:n then =

If P is the midpoint of AB then =

Example-1 :- Prove that by vector method the
medians of a triangle are concurrent.
Solution:- Let ABC be a triangle where , and
are the position vector of A,B and C respectively.
We have to show that the medians of this triangle
are concurrent.

Let AD , BE and CF are the three medians of the triangle.

Now as D be the midpoint of BC, so position vector of D i.e. = .

Let G be any point of the median AD which divides AD in the ratio 2:1 . Then position vector of G is given

by = = (by applying section formula)

=> =
Position vector of E is = .

by = .= (by applying section formula)

=> =
As position vector of a point

that of G.
Hence G is the one point where three median meet.

The three medians of a triangle are concurrent. (proved)

Example2: - Prove that i) I I I I + I I (It is known as Triangle Inequality).

ii) I I-I I I I
iii)I I I I+I I
Proof:- Let O,A and B be three points, which are not
collinear and then draw a triangle OAB.
Let = , = , then by triangle law of
addition we have = +
From properties of triangle we know that the sum of
any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third
side.
OB < OA + AB
I I <I I+I I
I I<I I + I I ------------------(1)
When O,A, B are collinear then
From figure-17 it is clear that
OB = OA + AB
I I =I I+I I
I I= I I + I I ------------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have,
I I I I+I I ( proved)
ii) I I = I I --------------(1)

But I + I I I+ I I (From triangle inequality)--------(2)

From (1) and (2) we get I I I I+ I I
I I-I I I I(proved)
iii) I I= I I I I + I- I (From triangle inequality)
= I I + I I (as I I = I I)
I I I I + I I (proved)
Components of vector in 2D
Let XOY be the co-ordinate plane and P(x,y) be any point in this plane.
The unit vector along direction of X axis i.e. is denoted by .
The unit vector along direction of Y axis i.e. is denoted by .

Then from figure-18 it is clear that = x and

=y.
So, the position vector of P is given by

= = +y

And OP =I I =r =

Representation of vector in component form in 2D

If is any vector having end points A( ) and B ( ) , then it can be represented by
=( +(
Components of vector in 3D
Let P(x,y,z) be a point in space and , and be
the unit vectors along X axis , Y axis and Z axis
respectively. (as shown in fig-19 )
Then the position vector of P is given by
= + y + , The vectors x , y , z are
called the components of along x axis, y-axis
and z-axis respectively.
And OP =I I=

Addition and scalar multiplication in terms of component form of vectors: -

For any vector = + + and = + +
i) + = + +
ii) - = + +
iii) k = + + , where K is a scalar.

iv) = + + = + +
a1=b1, a2=b2, a3=b3
Representation of vector in component form in 3-D & Distance between two points:
If is any vector having end points A( ) and B ( ) , then it can be represented by

= Position vector of B Position vector of A

=( + + )- + + )
( +( +(

I I=
Example 3:-
Show that the points A(2,6,3) , B(1,2,7) and c(3,10,-1) are collinear.
Solution:- From given data Position vector of A, = +6 + .
Position vector of B, = +2 +7

Position vector of C, = + 10 -

Now = - = + (2-6 ) + = - -4 + 4 .
 = - = + (10 - 6 ) + = + 4 -4 .

= -(- -4 + 4 ) = -

or collinear.
.
. . They have same support and common point A.

Example-4: - Prove that the points having position vector given by - + , -3 -5 and
- 4 - 4 form a right angled triangle. [2009(w)]
S0lution :- Let A,B and C be the vertices of a triangle with position vectors - + , -3 -5 and
- 4 - 4 respectively

Then . = Position vector of B Position vector of A.

= + ( -3 (-1 )) + = - -2 -6 .

= Position vector of C Position vector of B.

=( + ( -4 (-3 )) + = 2-+ .

= Position vector of C Position vector of A.

= + ( -4 (-1 )) + = -3 - 5 .

Now AB = I I= = =

BC = I I= = =

AC = I I= = =

From above + = 6+35 = 41 = .

Hence ABC is a right angled triangle.
Example-5 :- Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector = 3 -4 + . (2017-W)
Ans:- The unit vector in the direction of is given by

= = = = - + .

Example-6 :- Find a unit vector in the direction of + where = + - and = = - +3 .

Ans:- Let = + = ( + - ) + ( - +3 ) =2 + 2 .

Unit vector along direction of + is given by = = = = +

= + = + .
Angle between the vectors:-
As shown in figure-20 angle between two vectors
and can be determined as follows.
Let be a vector parallel to and is a
vector parallel to such that and
intersect each other.
and .

then vectors are said to be orthogonal or

perpendicular.
Dot Product or Scalar product of vectors
The scalar product of two vectors and whose magnitudes are, a and b respectively denoted
by is defined as the scalar abcos , where is the angle between and such that 0 .

= I I I I cos = a b cos

Geometrical meaning of dot product

In figure21(a), and are two vectors having
angle between them. Let M be the foot of the
perpendicular drawn from B to OA.
Then OM is the Projection of on and from
figure-21(a) it is clear that ,
IOMI = IOBI cos = I I cos .
Now = I I (I I cos ) = I I x projection of on

which gives projection of =

Similarly we can write = I I I I cos

=I I (I I cos = I I projection of on .
Similarly, let us draw a perpendicular from A on OB
and let N be the foot of the perpendicular
in fig-21(b).

Then ON = Projection of on
and ON = OAcos = cos

Properties of Dot product

i) = (commutative)
ii) )= + (Distributive)
iii) If II , then = ab { as = 0 in this case cos =1}
In particular = =I
. = . = . =1
iv) If , then = 0. { as = 90 in this case cos =0 }

In particular . = . = . =0= . = . =
v) = =0

vi) ). )= - = - {Where I I = a and I I = b }

viii) Work done by a Force:- The work done by a force acting on a body causing displacement is
given by W = .
Dot product in terms of rectangular components
For any vectors = + + and = + + we have,

= + + ( by applying distributive( ii) , (iii) and (iv) successively)

Angle between two non zero vectors
For any two non zero vectors = + + and = + + , having is the angle between
them we have,

cos = = = (In terms of components.)

= ( )
Condition of Perpendicularity: -
Two vectors = + + and = + + are perpendicular to each other
+ + =0
Condition of Parallelism :-
Two vectors = + + and = + + are parallel to each other = = )

Scalar & vector projections of two vectors (Important formulae)

Scalar Projection of on =

Vector Projection of on = = [ ]

Scalar Projection of on =

Vector Projection of on = =

Examples: -
Q.- 7. Find the value of p for which the vectors + 2 +9 , + p + 3 are perpendicular to each other.

Solution:- Let = + 2 +9 and = +p +3 .

Here a1 = 3, a2 = 2, a3 = 9
b1 = 1, b2 = p & b3 = 3
Given => + + =0
=> 3.1+2.p+9.3 = 0
=> 3 +2p +27 = 0
=> 2p = -30
=> p = -15 (Ans)
Q-8 Find the value of p for which the vectors = + 2 +9 , = + p + 3 are parallel to each other.
( 2014-W)

Solution:- Given II = = = = { Taking 1st two terms}

3= p = (Ans) {Note:- any two expression may be taken for finding p.}

Q-9 Find the scalar product of - 4 and + . (2015-S)

Solution:- ( -4 ) . ( + ) = (3 (-2))+((-4) 1) =(-6)+(-4) = -10
Q-10 Find the angle between the vectors +3 + 4 and 6 -8 - . (2015-W)
Solution:- Let = +3 + 4 and = 6 -8 -

Let be the angle between and .

Then = ( )

= ( ) = ( ) = ( )

Q-11 Find the scalar and vector projection of on where,

= - - and = 3 + +3 . { 2013-W ,2017-W, 2017-S}

Solution:- Scalar Projection of on = = = =

Vector Projection of on = = (3 + +3

= (3 + +3 = (3 + +3

Q-12 Find the scalar and vector projection of on where,

=3 + - and = 2 +3 - 4 . { 2015-S}

Solution: - Scalar Projection of on = = = =

Vector Projection of on = = (3 + - )

= (3 + - 2 .

Q- If = , then prove that = or = or - )

Proof:- Given =
( ) ( )= => . ( - )= { applying distributive property}
Dot product of above two vector is zero indicates the following conditions

= or - = or - )
= or = or - ) ( proved)
Example:-14 Find the work done by the force = + - . acting on a particle if the particle is displace A
from A(3,3,3) to B(4,4,4).
Ans:- Let O be the origin, then
Position vector of A = 3 +3 +3
Position vector of B = 4 +4 + 4
Then displacement is given by, =( - ) = (4 +4 + 4 ) - ( 3 +3 +3 ) = + + .

So work done by the force W = . = . = ( + - ). ( + + )

= 1.1+1.1+(-1).1 = 1 units
Example:-15 If and are two unit vectors and is the angle between them then prove that

sin = I - I
Proof: - (I - I =( - ). ( - )=( . )-( ) -( . ) + ( . ) { Distributive property}

=(I I -( )-( )+(I I {commutative property}

= -2 + { as and are unit vectors so their magnitudes are 1}

=2-2 =2(1- )
= 2( 1 - I I. I I cos ) { as is the angle between and }
= 2 (1 1.1. cos )

= 2 (1 cos ) = 2 .2

Taking square root of both sides we have I - I = 2 sin

sin = I - I (proved)

Example:-16 If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector. Then show that the magnitude of their
difference is .
Proof:- , and are three unit vectors such that + =
Squaring both sides we have,
=> (I + I =(I I
=> ( I I +(I I +2 =
=> + +2I II I cos = 1 { where is the angle between and }
=> 1 + 2 cos =1
=> 2cos = -1
=> cos =

Now we have to find the magnitude of their difference i.e - .

So (I - I =(I I +(I I -2 = + -2I II I cos
= 2- 2 cos =2-2( )=2 (-1) = 3

I - I= (Proved)
Vector Product or Cross Product
If and are two vectors and is the angle between them , then the vector product of
these two vectors denoted by is defined as

=I I. I I sin

where is the unit vector perpendicular to both and .

As shown in figure-21 the direction of is
always perpendicular to both and .

Properties of cross product

i) Vector product is not commutative
ii) For any two vectors and , = -( )
iii) For any scalar m, m( ) = (m = m )
iii) Distributive ( + )=( )+( )
iv) Vector product of two parallel or collinear vectors is zero.
= and if II then = { as = 0 or 180 => sin =0}

Using this property we have,

= = =
v) Vector product of orthonormal unit vectors form a right handed system.
As shown in figure- 23 the three mutually
perpendicular unit vectors , , form a right
handed system , i.e. = = -(
( as =90 , then sin = 1)
= = -(
= = -(
Unit vector perpendicular to two vectors:- Unit vector perpendicular to two given vectors and is

given by = .

Angle between two vectors

Let be the angle between and . Then = (I I. I I sin
Taking modulus of both sides we have,
I I=I I. I I sin

sin =

Hence = { }

Geometrical Interpretation of vector product or

cross product
Let = and = .
Then = (I I. I I sin )
= (I I).( I I sin )
From fig-24 below it is clear that
BM = OB sin =I I sin =I I IBMI

{ as sin = BM/OB & = }

Now I I=I I IBMI I I = OA.

BM = Area of the parallelogram with side and .

Therefore the magnitude of cross product of two vectors is equal to area of the parallelogram
formed by these vectors as two adjacent sides.
From this it can be concluded that area of ABC = I . I
Application of cross product
1. Moment of a force about a point ( ) :-Let O be any point and Let be the position vector w.r.t. O of

is given by
=
2. If and represent two adjacent sides of a triangle then the area of the triangle is given by
= I I Sq. unit
3. If and represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then area of the parallelogram is given by
= I I Sq. unit
4. If and represent two diagonals of a parallelogram then area of the parallelogram is given by
= I I Sq. unit
Vector product in component form : -
If = + + and = + + .

=( + + ) ( + + )
= )+ )+ )+ )+ )+ )
+ )+ )+ )
{ using properties = = = , = = -( , = = -( and
= = -( }
=( - ) +( - ) +( - )

= i.e. =

Condition of Co-planarity
If three vectors and lies on the same plane then the perpendicular to must be perpendicular
to .
In particular ( => ( . =0
In component form if = + + , = + + and = + +
Then ( . =0
( - ) +( - ) +( - ) =0

= 0 ( interchanging rows two times

=0
Example:- 17
If = + 3 -2 and = +3 then find I I

Ans: - We have = =

= {( 3 3)-( 0 )} - {( 1 3)-( (-1) )} + {( 1 )-( (-1) )}

=9 - +3

I I = = = (Ans)

Example:-18 Determine the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the vectors
= and =3 . (2013-W)
Ans:- Area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides given by and is given by
area = I I =I 3 I=I6 I =6 sq units (Ans)

Example:-19 Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors =2 + - and = - +3 .

Ans: - ( 2015-W and 2017-S)
Unit vector perpendicular to both and is given by

Now = =

= (3-1) - (6+3 ) + (-2-3 )

= 2 - 9 - 5 -----------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have,

= = =

= (ans)

Example:-20 If =2 - + and = +4 - , then find the sine of the angle between these vectors. (
2016-w)

Ans :- We know that sin =

Now =

= (1-4) - (-2 - 3 ) + (8 +3 ) = -3 + 5 + 11
Hence = = =

Again = = =

and = = =
From equation (1),(2),(3) and (4) we have,

sin = = = (Ans)

Q-21 Calculate the area of the triangle ABC ( by vector method) where A(1,1,2), B(2,2,3)
and C(3,-1,-1). (2013-W)
Solution: - Let the position vector of the vertices A,B and C is given by respectively.
Then

Now
= -(
=
=
Similarly
= -(
=
=2

Now =

= (-3 + 2) - (-3 - 2 ) + (-2 - 2 ) =- +5 -4

Hence area of the triangle is given by
= I I =
= = sq units. (Ans)

Example:-22 Find the area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are determined by the vectors
and (2014-W, 2017-W)
Ans: - Area of the parallelogram with diagonals are given by

Now =

= (4 - 6) - (12 + 2 ) + (-9 - 1 ) = -2 -14 - 10

Now area =

= = = =5 sq unit. (ans)

Example:-23 For any vector , prove that = where a and b are

magnitude of respectively.
Proof: - =
= = ( As = =1)
= =
= = (Proved)

Example:-24 In a ABC , prove by vector method

that ,
where BC = a, CA = b and AB =c. ( 2017-S)
Proof:- As shown in figure- 25 ABC is a triangle
having, and .
From triangle law of vector we know that ,
+ =

( taking cross product of both sides with we get)

)=
=
) =
)
 ) ---------------------(2)

Similarly taking cross product with both sides of (1) we have,

) ------------------(3)

From (2) and (3) , ) )

=
As from fig-25 it is clear that angle between is , is and is .
Dividing above equation by abc we have,

Hence (Proved).

Example:-25 What inference can you draw when = and =

Ans: - Given = and =

{ Either = or = or II } and { = or = or }
As II and cannot be hold simultaneously so = or =
Hence either = or = .

Example:-26 If , then find .

Ans: - Given

=8
= =

cos = = = = =

=2 5 = 6 (Ans)

Example:-27 Show that the vectors , , and are co-planar.(2017-S)

Ans: - Now let us find the following determinant ,

= 1(-10+14) (-3) (20-8)+ 4(-14+4) = 4+ 36 -40 = 0

Hence the three given vectors are co-planar.

 Exercise
1. Show that the points (3,4) ,(1,7) and (-5,16) are collinear. (2 Marks)
2. If and , then find the unit vector parallel to . (2 Marks)
3. Show that the vectors , and form the sides of an
equilateral triangle. (5 Marks)
4. Find the unit vector parallel to the sum and . (2014-W,2017-W).(2 Marks)
5. Find the scalar and vector projection of on where and .(2015-W)
(5 Marks)
6. The position vector of A,B and C are respectively . Show that A, B
and C are collinear. (2 Marks)
are coplanar.
(2 Marks)
and are perpendicular
to each other. (2015-W) (2 Marks)
[Link] the unit vector in the direction of 2 where and .
(5 Marks)
10. Find the angle between the vectors and . (5 Marks)
11. Calculate the area of the triangle ABC by vector method where A(1,2,4), B(3,1,-2) and C(4,3,1).
(5 Marks)
12. Obtain the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given by vectors
and -3 . (5 Marks)
13. Determine the sine of the angle between and . (5 Marks)
14. Find the unit vector along the direction of vector . (2015-S) (2 Marks)
15. Find the area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides and . (5 Marks)
16. Find the unit vector perpendicular to both and . (5 Marks)
17. Find the area of the parallelogram having vertices A(5,-1,1), B(-1,-3,4), C(1,-6,10) and D(7,-4,7).
(5 Marks)
18. Find the vector joining the points (2,-3) and (-1,1).Find its magnitude and the unit vector along the
same direction. Also determine the component vectors along the co-ordinate axes. (5 Marks)
19. Prove by vector method , that in a triangle ABC,

where BC = a, CA = b and AB =c. (5 Marks)

20. Find the work done by the force on a particle to displace it from (1,2,0) to (0,2,3) (2 Marks)
21. If and are perpendicular vectors, then show that . (2 Marks)
22. If , and are three mutually perpendicular vectors of the same magnitude, prove that
is equally inclined with the vectors , and . (10 Marks)
23. Find the area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are and .
(5 Marks)

Answers

2) 4) 5) ,

7) 1 8) 3 9)

10) 11) sq units 12) sq units

13) 14) 15) sq units

16) 17) sq units

18) , 5 , , and .

20) -13 units 23) sq units.