MODULE – II

DETERMINANTS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

Personality

The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a mask. Personality refers
to the unique set of traits, behaviours, and patterns of thinking that define an individual’s way of
interacting with the world. It influences how people behave, react, and communicate in different
situations. Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person’s unique
identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public.

Personality represents the amalgamation of characteristics and qualities that constitute a person’s
distinctive identity. Every person possesses a unique, personal character that serves as a primary driver
of their behaviour, defining their personality.

In the realm of Organizational Behavior, an individual’s personality plays an exceptionally pivotal role
in assessing their conduct within an organisation.

According to Robert E. Park and Earnest W. Burgess, Personality is “the sum and organization of
those traits which determine the role of the individual in the group.”

According to Arnold W. Green, “personality is the sum of a person’s values (the objects of his striving,
such as ideas, prestige, power and sex) plus his non- physical traits (his habitual ways of acting and
reacting).”

Personality trait is basically influenced by two major features −

• Inherited characteristics

• Learned characteristics

1. Inherited Characteristics: The features an individual acquires from their parents or forefathers, in other
words the gifted features an individual possesses by birth is considered as inherited characteristics. It
consists of the following features −

• Color of a person’s eye

• Religion/Race of a person

• Shape of the nose

• Shape of earlobes

2. Learned Characteristics: Nobody learns everything by birth. First, our school is our home, then our
society, followed by educational institutes. The characteristics an individual acquires by observing,
practicing, and learning from others and the surroundings is known as learned characteristics.
Learned characteristics includes the following features −

• Perception − Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.

• Values − Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.

• Personality − Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.

• Attitude − Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.

Importance of Personality

Personality plays a vital and multifaceted role in shaping human behavior and interactions within the
workplace. In Organisational Behaviour (OB), understanding the importance of personality is crucial for
managers and organizations as it impacts various aspects of organizational functioning.

Personality traits impact individual behavior, employee motivation, job satisfaction, team dynamics,
leadership effectiveness, conflict resolution, and the overall organizational culture. By recognizing the
unique traits of each employee, organizations can effectively leverage individual strengths, improve team
dynamics, and create a positive and supportive work culture that enhances employee well-being and
productivity.

1. Individual Behavior and Decision Making:

Personality influences how individuals think, feel, and act in the workplace. It determines employees’
attitudes towards their work, their level of motivation, and how they make decisions. For example,
employees with high levels of conscientiousness are likely to be more responsible and reliable, leading
to better decision-making and task completion.

2. Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction:

Personality traits contribute to employee motivation and job satisfaction. Individuals who possess
positive personality traits, such as emotional stability and optimism, tend to be more satisfied with their
jobs and exhibit higher levels of motivation. A positive work environment that aligns with employees’
personality traits enhances job satisfaction and engagement.

3. Team Dynamics and Collaboration:

Understanding individual personality traits is essential for building effective teams. Different personality
types bring diverse perspectives and strengths to a team. Managers can leverage these individual
differences to create more cohesive and productive teams. Personality traits can influence how employees
communicate, collaborate, and resolve conflicts within the team.

4. Leadership Styles and Effectiveness:

Personality traits influence leadership styles and effectiveness. Leaders’ personalities impact how they
communicate, motivate, and make decisions. For instance, extraverted leaders may excel in leading large
groups and networking, while introverted leaders might be more effective in one-on-one interactions and
focusing on individual employee development.

5. Organisational Culture and Climate:

Personality traits contribute to shaping the overall organizational culture and climate. The collective
personalities of employees impact the work environment’s tone, values, and norms. A positive and
inclusive organizational culture can enhance employee morale, productivity, and retention.

6. Conflict Management and Resolution:

Personality traits can influence how employees handle conflicts in the workplace. Managers need to be
aware of employees’ personality profiles to adopt suitable conflict resolution strategies. Understanding
the personality dynamics helps in promoting constructive conflict management and maintaining a
harmonious work environment.

7. Employee Development and Training:

Recognizing individual personality traits helps in designing tailored employee development and training
programs. Managers can identify areas for growth and provide opportunities that align with employees’
strengths and preferences.

Determinants of Personality

The determinants of personality are the various factors and influences that shape an individual’s unique
pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. These determinants help explain why individuals differ
in their personalities and why they respond differently to various situations. The key determinants of
personality include Hereditary factors, Environmental factors, Situational factors, Cultural factors,
Social factors, etc.

I. Hereditary Factors

Heredity, also known as genetics, refers to the influence of genetic factors and biological inheritance
on an individual’s personality. It involves the transmission of traits and characteristics from parents to
their offspring. Various aspects are considered regarding heredity when it comes to the study of
personality, some of them are:

1. Genetic Inheritance: The genetic makeup of an individual is a critical determinant of their

personality. Specific genes and combinations of genes can predispose individuals to certain traits and
behaviours. For example, genes may contribute to temperament, intelligence, and susceptibility to
mental health conditions.

2. Gene-Environment Interplay: It is important to note that genetics interact with environmental

factors. Genes can influence how individuals respond to their surroundings and the experiences they
encounter. This interaction is known as gene-environment interplay and plays a crucial role in shaping
personality.

II. Environmental Factors

Environmental factors encompass the external influences and experiences that individuals encounter
throughout their lives. These factors can significantly shape and mold an individual’s personality. Here
are key aspects of environmental determinants:

1. Family Environment: The family is often the primary socialising agent in a person’s life. The way
parents raise their children, including their parenting style and family dynamics, can profoundly
influence personality development. For example, a nurturing and supportive family environment can
foster self-confidence and a positive self-concept.

2. Cultural and Societal Influences: Cultural norms, values, and societal expectations impact how
individuals perceive themselves and others. Cultural factors, including cultural values and social
norms, shape personality traits and behaviours. For instance, collectivist cultures may emphasisze
conformity and interdependence, while individualist cultures may promote autonomy and self-
expression.

3. Peer Groups and Socialisation: Peer groups, friends, and social interactions outside the family
environment play a pivotal role in personality development. Peer influence can shape attitudes, values,
and behaviours, particularly during adolescence when peer acceptance is highly valued.

III. Situational Factors

Situational factors refer to the immediate context or circumstances an individual encounters. While
personality is generally considered relatively stable, situations can temporarily influence behavior and
expression.

1. Stress and Coping Mechanisms: High-stress situations, such as academic exams, job interviews,
or personal crises, can evoke different aspects of an individual’s personality. People may exhibit
resilience, adaptability, or anxiety depending on the situation and their coping mechanisms.

2. Role and Context: The roles individuals assume in various situations can lead to role-specific
behaviors. For example, someone may exhibit assertiveness and leadership traits in a work
environment but be more passive in social settings.

3. Mood and Emotional State: An individual’s mood and emotional state at a given moment can
affect their behaviour and expression. For instance, someone in a cheerful mood may exhibit
extroverted traits, while someone feeling anxious may display introverted tendencies.
IV. Cultural Factors

Cultural factors encompass the societal and cultural environment in which an individual is immersed.
These factors shape an individual’s values, beliefs, and behaviours. Key aspects of cultural factors
include:

1. Cultural Values: Each culture has its unique set of values and beliefs that influence an individual’s
worldview. These values can encompass concepts like collectivism versus individualism,
egalitarianism, and the importance of tradition.

2. Social Norms: Cultural norms dictate acceptable behaviour within a specific society or community.
These norms impact an individual’s choices and actions in various social contexts, including family,
work, and social interactions.

V. Social Factors

Social factors encompass the broader societal context and interpersonal relationships that an individual
experiences throughout their life. These factors include:

1. Peer Influence: The influence of friends and peer groups can significantly shape an individual’s
personality, values, and behaviours. Peer pressure, social acceptance, and the desire for social
belonging can impact decision-making.

2. Social Support: The quality and nature of an individual’s social relationships, including friendships
and support networks, have a profound effect on emotional well-being and can influence personality
traits like resilience and self-esteem.

Theories of Personality

a. The Big Five Personality Model (OCEAN)

This model is the most widely accepted personality framework in OB.

Trait Characteristics Workplace Impact

Openness to Experience Creative, curious, High openness leads to innovation and

adaptable. adaptability.

Conscientiousness Organized, responsible, High conscientiousness leads to high

disciplined. performance and reliability.

Extraversion Outgoing, energetic, Extroverts perform well in leadership and

assertive. customer-facing roles.

Agreeableness Cooperative, empathetic, High agreeableness improves teamwork

friendly. and collaboration.
 Neuroticism (Emotional Prone to anxiety, stress, and Low neuroticism leads to better stress
Stability) mood swings. management and job satisfaction.

b. Type A & Type B Personality Theory

Personality influences stress levels, work behavior, and competitiveness and this classification is based
on stress-handling ability and work style.

Personality Types:

Personality Characteristics Workplace Impact

Type

Type A Competitive, impatient, ambitious, Thrives in high-stress jobs (finance,

aggressive, multitasker. leadership), but prone to burnout.

Type B Relaxed, patient, less competitive, Handles stress well, good in collaborative
adaptable. and customer-service roles.

Implications in OB:

• Type A individuals perform well under pressure but are prone to burnout.

• Type B employees maintain a balanced work-life approach and are good team players.

Perception

Perception is the viewpoint by which one interprets a situation. In other words, “perception is the process
by which information enters our minds and is interpreted in order to give some sensible meaning to the
world around us. Perception is the process through which the information from outside environment is
selected, received, organized and interpreted to make it meaningful. It is the process of interpreting
something that we see or hear in our mind and using it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation,
person, group, etc.

It can be divided into six types –

• Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.

• Of Speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language heard.

• Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of their surface by touching them.

• Taste − The ability to receive a flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs known
as taste buds.
 • Other senses − They approve perception through the body like balance, acceleration, pain, time,
the sensation felt in the throat and lungs, etc.

• Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and groups in their social
world.

For example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their customer service, so she will perceive that it is a
good place to hang out and will recommend it to her friends, who may or may not like it.

Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli into meaningful information. It is

the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a
verdict on a situation, person, group, etc.

Factors influencing Perception/ Determinants of Perception

There are three influences on the concept of perception. These are

1. The characteristics of the perceiver

This includes factors like needs, values, experience and attitudes, habits, ethics and personality. Our
cultural upbringing also play important role in our perception about others. It is difficult to judge a person
and to perceive the personality of a person raised in another culture because our judgement is based on
our own values.

2. The characteristics of the perceived

This includes appearance, communication and personal behavior, facial expressions, age, gender,
personality traits and other forms of behavior. People dressed in business suits are generally thought to
be professionals while people dressed in ordinary work clothes are assumed to be lower level employees.

3. The characteristics of the situation

This includes physical location, social setting and organizational setting. In an organizational setting
where people are given an opportunity to interact in a friendly and sociable work situation, they become
more trustworthy and less defensive.

Process of Perception

Perceptual process includes the different stages of perception we go through. The different stages are

• Receiving

• Selecting

• Organizing

• Interpreting
1. Receiving: Receiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It is the
initial stage in which a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense
organs.

2. Selecting: Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data
randomly but selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest
or needs. The selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.

• External factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual externally are
intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and novelty.

• Internal factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual internally are
psychological requirements, learning, background, experience, self-acceptance, and interest.

3. Organizing: Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make
sense of the data received, it is important to organize them.

We can organize the data by −

• Grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity.

• Establishing a figure ground is the basic process in perception. Here by figure we mean what is
kept as main focus and by ground we mean background stimuli, which are not given attention.

• Perceptual constancy that is the tendency to stabilize perception so that contextual changes don’t
affect them.

4. Interpreting: Finally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming an idea about a
particular object depending upon the need or interest. Interpretation means that the information we
have sensed and organized, is finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be
categorized. It includes stereotyping, halo effect etc.

Attitude

Attitude reflects a person’s feelings towards particular object, event or person. It shows the tendency of
an individual to act or behave in a particular manner towards something.

Attitude represents our beliefs, feelings and action tendencies towards individuals, groups, objects,
events and ideas.

Attitude is comprised of three components viz. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioural. These components
are described as follows:

a) Cognitive or informational component: Cognitive component of attitude is the description of

beliefs and ideas about other persons, objects or events. This component describes the information an
individual has towards others no matters whether this information is correct or not. For example, a person
in search of new job may acquire information from his own sources that salary package and chances of
promotion are very favourable in a particular company. In reality, this information may or may not be
correct, the person will use this information to develop his feelings or action tendencies.

b) Affective or emotional component: This component reflects the emotions or feelings of an

individual towards a person, object or events. The feelings or emotions can be positive or negative and
favourable or unfavourable. For example, “I like this job”, this statement reflects a person’s positive
feelings for the job in question.

c) Behavioural component: This component includes the behavioural tendencies or intentions of an

individual to act in a particular manner towards an object, event or person. For example, “I am going to
join this job”, this statement reflects a person’s intentions to act in a particular manner.

These three components of attitude are very important to study in order to understand the relationship
between attitude and behaviour and also to understand the complexity of this relationship. These three
components are very closely related, specifically cognitive and affective components are almost
inseparable. Out of the three components, only behavioural component can be observed directly whereas,
the other two components can only be inferred but cannot be observed directly.

Values

Values are enduring beliefs and principles that guide individuals’ preferences, attitudes, and behaviour.
They represent what is considered important, desirable, and morally right by an individual or a group.
Values form the foundation of an individual’s identity and are deeply ingrained in their personality.

Values are shaped by a combination of factors, including:

1. Family and Upbringing: Family plays a vital role in instilling values during early childhood.
Cultural and societal norms passed down through generations influence individual values.

2. Education and Socialization: Education and socialization within communities and institutions
contribute to the development of values. Schools, religious institutions, and peer groups play a
role in shaping values.

3. Personal Experiences: Life experiences, particularly significant events and interactions, can
impact an individual’s values and perspectives.

4. Media and Influences: Media, including television, movies, and social media, can influence
values by presenting certain ideas and narratives.

Difference Between Attitude and Values

Attitude and values are closely related concepts in Organizational Behavior (OB), but they have distinct
meanings and influences on behavior.
 Aspect Attitude Values

Definition A learned tendency to evaluate things Deep-rooted beliefs that guide behavior
in a certain way (positively or and decision-making.
negatively).

Nature Temporary, changeable, and influenced Stable, long-lasting, and deeply

by situations. embedded.

Formation Developed through experiences, Formed early in life, influenced by

education, and social interactions. culture, family, and upbringing.

Components 1. Cognitive (beliefs) – What we think 1. Terminal Values – End goals in life
about something. (e.g., success, happiness, freedom).
2. Affective (feelings) – How we feel 2. Instrumental Values – Means to
about it. achieve goals (e.g., honesty, hard work,
3. Behavioral (action) – How we act discipline).
based on our beliefs and feelings.

Influence on Directly affects behavior in specific Provides a foundation for behavior over
Behavior situations (e.g., attitude toward work time (e.g., a person valuing honesty will
affects job performance). generally act with integrity).

Changeability Can change over time with new Hard to change; requires significant
experiences and information. personal transformation.

Examples - A person may have a positive - Value of honesty leads a person to

attitude toward teamwork but a avoid lying.
negative attitude toward strict - Value of hard work makes a person
deadlines. committed to their job.
- Attitude towards a boss or a job can
change over time.

Learning

Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and indirect experience. It
means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and experience. It is completed
by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent.

Factors Affecting Learning

Learning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be caused by this experience. The
key elements or the major factors that affect learning are motivation, practice, environment, and mental
group.

• Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to achieve a goal is known
as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning as it acts gives us a positive energy to complete
a task.

• Practice − We all know that “Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a perfectionist or at least
complete the task, it is very important to practice what we have learnt.

• Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people around us. They are of
two types of environment – internal and external.

• Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to hang out with. In simple
words, we make a group of those people with whom we connect. It can be for a social cause where
people with the same mentality work in the same direction.

Importance of Learning

Learning is important in organizational behavior because it can:

• Improve employee performance: When employees are engaged and learn about their work, they
are more productive and feel better equipped to excel in their roles.

• Increase employee satisfaction: Learning organizations prioritize employee development, which

can lead to increased job satisfaction and reduced turnover.

• Improve organizational efficiency: Learning organizations can share knowledge, which can lead to
increased efficiency and reduced reliance on external consultants.

• Enhance innovation and creativity: Learning organizations encourage experimentation and risk-
taking, which can lead to new ideas.

• Improve problem-solving and decision-making: Learning organizations encourage critical thinking,

creativity, and collaboration, which can lead to improved problem-solving and decision-making.

• Help managers understand employee behavior: Learning about organizational behavior can help
managers understand how employees behave and interact with each other and the organization.

Learning Process

A variety of cognitive and behavioural processes are involved in the complex process of learning. There
are several fundamental ideas and procedures that explain how learning occurs, even though the precise
mechanics of learning might change based on the situation and type of learning involved:

1. Stimulus and Response: The process of acquiring knowledge involves drawing connections
 among stimuli—items in the surroundings that cause a response—and responses—the activities
or feelings brought upon by perceiving stimuli. People acquire the ability to link specific triggers
to particular reactions via prolonged exposure and feedback.

2. Reinforcement: To learn, reinforcement is essential. Appreciating desired behaviours makes

them more likely to occur in the future. This process is known as positive reinforcement. By
removing or minimizing undesirable factors, negative reinforcement works to increase the
likelihood of desired behaviours. The correlation between inputs and reactions is strengthened by
reinforcement.

3. Processing and Storage: The brain processes the encoded information and decides whether to
store it in short-term or long-term memory. With a capacity of roughly five to nine items, short-
term memory, sometimes referred to as working memory, momentarily stores a small amount of
knowledge for instant use. Long-term memory has a higher capacity and can hold knowledge for
longer periods. Information is either briefly stored in short-term memory or moved to long-term
memory for longer-term storage, depending on the encoding mechanisms used.

4. Making Connections: To make connections in learning, one must integrate new information
with previously learned material, elaborate on ideas, link pertinent cues to them, and use
analogical reasoning. This procedure improves information application, comprehension, and
retention, resulting in more profound and significant learning outcomes.

5. Practice and Repetition: To enhance learning and skill development, practice and repetition
require interacting with knowledge or tasks regularly. People can enhance the brain connections
linked to the desired information or action by practicing consistently. This procedure improves
the automaticity, mastery, and retention of knowledge or abilities.

6. Application and Transfer: Applying newly learned knowledge and abilities in real-world
scenarios and a variety of contexts promotes greater understanding, applicability to real-world
circumstances, and flexibility. Through this process, people can show that they comprehend, and
solidify what they've learned via experience, and apply what they've learned outside of particular
contexts.

7. Motivation and Engagement: Through encouraging active participation, persistent effort, and
in-depth information processing, motivation and engagement propel the learning process. While
engagement involves sustaining attention and devoting mental and emotional resources to
learning tasks, motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.