Introduction

University of Molise ,Valahia University of Tragoviste ,University of Split

1. Physics ( Lecture : 7 credits laboratory : 0 Credits )
● Mechanics ( 2 credits )
● Thermodynamics ( 1 credit )
● Electromagnetism (2 credits )
● Light and Optics ( 1 credit )
● Modern Physics ( 1 credit )

2. Literatures
● R.A. Serway , J.S. Faughn , College Physics Fifth Edition , Saunders College Publishing
,2000
● D. Halliday ,[Link] ,[Link] , Fundamentals of Physics ,Sixth Edition , John Wiley &
Sons , 2001
● M Dzelalija ,http//[Link]/mile/~physics

3. Professor -
● Prof Mile Dzelalija ,University of Split ,Croatia
● E-Mail : mile@[Link]

4. Physics -
● Is concerned with the basic principles of the Universe .
● Is one of the Foundations on which the other sciences are based
● Is typical experiment science
● The beauty of physics lies in the simplicity of its fundamental theories
● The theories are usually expressed in mathematical form

5. Mechanics -
● Is the first part of this lecture
● Sometimes referred to as classical mechanics or Newtonian mechanics
● Is concerned with the effects of forces on material objects
● The first serious attempts to develop a theory of motion were made by Greek
astronomers and philosophers
● A major development in the theory was provided by I sac Newton in 1687 when he
published his principia
● Today ,mechanics is of vital importance to students all disciplines
 ● To report the result of a measurement of a certain physical quantity , a unit for the
quantity must be defined
● In 1960 an international committee agreed on a system of standards ,called SI system .
● The SI units of length ,mass and time are the meter (m) , Killogram (kg) ,and second (s)
The meter as the SI unit of Length
● 1799 defined as 1/10000000 of the distance from the Equator to the North
Pole
● 1983, redefined as the distance traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299792458 second ( this establishes that speeds of light is 299792458 m/s)

●
The Kilogram as the SI unit of mass
● Defined as the mass of specific platinum -iridium alloy cylinder

The Second as the SI unit of time

● Before 1960 ,the second was defined as 1/86400 of solar days in the year 1990 .
● The Second is now defined as 9192631700 times the period of oscillation of
radiation from the cesium atom .

Examples -

Some lengths (M)

Diameter of the Universe 1.10^26

Distance to the nearest star ( Proxina 4.10^16

Centauri)

Mean distance from Earth to Moon 4.10^8

Mean Radius of the Earth 6.10^6

Length of a soccer field 1.10^2

Size of the Smallest dust particles 1.10^-4

Size of cells of most living organisms 1.10^-5

Diameter of a hydrogen atom 1.10^-10

Diameter of an atomic nucleus 1.10^-14

Diameter of a proton 1.10^-15

Some Masses (KG)

Universe 1.10^52

Milky Way Galaxy 7.10^41

Sun 2.10^30

Earth 6.10^24

Human 7.10^1

Mosquito 1.10^-5

Bacterium 1.10^-15

Hydrogen atom 1.7.10^-27

Electron 9.10^-31

Some Time Intervals (S)

Age of the Universe 5.10^17

Age of the Earth 1.10^17

Average age of Student 3.10^7

One day 8.64.10^4

Time between normal heartbeat 8.10^-1

Period of typical radio waves 1.10^-6

Period of Visible light waves 2.10^-15

Prefixes for SI Units

Symbol Prefix Factor

As a convenience Y Yotta 10^24

when dealing with Z Zetta 10^21
very large or very E Exa 10^18
small measurements P Peta 10^15
,we use the prefixes T Tera 10^12
which represents a G Giga 10^9
certain power of 10 M Mega 10^6
,as a factor K kilo 10^3

Attaching a prefix to H Hecto 10^2

an SI unit has the DA Deka 10^1
effect of multiplying D Deci 10^-1
by the associated C Centi 10^-2
factor m Milli 10^-3

For Examples ,we can micro 10^-6

express -

A particular time n nano 10^-9

interval as -2.35.10-
9s =2.35 ns

A particular length as P pico 10^-12

7.2.10-3m =7.2km

A particular mass as F femto !0^-15

5.10-6kg=5.10-6.10-
3g=5mg

The most commonly a atto 10^-18

used prefixes are -

Kilo ,Mega and giga Z zepto 10^-21

Centi ,Milli ,micro y yocto 10^-24

and nano

● We often need to change the units in which the physical quantity is expressed . We do
so multiplying the original measurement by a conversion factor
For Example ,
● To convert 2 min to seconds ,we have
2min =2min .60S/min =120 S
● Or ,15 in centimeters ( 1 in = 2.54 cm )
15 in =15in.2.54cm/in =38.1 cm

Order -of - magnitude Calculations -

Sometimes it is useful to estimate an answer to a problem in which little information is
given . This answer can then be used to determine whether or not more precise
calculation is necessary .
When it is necessary to know a quantity only within a factor of 10,we refer to the order
of magnitude of the quantity .
For Example -
1. The mass of a person might be 75 Kg .
2. We should say that the person’s mass is on the order of 10*10 kg

Examples -
● The micromoter ( 1 Um) is often called the micron .How many microns make up 1 Km ?
1Km /1um =10*10*10m /10-6 m= 10

● Earth is approximately a sphere of radius 6370km .What is its circumference in meters,

its surface area in square kilometers ,its volume in cubic kilometers ?
L = 2, R = 2.3.14.6370KM ~40000km = 4.10.10m=4.10m
A= 4, R =4.314.(3.67.10Km ) = 509.6.10km ~5.1.10km
V =4/3 ,R =4/3.314.(6.37.10km) =1082.1.10km~1.08.10km

● One gallon of Paint ( Volume =0.0378m) covers an area of 25m. What is the thickness of
the paint on the wall ?
d=V/A =0.00378m/25m~1.5.10m

● Estimate the number of times your heart beats in a month ( Approximate time between
normal heartbeat is 0.8s)
n=1 month/0.8S =1.30.24.3600s/0.8s ~3.10
 ● Estimate the number of breaths taken during an average life span of 70 years .
n=70y/3s =70.365.24.3600s/3s~10

● You can obtain a rough estimate of the size of a molecule by the following simple
experiment .Let a droplet of oil spread out on a smooth water surface . The resulting oil
slick will be approximately one molecule thick . Given an oil droplet of mass 0.9 mg and
density 918kg/m that spreads out into a circle of radius 41.8 cm on the water surface ,
what is the diameter of an oil molecule ?
V=M/P=r,d
d=m/,pr =9.10kg/3.14.9.18kg/m.(o418m) =1.7.10m

Motion in One Dimension -

The part of mechanics that describes motion with regard to its causes is called kinematics .Here
we will focus on one dimensional motion .
1. Position -
● To describe the motion of an object , one must be able to specify its position at all using
some convenient coordinate system .
For Example ,a particle might be located at x=+5m , which means that it is 5 m in the positive
direction from the origin .if it were at x=5m ,it would be just as from the origin but in the
opposite direction .
● Position is an example of a vector quantity ,i.e. The physical quantity that requires the
specification of both direction and magnitude .By contrast a scalar is a quantity that has
magnitude and no direction .

2. Displacement -
● A change from one position x1to another x2 position is called displacement
X=X2-X1
For Examples , if the particles moves from +5m to 12m then
x=(+12m)-(+5m)=+7m
● The + sign indicates that the motion is in the positive direction .The plus sign for vector
quantity needs to be shown , but a minus sign must always be shown .
● The displacement is a vector quantity .

Average Velocity -
● A compact way to describe position is with a graph plotted as a function of time .
● For Example ,an armadillo is first noticed when it is at position -5 m .It moves toward X
=0 m passes through that point at t=3s,and then moves to increasingly larger positive
values of X .
● Several quantities are associated with the phrase “How fast” . One of them is the
average velocity which is the ratio of the displacement that occurs during a particular
time interval to that interval -
(V) = X/ t =x2-x1/t2-t1
 ● A common unit of velocity is the meter per second ( m/s) .

● On a graph of x versus t , average velocity is the slope of the straight line that connects
two particular positions . for the time interval 1s to 4s the average velocity is (v)
=(+6m)/(3s) =+2m/s
● Like displacement average velocity has both magnitude and direction( it is another
vector quantity )
● Average Speed -
1. Is a different way of describing “how fast “ a particle moves and involves the
total distance covered independent of direction .
(S) =Total distance / t
2. Is a scalar quantity
3. For the given example -
(S) =Total distance / t =6m/3s =2m/s

Instantaneous Velocity -
 ● The instantaneous velocity is obtained from the average velocity by shrinking the time
interval closer and closer to 0 .As t dwindles , the average velocity (v) approaches a
limiting value ,which is the velocity v at the instant -
V=lim(v) =lim x/ t
● For example ,assume you have been observing a runner racing along a track ,as given in
one table. In another table there are calculated values of the time intervals
displacements and average velocities .With some degree of confidence we can state the
instantaneous velocity of the runner was +2m/s at the time 0.00s

T (s) X (m)

0.00 0.00

0.01 +0.02

0.10 +0.21

0.20 +0.44

0.50 +1.25

1.00 +3.00

2.00 +8.00

t1tot2(s) t (s) x(m) (V) (m/s)

0.00 to 2.00 2.00 +8.00 +4.00

0.00 to 1.00 1.00 +3.00 +3.00

0.00 to 0.50 0.50 +1.25 +2.50

0.00 to 0.20 0.20 +0.44 +2.20

0.00 to 0.10 0.10 +0.21 +2.10

0.00 t0 0.01 0.01 +0.02 +2.00

● The instantaneous speed , which is a scalar quantity ,is defined as the magnitude
of the instantaneous velocity .
Example -
 ● Does an automobile speedometer measure average or instantaneous speed ?
It measures the average speed , but the time interval is generally very short ,so that the average
speed is close to the instantaneous speed .
● An athlete swims the length of a 50 m pool in 20 s and makes the return trip to the
constant starting position in 22s . Determine her average velocities and speeds in -
(a) The first half of the swim (b) The second half of the swim and ( c) the round trip .

(a) (UF) =+50m/20s =+2.5m/s (sf) =50m/20s =2.5m/s

(b) (US) =-50m/22s =-2.27m/s (Ss) =50m/22s=2.27m/s
(c) (UT ) =0m/42s=0m/s (st) =100m/42s = 2.38m/s

Acceleration -
● When a particle’s velocity changes , the particle is said to accelerate . for motion along
an axis , the average acceleration over a time interval is
(a)= v/ t=v2-v1/t2-t1
Where the particle has velocity v1 at the time t1 and then velocity v2 at time t2
● The instantaneous acceleration ( or simply acceleration ) is defined as the limit of the
average acceleration as the time interval goes to zero
a =lim(a) =lim v/ t
● Acceleration is vector quantity .
● The common unit of acceleration is the meter per second per second (m/s2)
● The acceleration at a certain time equals the slope of the velocity -time graph at the
instant of time .

Constant Acceleration -
● In many types of motion , the acceleration is either constant or approximately so .In the
case the instantaneous acceleration and average acceleration are equal
a=(a) =v2-v1/t2-t1
For convenience let t1=0 and t2 be any arbitrary time t
Also ,let v1=v0 ( the initial velocity ) and v2=v ( the velocity at arbitrary time ) with this notation
we have
v=v0+at
● In a similar manner we can have
x=x0+V0t+½ at2
Where x0 is the position of the particle at initial time .

● Finally ,from this two equations we can obtain expression that does not contain time
v2=v2+2a(X-x0)
 ● These equations may be used to solve any problem in one -dimensional motion with
constant acceleration .

Freely Falling Objects -

● All objects dropped near the surface of the Earth in the absence of air resistance fall
toward the Earth with the same nearly constant acceleration .
● We denote the magnitude of free -fall acceleration as g .
● The magnitude of free fall acceleration decreases with increasing altitude .Furthermore
,slight variations occur with latitude .At the surface of the earth the magnitude is
approximately 9.8m/s2 .The vector is directed downward toward the center of the
Earth.
● Free-Fall acceleration is an important example of straight line motion with constant
acceleration .
 ● When air resistance is negligible ,even a feather and an apple fall with the same
acceleration regardless of their masses .

Examples -
● At t =0 ,a particle moving along an x axis is at position -20m. The signs of the particle’s
initial velocity and constant acceleration are ,respectively ,for four situations
(a) +,+
(b) +,-
(c) -,+
(d) -,-
In which situation will the particle -
(a) Undergo a momentary stop
(b) Definitely pass through the origin ( given enough time )
(c) Definitely not pass through the origin ?
x=x0+v0t+½ at2 v=v0+at

(a) Undergo a momentary stop :+,- and -,+

Initial velocity and constant acceleration must have opposite signs .

(b) Definitely pass through and origin ( given enough time) : +,+ and -,+
Constant acceleration and initial position must have opposite signs .

( c) Definitely not pass through the Origin :-,-

Constant acceleration and initial position must have the same sign ,and initial Velocity
must not have opposite signs with high magnitude .

● To measure your reaction time ,have a friend hold a ruler vertically between your index
finger and [Link] the position of the ruler with respect to your index finger .Your
friend must release the ruler and you must catch it ( without moving your hand
downward) .Repeat the measure and average your results and calculate your reaction
time t.( For most people , the reaction time is at best about 0.2s)
The ruler falls through a distance -
d=½ gt2, g=9.8 m /s2

● A car travelling initially at +7.0 m/s accelerates at the rate of +0.8m/s2 for an interval of
2.0 s .What is its velocity at the end of the acceleration ?
U=u0+at=+7.0m/s+).8m/s2.2.0s=8.6m/s
 ● Jules Verne in 1865 proposed sending men to the Moon by firing a space capsule from a
220-m -long cannon with final velocity of 10.97 km/s .What would have been the
unrealistically large acceleration experienced by the space travelers during lunch ?
d=220 m
u=10.97km/h=10.97.10m/s
a=?
u2=U2+2a(x-x0)
=2ad
a=u2/2d=(10.97.10m/s)2 /2.20m
=2.7.10m/s2
~2.8.10g

● A ranger in a national park is driving at 60km /h when a deer jumps into the road 50 m
ahead of the vehicle . After a reaction time of t1 ,the ranger applies the brakes to
produce an acceleration of a =-3m/s2 .
What is the maximum reaction time allowed if she avoids hitting the deer?
u0=+60km/h=16.7m/s
L=50m
a=-3m/s2
t1=?
t2 = u/a=-u0/a
=5.56s
L1=u0t1
L2=u0t2+½ at2
L=L1+L2=u0(t1+t2)+½ at2
t1=L-1/2at2-u0t2/u0
=0.22 s

● A peregrine falcon dives at a pigeon .The falcon starts downward from rest and falls with
free -fall acceleration .If the pigeon is 76m below the initial position of the falcon , how
long does it take the falcon , how long does it take the falcon to reach the pigeon ?
Assume that the pigeon remains at rest .
L=76m
t=?
L=½ gt2
t=21/g =2.76m/9.8m/s2=3.9s

Two Dimensional Motion -

 ● In one dimensional motion the vector nature of some physical quantities was taken into
account through the use of the positive (+) and Negative (-) signs .
● In two dimensional motion there are infinite possibilities for the vector directions .So we
must make use of vectors .
● Position r=xi+yi+zi
● Displacement : r=r2-r1
● Average velocity :(u) = r/ t=Uxi+Uyi+Uzi where Ux= x/ t,Uy= y/ t ,Uz= z/ t
● Average acceleration :(a) = u/ t= t =axi+ayi+azi, where ax = ux/ t,ay
= uy/ t,az= uz/ t
● Instantaneous velocity ( instantaneous acceleration ) is defined as the limit of the
average velocity ( Average acceleration ) where t goes to zero .

Projectile Motion -

● We next consider a special case of two -dimensional motion : a particle moves in a

vertical plane with some initial velocity u0 but its acceleration is always the free fall
acceleration ,which is downward .Such motion is called projectile motion .( It might be
golf ball in flight ) .
● Initial velocity can be written as -
 u0=ux0i+uy0i
=u0cos0oi+u0sin0oi

● The Horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent of each other ; that is
,neither motion affects the other .

● The acceleration in the x direction is 0 ( air resistance is neglected ) , so u0x remains

constant and horizontal position of the projectile is -
x=x0+ux0t

● The acceleration in the y direction is -g and we have -

y=y0+uy0t-½ gt2
Uy=uy0-gt

● We can find the equation of the projectile’s path ( its trajectory ) By eliminating t
y=(tan0o)x -(tan0o)x -gx2/2(u0c0s0)2
For simplicity we let x0=0 and y0=0

Examples -

● A 2.00 -m- tall basketball player wants to make a goal from the basket ,as in figure .If he
shoots the ball at 45 degree angle ,at what initial speed must he throw the basketball so
that it goes through the hoop without striking the backboard ?
● x=10 m
 y=3.05m-2m =1.05 m
𝚹०= 45 degree
u0=?
y=(tan 0)x -gx2/2(u0cos 0)2
u0=x/cos 0 √g/2(x tan -y )
=10 m/s

Exercises -
● Soft drinks are commonly sold in aluminium containers .Estimate the number of such
containers thrown away each year by consumers in your country .Approximately how
many tons of aluminium does this represent ?
● Estimate your age in seconds .
● Estimate the volume of gasoline used by all cars in your country each year .
● One cubic meter (1m3 ) of aluminium has a mass of 2.7.10kg and 1m3 of iron has a mass
of 7.86 .10*10*10 kg . find the radius of an aluminium sphere whose mass is the same
as that of an iron sphere of radius 2 cm .
( Note -Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume p=m/v)
● A hamburger chain advertises that it has sold more than 50 billion hamburgers .Estimate
how many heads of cattle were required to furnish the meat .
● Estimate your average speed and average velocity for the whole day .
● A person walks first at a constant speed of 5m/s along a straight line from point A to
point B and then back along the line from B to A at a constant speed 3m/s . What is her
average speed over the entire trip and what is her average velocity over the entire trip ?
(A:3.75m/s;0m/s)
● A ball thrown vertically upward is caught by the thrower after 2s .Find the initial velocity
of the ball and the maximum height it reaches .
(A:9.8m/s;4.9m)
● A parachutist with a camera , both descending at a speed of 10m/s ,releases that
camera at an altitude of 50 m .How long does it take the camera to reach the ground
,and what is the velocity of the camera just before it hits the ground ?
(A:2.33s;-32.9m/s)
 ● The record for a ski jump is 180 m set in 1989 .Assume the jumper comes off the end of
the ski jump horizontally and falls 90m vertically before contacting the ground .What
was the initial horizontal speed of the jumper ?
(A:42m/s)
● Indiana Jones is trapped in a maze . To find his way out ,he walkes 10m ,makes 90
degree right turn, walks 4m , makes another 90 degree turn , walks 7 m .What is his
displacement from his initial position ?
(A:5m)
● A pirat ship 560 m from a fort defending the harbor entrance of an island . A defense
cannon , located at see level ,fires balls at the angles of 63 degree and 27 degree . What
is the initial speed of the ball ?
( A:82m/s)

The Concept of Force -

 ● Classical mechanics describes the relationship between the motion of an object and the
force acting on it .
● There are conditions under which classical mechanics does not apply .Most often these
conditions are encountered when dealing with objects whose size is comparable to that
of atoms or smaller and / or which move at speed of light .
1. If the speeds of the interacting objects are very large ,we must replace classical
mechanics with Einstein's special theory of relativity ,which holds at any speed
,including those near the speed of light .
2. If the interacting bodies are on the scale of atomic structure , we must replace Classical
mechanics with quantum mechanics .
3. Classical mechanics is a special case of these two more comprehensive theories .But
,still it is a very important special case because it applies to the motion of objects
ranging in size from the very small to astronomical .
● The concept of force -
1. Force is an interaction that can cause deformation and/or change of motion of an
object.
2. Force is a vector quantity
3. Fundamental forces are -
(a) Gravitational
(b) Electromagnetic
(c) Weak nuclear
(d) Strong nuclear
Newton’s First Law -
 ● Before Newton formulated his mechanics ,it was thought that some influence was
needed to keep a body moving at constant velocity .A body was thought to be in its
“Natural state” when it was at rest .
● Galileo was the first to take a different approach .He concluded that it is not the nature
of an object to stop once set in motion .This approach to motion was later formalized by
Newton in a form that has come to be known as Newton's first law of motion .
“ An object at rest remains at rest ,and an object in motion continues in motion with
constant velocity , unless it experiences a net external force “ .
● Newton’s first law says that when the net external force on an object is zero , its
acceleration is zero .

●
● Inertial Reference Frames -
1. Newton’s first law is not true in all reference frames , but we can always find reference
frames in which it is true .Such Frames are called inertial reference frames ,or simply
inertial frames .
2. An internal reference frame is one in which Newton's laws hold .
3. Other frames are noninertial frames .

Mass and Inertia -

● The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its motion is called the inertia
of the object .
● Mass is a measurement of Inertia .
● The greater the mass of a body , the less it accelerates under the action of an applied
force .
● Mass is a scalar quantity that obeys the rules of ordinary arithmetic .
● Mass is an intrinsic characteristic of a body - that is a characteristic that automatically
comes with the existence of the body .It has no definition . The mass of a body is the
characteristic that relates a force on the body to the resulting acceleration .
 ● The SI unit of mass is the kilogram ( 1 Kg) .
● For Example , if a given force acting on a 3 kg mass produces an acceleration of only
2m/s2 .
● Inertia is the principle that underlies the operation of seat belts and air bags .

Newton’s Second Law -

● Newton’s first law explains what happens to an object when the net force acting on it is
zero .Newton’s second law answers the question of what happens to an object that has
nonzero force acting on it .
● From observations ,we can conclude that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it ,and these observations are summarized in
Newton’s Second Law
“The net force on a body is equal to the product of the body’s mass and the acceleration
of the body “
In Equation form -
F = ma
Where F represents the vector sum of all external forces acting on the object ,m is its mass ,
and a is the acceleration of the object .
● This equation is a vector equation ,and it is equivalent to three component equations -
Fx =max fy =may fz=maz
● The SI unit of force is the Newton( 1N =1kgm/s2)

Some Particular Forces -

● The Gravitational force and Weight -
(a) The force exerted by the Earth object is the gravitational force Fg .
(b) This force is directed approximately toward the center of the Earth and its magnitude
varies with location .
(c) The magnitude of the gravitational force is called the weight of the object
W=Fg=mg
Where g is the magnitude of the free -fall acceleration .
(d) Weight is not an inherent property of an object .

● The Normal force -

1. If you stand on a mattress ,Earth pulls you downward , but you are stationary .The
reason is that the mattress , because it deformes ,pushes up on you .This force from the
matter is called a normal force .
2. The normal force is perpendicular to the surface .
● The Frictional Force -
1. If we side or attempt to slide a body over a surface ,the motion is resisted by a bonding
between the body and the surface .The resistance is considered to be a single force
called the frictional force Ff
2. This force is very important in our everyday lives .They allow us to walk or run and are
necessary for the motion of wheeled vehicles .
3. The frictional force is directed along the surface , opposite the direction of the intended
motion .
4. For an object in motion the frictional force we call kinetic frictional force ;otherwise
static frictional force .
5. Both kinetic and static fictional force are proportional to the normal force acting on the
object .
Ff,s,max = sFn Ff,k= kFn
Where s, k are coefficients of static and kinetic friction .

● The Tension force -

(a) When a cord is attached to an object and pulled taut , the cord pulls on the object with
the force Ft called a tension force .
(b) The force is directed away from the object and along the cord .

● The Spring Force -

(a) A good approximation for many springs the force F from a spring is proportional to the
displacement d of the free end from its position when the spring is in the relaxed state .
F =-kd
(b) This is known as Hooke’s law .
(c) The minus sign indicates that the spring force is always opposite in direction from the
displacement of the free end .
(d) The constant k is called the spring constant
● It is a measure of the stiffness of the spring .The larger k is ,the stiffer the spring .
(e) Note that a spring force is a variable force .

Newton’s Third law

(a) A force is exerted on an object when that object comes into contact with some other
object .
(b) Newton recognized that forces in nature always exist in pairs .He described this type of
situation in terms of his third law of motion .
“When two objects interact , the force on the object from are always equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction .
 ● For example , the force acting on a freely falling projectile is the force of the Earth on
the projectile ,and the magnitude of this force is [Link] reaction to this force is the
force of the projectile on the Earth .The reaction force must accelerate the Earth toward
the projectile .However , because the Earth has such a large mass ,its acceleration due
to this reaction force is negligibly small .

Examples -
● Four forces act on an object , given Fa = 40 N east ,Fb=50 N North ,Fc = 70 N west ,and
Fd =90 N south .What is the magnitude of the net force on the object ?

● A child holds a sled at rest on a frictionless snow covered hill .If sled weight 77 N ,Find
the force exerted on the rope by the child and the force on the sled by the hill .
Applying the condition for equilibrium (a=0) to the sled ,we find that
Fx =Ft-fg sin 30 °=0
Ft=Fgsin30°=(77 N ) sin30°=38.5N
fy=Fn-Fg cos30°=0
Fn=Fg cos30°=66.7N
 What happens to the normal force as the angle of incline increases ?
● It decreases
When is the magnitude of the normal force equal to the weight of the sled ?
● When the sled is on a horizontal surface and the applied force is either zero or
along the horizontal .

● You are playing with your younger sister in the snow . She is sitting on a sled and asking
you to slide her across a flat ,horizontal field .You have a choice of Pushing her from
behind , by applying a force at 30 ° below the horizontal or attaching a rope to the front
of the sled and pulling with a force at 30 ° above the horizontal . Which would be easier
for you and why ?
It is easier to attack the rope and pull . In this case , there is a component of your
applied force that is upward . This reduces the normal force between the sled and the
snow .In turn, this reduces the friction force between the sled and the snow , making it
 easier to move .If you push from behind ,with a force downward component ,the
normal force is larger ,the friction force is larger ,and the sled is harder to move .

Exercises -

● An object has only one force acting on it . Can it be at rest ? Can it have an acceleration
?
If a single force acts on it , the object must accelerate . If an object accelerates ,at least
one force must act on it .

● An object has zero acceleration .Does this mean that no forces act on it ?
If an object has no acceleration ,you cannot conclude that no forces act on it .In this
case , you can only say that the net force on the object is zero .

● Is it possible for an object to move if no net force acts on it ?

Motion can occur in the absence of a net force .Newton's first law holds that an object
will continue to move with a constant speed and in a straight line if there is no net force
acting on it .

● What force causes an automobile to move ?

The force causing an automobile to move is the force of friction between the tires and
the roadway as the automobile attempts to push the roadway backward .

● What force causes a propeller airplane to move ?

The force driving a propeller airplane forward is the reaction force of the air on the
propeller as the rotating propeller pushes the air backward .

● What force causes a rowboat to move ?

In a rowboat , the rower pushes the water backward with the oars .The water pushes
forward on the oars and hence the boat.

● In a tug -of -war between two athletes , each pulls on the rope with a force of 200
[Link] is the tension in the rope ?
The tension in the rope is the maximum force that occurs in both directions .In this case
, then because both are pulling with the force of 200 N , the tension is 200 N .

● Identify the action reaction pairs in the following situations : a man takes a step ; a gust
of wind strikes a window .
 As a man takes a step , the action is the force his foot exerts on the Earth ; the reaction
is the force of the Earth on his foot . As a gust of wind strikes a window , the action is
the force exerted on the window by the air molecules ;the reaction is the force on the
air molecules exerted by the window .

● Suppose you are driving a car at a high speed .Why should you avoid slamming on your
brakes when you want to stop in the shortest possible distance ?
The brakes may look and the car will slide farther than it would if the wheels continued
to roll because the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static
friction .Hence the force of kinetic friction is less than the maximum force of static
friction .

● An object has a mass of 6 kg and acceleration of 2 m/s2 .what is the magnitude of the
resulting force acting on it ?
F=ma=(6kg) .(2/s2) =12 N

● The force of the wind on the sails of a sailboat is 390 N north . The water exerts force of
180 N east . If the boat has a mass of 270 kg ,what are the magnitude and direction of its
acceleration ?
F =√ f2wind + f2 water =√(390N)2+(180N)2 =429.5N
a= F/m=1.59m/s2
= arctan fwind /fwater =65.2°north of east

● A coin of mass m at rest on a book that has been tilted at an angle with the horizontal
.By experiment ,when is increased to 15°,the coin is on the verge of slidimg down the
book , which means that even a slight increase beyond 15°produces sliding .What is the
coefficient of static friction s between the coin and the book ?
Fs,max = sFn
Fn=mgcos
 Fs,max =mgsin
s =mgsin /mgcos
=tan = tan 15 °= 0.27

● A house is built on the top of a hill with a nearby 45 ° slope . An engineering study
indicates that the slope angle should be reduced because the top layers of soil along the
slope might slip past the lower layers .If the static coefficient of friction between two
such layers is 0.5 ,what is the least angle through which the present slope should be
reduced to prevent slipping ?
( A : > 18.4 °)
=mgsin / mg cos
=tan
=arctan
= 26.6 °
= 45°-
= 18.4 °

The concept of energy is one of the most important in the world of science .In everyday use
,the term energy has to do with the cost of fuel for transportation and heating ,electricity for
lights and appliances , and the foods we consume .
Energy is present in the Universe in a variety of forms , including mechanical energy ,chemica;
energy ,electromagnetic energy ,nuclear energy and many others .Here we are concerned only
with mechanical energy ,and begin by defining work .
 ● Work
We see an object that undergoes a displacement of d along a straight line which acted
on by a constant force F , that makes an angle of

The Work W done on an object by a constant force F during a displacement is defined as the
product of the component of the force along the direction of displacement and the magnitude
of the displacement .
W =( F cos ) d

● As an example of the distinction between this definition of work and our everyday
understanding of the word , consider holding book at arm’s length .After 5 minutes
,your tried arms may lead you to think that you have done a considerable amount of
[Link] to our definition ,however ,you have done no work on the book. Your
muscles are continuously contracting and relaxing while the book is being supported
.Thus ,work is being done on your body, but not on the book .
● A force does not work depending on an object if the object does not move .
● The sign of the work depends on the angle between the force and displacement .
● Work is a scalar quantity , and its units is joule ( 1 J = 1 Nm)
● For example ,a man cleaning his apartment pulls the canister of a vacuum cleaner with a
force of magnitude 50 N at an angle 30 ° .He moves the vacuum cleaner a distance of 3
m .Calculate the work done by the force .
W =Fcos d =(50N) ( cos 30 °) ( 3 m)
= 130 J
Kinetic Energy -
Figure shows an object of mass m moving to the right under the action of a constant net force
,F
The work done by F is
W= Fd = ( ma ) d =½ mu2-½ mv2
The quantity ½ mu2 has a special name in physics : kinetic energy .Any object of mass m and
speed u is defined to have a kinetic Energy Ek,of -
Ek =½ mu2
We see that it is possible to Write W as W =Ek2-Ek1

Example -
● A car with mass of 1400 kg has a net forward force of 4500 N applied to it .The car starts
from rest and travels down a horizontal highway . What are its kinetic energy and speed
after it has traveled 100 m? ( Ignore friction and air resistance)
The work done by the net force on the car is -
W=Fd=(4500N) (100m) =4.5.10*10*10*10*10 J
This work all goes into changing the kinetic energy is also Ek =4.5.10*10*10*10*10 J
The speed of the car can be found from
Ek =½ mu2
u=√2Ek/m=√2(4.5.10*10*10*10*10 J) /1400 kg
=25.4 m/s

Gravitational Potential Energy -

Let us examine the work done by a gravitational force .
As an object falls freely in a gravitational field , the field exerts a force on it , doing positive
work on it and thereby increasing its kinetic energy .
Consider an object of mass m at an initial height h1 above the ground . As the object falls , the
only force that does work ( we neglect air resistance ) on it is the gravitational force , mg .
The work done by the gravitational force as the object undergoes a downward from the
position of h1 to h2
Wg=mgh1-mgh2
We define the quantity mgh to be gravitational potential energy Epg
Epg=mgh

Conservative and nonconservative Forces -

● Conservative Forces -
(a) A force is conservative if the work it does on an object moving between two points is
independent of the path the object takes between the points; in other words , the work
done on an object by a conservative force depends only on the initial and final positions
of the object .
(b) The gravitational force is conservative .
 ● Nonconservative forces -
(a) A force is nonconservative if it leads to a dissipation of mechanical energy .
(b) If you moved an object on a horizontal surface ,returning it to the same location and
same state of motion , but found it necessary to do net work on the object , then
something must have dissipated the energy transferred to the object . That dissipative
force is recognized as friction between object and surface .
(c) Friction force is a nonconservative force .

Conservation of Mechanical Energy -

● Conservative principles play a very important role in physics and conservation of energy
is one of the most important .
● Let us assume that the only force doing work on the system is conservative .In this case
we have -
W=Ep1-Ep2=Ek2-Ek1
Ek1+Ep1=Ek2+Ep2
● The total mechanical energy in any isolated system of objects remains constant if the
objects interact only through conservative forces .
● This is equivalent to saying that ,if the kinetic energy of a conservative system increases
by some amount ,the potential energy of the system must decrease by some amount .
● If the gravitational force is the only force doing work on an object ,then the total
mechanical energy of the object remains constant
½ mv1 +mgh1=½ mv2 +mgh2
 ● A 77 kg diver drops from a board 10 m above the water surface .Use conservation of
mechanical energy to find his speed 5 m above the water surface .
Conservation of mechanical energy gives -
1/2mu2+mgh1=1/2mu2+mgh2
0+mgh1=½ mu2+mgh2
u2=√2mg(h1-h2) /m
=√2(77 kg) (9.8m/s2 ) (10m-5m) /77kg
=9.9 m/s2

Elastic Potential Energy -

 ● The concept of potential energy is of tremendous value in descriptions of certain types
of mechanical energy .One of these is the motion of mass attached to a stretched or
compressed spring .
● In order to compress the spring ,we must exert on the block a force of -
F =-kx
Where k is a constant for a particular spring called the spring constant .
● The force increases linearly with position .
● It is possible to find the work done by the applied force .This work is stored in the
compressed spring as elastic potential energy
Ep,e=½ kx2
● The elastic potential energy stored in the spring is zero when the spring in equilibrium
(x=0)
● Note that energy is stored in the spring when it is stretched as well .

Work and Nonconservative Forces -

In realistic situations , nonconservative forces such as friction are usually present . In such
situations , the total mechanical energy of the system is not constant .The work done by all
nonconservative forces equals the change in mechanical energy of the system
Wnc=(Ek,2+Ep,2) -( Ek,1+Ep,1)
● A 3kg crate slides down a ramp at a loading dock .The crate experiences a constant
frictional force of magnitude 5 N .Determine the speed of the crate at the bottom of the
ramp .
Wnc=Ek,2-Ep1
-Ffd=½ mu2-mgh1
u2=√2(mgh1-Ffd)/m =2.54m/s

Power -
From the practical viewpoint , it is interesting to know not only the amount of energy
transferred to or from a system , but also the rate at which the transfer occurred .
Power is defined as the time rate of energy transfer .
If an external force is applied to an object and if the work done by this force is W in the time
internal t , then the average power P during this time interval is defined as the ratio of the
work to the time interval :
P=W/ t
The units of power in SI system are joules per second , which are also called Watts ( 1 W 0
Note ,that a kilowatt -hour is a unit of energy , not power .
When you pay your electric bill , you are buying energy .
For example ,an electric bulb rated at 100 W would “consume” 3.6*10*10*10*10*10 J of
energy in 1h ,or 0.1 kWh (kilowatt -hour)
Exercise -

● A whale has a length of about 18 m .Assume that its leap from the water carries him
about half his hight out the water and that all the upward surge is achieved solely by its
speed at the instant of leaving the water .How fast was it going as it left the water ?
mv2/2=mgh2
U1 =√2gh2
=√2(9.8m/s2(9m)
=13.3 m/s

● Can the kinetic energy of an object be negative ? -No

● If the speed of a particle is doubled ,what happens to its kinetic energy ?
Ek,2=½ mu2 =½ m(2u1)2 =4 ½ mu2 =4Ek,1

● Which has the greater kinetic energy ,a 1000kg car traveling at 50 km/h or a 500 kg car
travelling at 100km /h?
u1 =50 km/h=50.1000m/3600s=13.9 m/s
Ek,1=½ m1u1=9.6.10*10*10*10 J
u2 =100km/h=100.1000m/3600s =27.8 m/s
Ek,2 =½ m2u2 =1.9.10*10*10*10*10 J
 ● Water flows over a section of Niagara falls at the rate of 1.2 .10*10*10*10*10*10kg per
second and falls 50 m .How much power is generated by the falling water ?
P=W/t
= mgh/t =5.10^8 W

● A 70 kg man normally uses about 10^7 J per day . The exact amount depending on his
physical activity .Find his metabolic rate of energy use ,Pm=E/t
Pm =E/t=10^7J/86400s =116 W

● The metabolic rate of a person engaged in a particular activity is measured determining

the amount oxygen consumed ,which reacts with carbohydrates ,Fates and protein in
the body ,releasing an average of about 2.10^4 J of energy for each liter of oxygen
consumed .How much oxygen in one minute does a person consume while sleeping (
Pm=75 m) ?
E=Pmt =(75W) (60s ) =4500 J
V =E /(2.10^4J/1) =4500J /(2.10^4 J/1)
=0.225 1

Center of Mass
● The center of mass of a body or a system of bodies is the point that moves as though all
of the mass were concentrated there and all external forces were applied there .
● System of Particles -
If n particles are distributed in three dimensions , the center of mass must be identified by
three coordinates .They are -
Xcm=1/m mixi Ycm =1/m miyi Zcm =1/m mizi
M is the total mass of the system -
M =m1+m2+M3 …..mn= mi
And xi,yi,zi are coordinates of i-th particle position .

Example -

● Three particles of masses m1 =1.2Kg ,m2 =2.5 kg and m3=3.4 kg from an equilateral
triangle of edge length a = 140 cm . Where is the center of mass of this three -particle
system ?
The three particles have the following coordinates : 1.2 kg ;(0,0) ; 2.5 kg : (140 cm ,0)
;3.4 kg :(70 cm, 121cm) .The total mass of the system is M =m1+m2 +m3 =7.1 kg .The
coordinates of the center of mass are -
Xcm=1/M mixi
=(1.2 kg) (0) +(2.5kg )(140cm ) +(3.4kg) (70cm) /7.1 kg
Ycm =1/M miyi
=(1.2kg)0+(2.5kg) (0) +(3.4 kg) ( 121cm) / 7.1 kg
=58cm
 ● Three thin rods , each of length L ,are arranged in an inverted U .The two rods on the
arms of the U each have mass m;the third rod has mass 3m .Where is the center of mass
of the assembly ?
Xcm =1/M mixi
=(m)(0) +(3m)(L/2) +(m) (L) /5m =½ L
Ycm = 1/M miyi
= (m) ( L/2) +(3m) (L) +(m) (L/2) /5m =⅘ L

Linear Momentum
● The linear momentum of an object of mass m moving with a velocity v is defined as the
product of the mass and velocity
P =mv
Momentum is a vector quantity ,with its direction matching that of the velocity .
● Often we will work with the components of momentum .for two dimensional motion ,
these are :
Px=mvx. Py =mvy
● Newton didn’t write the second law as F =ma but as
F =Change in momentum /time interval = p/ t
Where t is the time interval during which the momentum changes [Link] expression is
equivalent to F =ma for an object of constant mass .

Example -
 ● A penguin stands at the left edge of a uniform sled of length L ,which lies on frictionless
ice .The sled and penguin equal masses .(a) Where is the center of mass of the sled ? (b)
How far and in what direction is the center of the sled from the center of mass of the
sled -penguin system ?
The penguin then waddles to the right edge of the sled and the sled slides on the ice (c )
Does the center of mass of the sled -penguin system move leftward , rightward or not at
all ?
(a) At the center of the sled
(b) Xcm=(m.0+ml/2)/(2m) =L/4
(c) Not at all ( no net external force )

Impulse -
● Newton’s second Law F=( p)/( t) can be written as
F t= p
The term F t is called the impulse of the force F for the time interval t . We see that the
impulse of the force acting on an object equals the change in momentum of the object .
● To change the momentum of an object we should consider the impulse , that is the
amount of force and the time of contact .
● For example , think about what you do when you jump from a high position to the
ground . As you strike the ground ,you bend you knees .If you were to land on the
ground with your legs locked ,you would receive a painful shock in your legs as well as
along your spine . The lending is much less painful if you bend your knees .By bending
your knees , the change in momentum occurs over a longer time interval than with the
knees locked .Thus ,the force on the body is less than with the knees locked .

Linear Momentum of a system of Particle -

● Now consider a system of n particles ,each with its own mass ,velocity and linear
momentum .The particle may interact with each other and external force may act on
them as well . The system as whole has a total linear momentum p as a sum of the
individual particles linear momentum
p=p1+p2+.....pn
=m1u1+m2u2…….mnun= miui
=MUcm
Where M =m1+......+mn is the total mass of the system and
Ucm=1/M(m1u1+........+mnun)
The velocity of the center of mass .
Newton’s Second Law -
● It is possible to prove that equation that governs that motion of the center of mass of
system of Particles is -
Fnet=Macm
Where Fnet is the net force of all external forces that act on the system ( not internal forces )
acm is the acceleration of the center of mass .We assume that no mass enters or leaves the
system ( the system is closed ) .This equation gives no information about the acceleration of
any other point of the system .This equation is equivalent of three equations involving
components ,
Fx=Macm,x, Fx=Macm,x, Fx=Macm,x,
● For a nonclosed system of particles it is possible to derive the following expression
Fnet = p/ t
Which is a generalization of the single -particle Newton’s Second law .

Example -

● In a particular crash test , a 1.5.10^3 kg automobile collides a wall .The initial and final
velocities of the automobile are ui=-15.0m/s and uf =+2.6m/s ,respectively .if the
collision lasts for 0.15s ,find the impulse due to the collision and the average force
exerted on the automobile .
The initial and Final linear moments of the automobile are -
pi=mui=(1.5.10^3kg ) ( -15.0m/s) =-2.25.10^4 kgm/s
 pf=muf=(1.5.10^3 kg) ( 2.6m/s) =+0.39.10^4kgm/s
Hence , the impulse ,which equals the change the momentum is
F t =pf-pi=(+0.39.10^4kgm/s) -(-2.25.10^4kgm/s)
=+2.64.10^4kg m/s
And average force is
F= p/ t =+2.64.10^4kg m/s /0.15s =+1.76.10^5 N

Conservation of linear Momentum -

● Suppose that the net external force acting on a system of Particle is zero ( the system is
isolated) and that no particles leave or enter the system (the system is closed ) .from the
previous we have
p=0 or p=const
In words we say ,if no net external force acts on a system of particles ,the total linear
momentum p of the system can not change .This result is called the law of conversation of
linear momentum .it means that the total linear momentum at some initial time is equal to the
total one at some later time .
● Depending on the forces acting on a system , linear momentum might be conserved in
one or two directions but not in all [Link] ,we see that if the component of
the net external force on a closed system is zero an axis , then the component of the
linear momentum of the system along that axis cannot change .

Collisions -
● A collision is an isolated event in which two or more bodies exert relatively strong forces
on each other for a relatively short time .
● We must be able to distinguish times that are before ,during ,and after a collision
.During the collision the force on object with mass m1 due to m2 is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the force on m2 due to m1 .The momentum of each object
changes as a result of the collision , but the total momentum of the system remains
constant .We can say for any type of collision , the total momentum of the system just
before collision equals the total momentum just after collision .
Type of Collision -
● We see that the momentum is always conserved for any type of collision . However , the
total kinetic energy is generally not conserved ,because some of kinetic energy is
converted to thermal energy or internal potential energy when the objects deform .
● An inelastic collision is a collision in which momentum is conserved , but kinetic energy
is not .
● A perfectly inelastic collision is an inelastic collision in which the two objects stick
together after the collision , so that their final velocities are the same and the
momentum of the system is conserved .
● An elastic collision is one in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved .
Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are limiting cases . Most actual collisions fall into
a category between them .

Example -
● A 80 kg man stands in the middle of a frozen pond of radius 5 m .He is unable to get to
the other side because of a lack of friction between his shoes and the ice .To overcome
this difficulty ,he throws his 1.2 kg coat horizontally toward the nord shore ,at a speed of
5m/s .How long does it take him to reach the south shore ?
0=mcvc-mmvm
vm=mcvc/mm=(1.2kg) (5m/s)/80kg
=0.075m/s
t=d/vm =5m/0.075m/s =66.67s
 ● Meteor Crater in Arizona is thought to have been formed by the impact of a meteor
with Earth some 2000years ago .The mass of the meteor is estimated at 5 .10^10 kg
,and its speed at 7200m/s .What speed would such a meteor give earth in a head on
collision ? ( Mass of Earth is 6.10^24kg)

pm+pe=const
mmum+0=(mm+me)v
v=mm/mm+me*vm
~ mm/me*vm
=5.10^10kg /6.10^24kg =7200m/s =6.10-^11 m/s

● The blocks side without Friction (a) What is the velocity v of the 1.6kg block after the
collision ? (b) Is the collision elastic ?

m1v1,i +m2v2,i=m1vi,f+m2v2,f
v1f =m1u1+m2v2-m2v2f/m1
= (1.6kg)(5.5m/s)+(2.4kg)(2.5m/s)-(2.4kg)(4.9m/s)/1.6kg
=+1.9m/s
m1v1,i/2 +m2v2,i/2 =m1vif/2 +m2v2f/2
=24.4J+7.5J=2.888J +28.812J
This collision is elastic

Angular Position -

● We wish to examine the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis .A rigid body is a body
that can rotate with all its parts locked together and without any change in its shape
.We deal with the angular equivalents of the linear quantities : position ,displacement
velocity and acceleration .

The angular position of some fixed line in the body ,perpendicular to the rotation axis ,is the
angle of the line relative to the fixed direction .Measured in radians (rad) it is defined as to the
fixed direction .Measured in radians (rad) it is defined as
=s/r
Where s is the length of are along a circle and between the reference line and the fixed line in
the body ,r is the radius of that circle .( 1 rad =180 ° / ~57.3°)

Example -
● The rotor on a helicopter turns at an angular speed of 320 revolutions per minute
.Express this in radians per second
320*rev/min =320*2 rad /60s =10.7 rad /s =33.6 rad/s

● A wheel has a radius of 4.1m .How far ( path length ) does a point on the circumference
travel if the wheel is rotated through angle of 30 °and 30 rad ,respectively ?
s1=r =(4.1m) (30°* rad/180°) =2.14m
s2=r =(4.1m) (30 rad ) =123 m

Angular Acceleration -
 ● If the body rotates about the rotational axis changing the fixed line in the body from 1
to 2 ,the body undergoes an angular displacement given by -
= 2- 1

The average angular velocity w of rotating rigid body is the ratio of the angular displacement to
the time interval
w= 2- 1/t2-t1 = / t

By analogy with linear velocity ,instantaneous angular velocity ,w ,is defined as the limit of the
average speed as the time interval approaches zero -
w=lim* / t

Angular velocity has the units rad/s . We shall take w to be positive when increasing and
negative when is decreasing . The magnitude of an angular velocity is called the angular speed .

Angular Acceleration -
● If the angular velocity of a rotating body is not constant ,then the body has an angular
acceleration . let w1 and w2 be its angular velocities at time t1 and t2 , respectively .The
average angular acceleration of the rotating body in the interval from t1 to t2 is defined
as -
a= w2-w1/t2-t1 = w/ t

The instantaneous angular acceleration is the limit of the average angular acceleration as the
time interval t approaches zero
a =lim * w/ t
Angular acceleration has the units rad /s2
When a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis every partition of the object has the same angular
velocity and the same angular acceleration .This is what makes these variables so useful for
describing rotational motion .
Rotation With Constant Angular Acceleration -
● We developed a set of kinematic equations for linear motion under constant
acceleration .The same procedure can be used to derive a similar set of equations for
rotational motion under constant angular acceleration .The resulting equations for
rotational kinematics ,with the corresponding equations for linear motion ,are as follow
-

Rotational Motion Linear Motion

w=w0+at w=v0+at

= 0+w0t+½ at2 x=x0+Vat+½ at2

w2=w2+2a( - 0) v2=v2+2a(x-x0)

Variables 0,x0,w0and v0 are all initial angular position , linear position angular velocity and
linear velocity ,respectively . Note the one -to -one correspondence between the rotational
equations involving the angular variables ,w and a and the equations of linear motion
involving the variables x,v and a

Relations between Angular and Linear Quantities -

● When a rigid body rotates around an axis , each particle in the body moves in its own
circle around that axis , Since the body is rigid ,all the particles make one revolution in
the same amount of time , that is ,they all have the same angular displacement ,angular
velocity and angular acceleration .
The linear variables for a particular point in a rotating body are relate to the angular
variables by the perpendicular distance r
V=wr ( The magnitude of tangential velocity )
at=ar ( Tangential component of acceleration )
ac=v2/r =w2r ( radial component of acceleration (or centripetal ) )
The radial component ac of linear acceleration ( or centripetal acceleration ) is present
whenever the angular velocity of the body is not zero .The tangential component at is present
whenever the angular acceleration is not zero .

Examples -
● A compact disc is designed such as the read head moves out from the center of the disc
, the angular speed of the disc changes so that the linear speed at the position of the
 head will always be at a constant value about 1.3 m/s .find the angular speed of the disc
when the read head is at a distance of 5 cm from the center .
w1 =v/r1=1.3m/s/0.05m =26 rad/s

● A machine part rotates at an angular velocity of 0.6rad/s ; its value is then increased to
2.2 rad/s at an angular acceleration of 0.7 rad/s2 .Find the angle through which the part
rotates before reaching this final velocity .
w=w0+at =w0t +½ at2
=½ w2-w0/2a =½ (2.2rad/s)2-0.6rad/s)2 /o.7rad/s2=3.2rad

Torque

● Consider the wrench pivoted about the axis OThe applied force acts at an angle of
The tendency of a force to rotate a body about some is measured by a quantity called the
torque . The torque has magnitude .
T=F r sin
If two or more forces are acting on an object , then each has a tendency to produce a rotation
about the pivot O . We shall use the convention that the sign of torque resulting from a force is
positive if its turning tendency is counterclockwise and negative if its turning tendency is
clockwise .
 ● As an example , find the torque produced by the 300 N force applied at an angle 60°to
the door ,as in figure .
t= f r sin =(300 N) ( 2m) sin60°= 520 Nm

Moment of inertia
 ● We define the moment of inertia of a body with respect to the axis of rotation as
follows.
I = miri
Where mi is the mass of the i th particle and ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith particle
from the given rotation axis .The sum is taken over all the particles in the body .
The moments of inertia about an axis through its center for some common shapes are given
without proof ( integral calculus are required ) .
Newton’s Second Law for Rotation -
● It is possible to prove that the angular acceleration of an object is proportional to the
net torque acting on it .The proportional constant between them is the moment of
inertia .
tnet=Ia
It is important to note that this equation is the rotational counterpart to Newton’s second law
Fnet =ma . We now see that force and Mass in linear motion correspond to torque and moment
of inertia in rotational motion .
If we define the product of the angular velocity and the moment of inertia
L=Iw
As the angular momentum of the object , then we can write
Tnet =Change in angular momentum/ time interval = L/ t

Conservation of Angular Momentum -

● When the net external torque acting on the system is zero , we see from Newton's
Second Law for rotation that the rate of change of the system’s angular momentum is
zero .
L =0
The angular momentum of a system is conserved when the net external torque acting on the
system is zero . That is ,when Tnet =0 , the initial angular momentum equals the final angular
momentum . The magnitude of angular velocity increases when the skater pulls her arms close
to her body ,demonstrating the angular momentum is conserved .

Rotational Kinetic Energy -

● We defined the kinetic energy of a particle moving through space with a velocity v as
the quantity ½ mv2 .Analogously ,a body rotating about some axis with an angular
velocity w has rotational kinetic energy given by
Ek,r =½ Iw2
To prove this , consider a rigid plane body rotating .The body consists of many small particles
.All this particles rotate in circular paths about the axis .The total kinetic energy of the body is
the sum of all the kinetic energies associated with all the particles making up the body .
Ek,r = (½ mivi) = ( ½ mir2w2 )
= ½ ( miri) w2
= ½ Iw2
Centripetal Forces -
● Consider a ball of mass m tied to a string of length r and being whirled in a horizontal
circular path . Let us assume that the ball moves with constant speed .Because the
velocity Changes its direction continuously during the motion , the ball experiences a
centripetal acceleration directed toward the center of motion ,with magnitude -
ac =v2t/r
The string exerts a force on the ball that makes a circular path . This force is directed along the
length of the string toward the center of the circle with magnitude of -
Fc=mv2t /r
This force we call centripetal force .Note that a centripetal force is not a new kind of force . The
name indicates the direction of the force . It can , in fact , be a frictional force , a gravitational
force , or any other force .

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation -

● In 1687 Newton published his work on the universal law of gravitation ,which states that
Every particle in the Universe attracts any other particle with a gravitational force . If the
particles have masses m1 and m2 and their centers are separated by the distance r, the
magnitude of the gravitational force between them is -
F=G*m1m2/r2
Where G is a universal constant called the constant of universal gravitation
G =6.673.10^11Nm/kg2
Assuming that Earth is a uniform sphere of mass Me,for the magnitude of gravitational
acceleration ag we find -
ag =GMe/R2E =(6.673.10^11 Nm/kg2)(6.10^24kg) /(6.37.1o^6m)2 =9.87m/s2
Examples -
● An object executes circular motion with a constant speed whenever a net force of
constant magnitude acts perpendicular to the velocity .What happens to the speed if
the force is not perpendicular to the velocity ?
An object can move in a circle even if the total force on it is not perpendicular to its
velocity , but then its speed will change .Resolve the total force into an inward radial
component and a tangential component .If the tangential force is forward , the object
will speed up ,and if the tangential force acts backward , it will slow down .

● An object moves in a circular path with constant speed .Is the object’s velocity constant
? Is its acceleration constant ? Explain .
As an object moves in its circular path with constant speed , the direction of the velocity
vector changes .Thus ,the velocity of the object is not constant .The magnitude of its
acceleration remains constant and is equal to v2/r .The acceleration vector is always
directed toward the center of the circular path .

State of Matter -
● Matter is normally classified as being in one of three states :solid ,liquid or gaseous .’
● Often the classification system is extended to include a fourth state ,referred to as a
plasma .When matter is heated to high temperatures , many of the electrons
surrounding each atom are freed from the nucleus .The resulting substance is a
collection of free electrically charged equal amounts of positive and negative charges is
a plasma .Plasma exist inside stars , for example .
● Everyday experience tells us that a solid has definite volume and shape .We also know
that a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape . Finally ,a gas has neither
definite volume nor definite shape .
● All matter consists of some distribution of atoms or molecules .

Solids -
● The atoms in a solid are held by forces that are mainly electrical ,and vibrate about
specific equilibrium positions .A vibrating atom can be viewed as being bound in its
equilibrium position by springs attached to neighboring atoms .
● Solids can be classified as being either crystalline or amorphous .A crystalline solid is one
in which the atoms have an ordered structure . For example , in the sodiumic chloride
crystal ( common table salt ) .In an amorphous solid ,such as glass , the atoms are
arranged randomly .
● For any given substance , the liquid state exists at a higher temperature than the solid
state . The intermolecular forces in a liquid are not strong enough to keep the molecules
 in Fixed positions .When an attempt is made to compress solids and liquids ,strong
repulsive atomic forces act internally to resist compression .

Deformation of Solids -
● In reality , all objects are deformable .That is ,it is possible to change the shape or / and
size of object through the application of external force .When the forces are removed ,
the object tends to return to its original shape and Size .It means that the deformation
exhibits an elastic behaviour .
● The elastic properties of solids are discussed in terms of stress and strain .Stress is
related to the force causing a deformation ; strain is a measure of the degree of
deformation .
It is found that , for sufficiently small stresses ,stress is proportional to strain and the
constant of proportionality depends on the material being deformed and the nature of
the deformation .We call this proportionality constant the elastic modulus .
Elastic modulus =Stress /strain
 Elasticity in Length -

Consider a long bar of cross -sectional area A and length L0 , clamped at one end .When an
External force F is applied along the bar ,perpendicularly to the cross section , internal forces in
the bar resist the distortion . The bar attains an equilibrium in which its length is greater than L0
and the External force is balanced by internal forces .In such a situation the bar is said to be
stressed .
We define tensile stress as the ratio of the magnitude of the external force to the cross
sectional area .The SI unit is Newton per square meter ( N/m2) ,with a special name , the pascal
( 1 Pa) .
The tensile strain in this case is defined as the ratio of the change in length L to the original
length L .
We define Young’s modulus ,Y as -
Y =Tensile stress /tensile strain =F/a/ L/L0
Applying sufficiently great stress it is possible to exceed the elastic limit .

Elasticity of Shape -
Another type of deformation occurs when a body is subjected to a force tangential to one of its
faces while the opposite face is held fixed . In this situation , the stress is called a shear stress .
We define a shear stress as the ratio of the magnitude of the external force of the tangential
force to the area of the face being sheared .
The shear strain is the ration x/h , where x is the horizontal distance the sheared face moves
and h is the height of the object .
The shear modulus ,S is defined as -
S= Shear stress /shear strain =F/A / x/h
Note that the SI units of shear modulus are pascal ( Pa ) .

Volume Elasticity
Bulk modulus characterizes the response of a substance to uniform squeezing .A body subject
to this type of deformation undergoes a change in volume but no change in shape .
The volume stress is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the change in the normal force to
the area . The volume strain is equal to the change in volume divided by the original volume .
The bulk modulus ,B is defined as -
B= volume stress / volume strain =-F/A/ V/V
Note that a negative sign is included in this defining equation so that B is positive .
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility of the material .

Density and Pressure

The density of a substance of uniform composition is defined as its mass per unit volume
p=m/V
The Si units of density are kilograms per cubic meter ( Kg/m3)
The only stress that can exist on an object submerged in a fluid is one that tends to compress
the object .The force exerted by the fluid on the object is always perpendicular to the surfaces
of the object .
The pressure ,p of the fluid is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the force to area
p=F/A
Pressure has units of pascals .

Pressure With Depth -

If a fluid is at rest ,all portions of the fluid must be in static equilibrium .Furthermore ,all points
at the same depth must be at the same pressure .
It is possible to get that the pressure ,p,at the depth of h below the surface of a liquid open to
the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric pressure p0 by the amount pgh
p=p0+pgh
Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is -
p0=1.01.10^5Pa
Example - Calculate the absolute pressure at an ocean depth of 1000 m . Assume that the
density of water is 10^3 kg /m3 and that p0=1.01.10^5 Pa
p=p0+pgh
=1.01.10^5Pa +(!0^3kg/m3) (9.8m/s2) (10^3m)
~9.9.10^6Pa

Archimedes’s Principle and Buoyant Forces

Archimeds’s principle can be stated as follows :
Any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force whose
magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body
Fb =pfVg
Where pf is the density of the fluid ,V is the volume of the displaced fluid and g =9.8 m/s2 is the
magnitude of free fall acceleration .
This upward force we call the buoyant force .This force acts vertically upward through what was
the center of gravity of the fluid before the fluid was displaced .
Fluids in Motion
When a fluid is in motion , its flow can be characterized in one of two ways .The flow is said to
be streamline , or laminar , if every particle that passes a particular point moves exactly along
the smooth path followed by particles that pass that point earlier .
In contrast , the flow of a fluid becomes irregular ,or turbulent above a certain velocity or under
any conditions that can cause abrupt changes in velocity . Irregular motions of the fluid , called
eddy currents , are characteristic in turbulent flow .
Many features a fluid motion can be understood by considering the behaviour of an ideal fluid
which satisfies the following conditions :
1. The Fluid is nonviscous ( There is no internal friction force )
2. The fluid is incompressible ( its destiny is constant )
3. The fluid motion is steady ( Velocity ,density and pressure at each point in the fluid do
not change in time )
4. The fluid moves without turbulence ( no eddy currents )

Equation of Continuity -
For a fluid flowing through a pipe of nonuniform size , the equation of continuity we can
express as -
A1v1 =A2v2
Where A1 and A2 is the cross -sectional areas ,and v1 and v2 are the speeds of the fluid at two
given locations .
We see that the product of any cross -sectional area of the pipe and the fluid speed at that
cross section is a constant . Therefore , the speed is high where the tube is constricted and low
where the tube has a larger diameter .
Bernoulli’s Equation -

As a fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross -section and elevation , the pressure changes
along the pipe .In 1738 the Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli derived a fundamental expression
that relates pressure to fluid speed and elevation .
Bernoulli’s equation is often expressed as -
p1+½ pv2+pgh1=p2+½ pv2+pgh2
Where p1 and p2 are the pressure at two given points ;v1 and v2 are speeds ;h1and h2 are
hughes of the given points .
Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the pressure p,the kinetic energy per unit volume ½
pv2,and the potential energy per unit volume pgh has the same value at all points along a tp
streamline .

Exercises -
● A typical silo on a farm has many bands wrapped around its perimeter .Why is the
spacing between successive bands smaller at the lower portitions of the silo ?
If you think of the grain stored in the silo as a fluid , the pressure the grain exerts on the
walls of the silo increases with increasing depth just as water pressure in a lake
increases with increasing depth . Thus , the spacing between bands is made smaller at
the lower portions to overcome the larger outward forces on the walls in these regions .

● Will a ship ride higher in an inland lake or in the ocean ? Why ?

According to Archimedes’s principle , the magnitude of the buoyant force on the ship is
equal to the weight of the water displaced by the ship . Because the density of salty
ocean water is greater than fresh lake water needs to be displaced to enable the ship to
float . Thus , the boat is higher in the ocean than in the inland lake .

● The heels on a pair of woman’s shoes have radii of 0.5 cm at the bottom .If 30% of the
weight of a 50kg woman is supported by each heel , find the stress on each heel
Stress =F/A =0.30mg/r2
=0.30(50kg)(9.8m/s2) /(0.5.10^-2m)2.3.14=1.87.10^6Pa

● For safety in climbing a mountaineer uses a nylon rope that is 50 m long and 1 cm in
diameter .When supporting a 90 kg climber ,the rope elongates 1.6 m .Find its Young’s
modulus .
Y=F/A/ L/L0=mg/(d/2)2 / L/L
= (90kg)(9.8m/s2) /(0.005m)2.(3.14)/(1.6m) (50m)
=3.5.10^8 Pa

● The four tires of an automobile are inflated to a gauge pressure of 2.0.10^5 Pa .Each tire
has an area of 0.024 m2 in contact with the ground .Determine the weight of the
automobile .
p=mg/A =W/a
W =pA =(2.0.10^5Pa) ( 4.(0.024m2)
=1.9.10^4N
Water is to be pumped to the top of the Empire State Building ,which is 365m high .What gauge
pressure is needed in the water line at the base of the building to raise the water to the height?
 P=pwgh=(10^3kg/m3) (9.8m/s2) ( 365m) =3.58.10^6Pa
● The density of ice is 920 kg /m3and that of seawater 1030kg/m3 .What fraction of the
total volume of an iceberg is exposed ?
mig=Fb
pigV=psg(V-Vex)
Vex/V=1-Pi/Ps=1-920kg/m3/1030kg/m3=0.107

● What is the net upward force on an airplane wing of area 20 m2 if the speed of air flow
is 300 m/s across the top of the wing and 280 m/s across the bottom ? (The density of
air 1.29 kg/m3)
pt+p*vt/2 =pt+p*vt/2
Pb-pt =p*v2t/2-pv2b/2 =P/2 (v2t-v2b)
Fnet =(pb-pt) A =p/2(v2t-v2b) A
=1.29kg/m3 /2 ((300m/s)2 -(280m/s)2)(20m2)
=1.5.10^5N

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion occurs when the force along the direction of motion is a Hooke’s Law
type of force .That is , when the net force is proportional to the displacement and in the
opposite direction .(for example ,a mass attached to a spring )
Let we define few terms -
The amplitude ,A, is the maximum distance traveled by an object away from its equilibrium
position .In the absence of friction ,an object attached to a spring continues in simple harmonic
motion and reaches a maximum displacement equal to the amplitude on each side of the
equilibrium position during each cycle .
The period ,T, is the time it takes the object to execute one complete cycle of motion .
The frequency F ,is the number of cycles or vibrations per unit of time .

Elastic Potential Energy -

We have worked with kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy .Here we will consider
elastic potential energy .
An object has potential energy by virtue of its shape or position .As we learned an object of
mass m at height h above the ground has gravitational potential energy equal to mgh .This
means that the object can do work after it is released .Likewise , a compressed spring has
potential energy by virtue of its shape . In this case , the compressed spring can move an object
and thus do work on it .
The energy stored in a stretched or compressed spring or other elastic material is called elastic
potential energy ,Ep,e , given by -
Ep,e =½ kx2
Where k is a positive constant ,and x displacement from its unstretched position .
Note that energy is stored in an elastic material only when it is either stretched or compressed .
Speed As A function of Position -
Conservation of energy provides a simple method of deriving an expression for the velocity of a
mass attached to a spring undergoing periodic motion as a function of position .Let the mass be
initially at the maximal extension and then is released from rest .As the mass moves toward the
origin to some new position x part of potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy .We
can equate energies at initial and some final position -
½ kA2=½ mv2 +½ kx2
Solving ,we get speed as a function of position
V= √K/m(A2-x2)
This expression shows us that the speed is a maximum x=0 and Zero at the extreme positions
x=A

Period and frequency -

The period ,T , represents the time required for one complete trip forth and back ( We also say
the complete cycle ) , and for the mass attached to the spring is
T =2 √m/k
Recall that the frequency ,f,is the number of cycles per unit of time .The Symmetry in the units
of period and frequency should lead you to see that the period and frequency must be related
inversely as -
 F =1/T =1/2 √k/m
The units of frequency are s-1 or hertz ( Hz) .
We define angular frequency ,w,as
w=2 f=√k/m

Position As a Function of Time

We can better understand and visualize many aspects of simple harmonic motion along a
straight line by looking at their relationships to uniform circular motion .
We find that as the turntable rotates with constant angular speed ,the shadow of the ball
moves back and forth with simple harmonic motion .The x coordinate of the ball is -
x=A cos(wt)
This equation represents the position of an object moving with simple harmonic motion as a
function of time .
The curve should be familiar to you from trigonometry .

Motion of a Pendulum -
A simple pendulum is another mechanical system that exhibits periodic motion .It consists of a
small bob of mass m suspended by a light string of length L fixed at its upper end .
The net force on the mass is proportional to sin rather than to
Ft=-mgsin
Thus , in general the motion of a pendulum is not simple harmonic .
However , for small angles , less than about 15 degrees ,sin and are approximately equal .
Therefore , for the motion with small angles ,the net force can be written as -
Ft=-mg
Recalling the period of a mass spring system ,we see that the period of a small pendulum is
T=2 √L/g
( Application : Pendulum clocks , prospecting for oil )
Damped Oscillation-
The vibrating motions we have discussed so far have taken place in ideal systems -That is
,systems that oscillate indefinitely .
In many real systems , forces of friction retard the motion ,which reduces the mechanical
energy of the system as time passes ,and the motion is said to be damped .Damped motion
varies depending on the friction forces .The amplitude of vibration decreases in time , and we
say that the system has underdamped oscillation . if the friction force is increased the mass
returns to equilibrium and does not oscillate .In the case , the system is said to be critically
damped .If the friction force is made greater still , the system is said to be overdamped .In this
case the time required to reach equilibrium is greater than at critical dampin .
Shock absorbers in automobiles make practical application of damped motion .The shock
absorbers are designed to be slightly underdamped .

Resonance -

We learned that the energy of a damped oscillator decreases in time because of friction .It is
possible to compensate for this energy loss by applying an external force that does positive
work on the system .
For example , suppose a mass spring system ,having some natural frequency of vibration ,is
pushed back and forth with a periodic force whose frequency is [Link] system vibrates at the
frequency of the driving force .This type of motion is referred to as a forced vibration .Its
amplitude reaches a maximum when the frequency of the driving force equals the natural
frequency of the system ,called the resonant frequency of the system .Under this condition ,
the system is said to be in resonance .
Resonance vibrations occur in a wide variety of circumstances ,as you can see on the figures .

Wave Motion -
There are a wide variety of physical phenomena that have Wave -like characteristics . The world
is full of waves : sound waves , waves on strings , earthquake waves , electromagnetic waves
.All of these waves have as their source a vibrating object .
Thus ,we shall use the terminology and concepts of simple harmonic motion as we move into
the study of wave motion .In the case of sound waves , the vibrations that produce waves arise
from such such as a person’s vocal cords or a plucked guitar string .The vibrations of electrons
in an antenna produce radio or television waves .
For example ,when we observe a water wave , what we see is a rearrangement of the water’s
surface .Without the water there would be no wave .A wave travelling on a string would not
exist without the string .Sound waves travel through air as a result of pressure variations from
point to point .Therefore , we can consider a wave to be the motion of a disturbance .(We Will
discuss later electromagnetic waves which do not require a medium )
Mechanical waves require :a source of disturbance , a medium that can be disturbed and
physical mechanism through which adjacent portions of the medium can influence each other .
All waves carry energy and momentum .

Types of Waves -
One of the simplest ways to demonstrate wave motion is to flip one end of a long rope that is
under tension .The Bump ( called a pulse ) travels to the right with a definite speed .A
disturbance of this type is called a travelling wave .
As a pulse travels along the rope , each segment of the rope that is disturbed moves
perpendicularly to the wave motion .A travelling wave such as this is called a transverse wave .
In another class of waves ,called longitudinal waves ,the particles of the medium undergo
displacements parallel to the direction of wave motion .Sound waves in air , for instance are
longitudinal . Their disturbance corresponds to a series of highs and material with a certain
speed .

Wavelength -

Figure illustrates a method of producing a wave on a very long string .One end of the string
.Each particle of the string (( such as P ) oscillates vertically in the y direction with simple
harmonic motion .
The maximum distance the string moves above or below the equilibrium value is called the
amplitude ,A,of the wave . For the waves we work with , the amplitudes at the crest and the
trough will be identical .
The figure illustrates the characteristics of a wave . The distance between two successive points
that behave identically is called wavelength, .
A wave will advance a distance of one wavelength in a time interval equal to one period T of
the vibration .Thus
U = /T =F

Waves on Strings -
It is easy to understand why the wave speed depends on the tension in the string .If a string
under tension is pulled sideways and released , the tension is responsible for accelerating a
particular segment back toward its equilibrium position . The acceleration and wave speed
increase with increasing tension in the string .Likewise ,the wave speed is inversely dependent
on the mass per unit length of the string . Thus wave speed is directly dependent on the tension
and inversely dependent on the mass per unit length . The exact relationship of the wave speed
v , the tension ,Ft and the mass per length ,is
v=√Ft/
We can increase the speed of a wave on a stretched string by increasing the tension in the
string .If we wrap a string with a metallic winding ,as is done to the bass strings of pianos and
guitars we decrease the speed of a transmitted wave .

Interface of waves -
Many interesting wave phenomena in nature are impossible to describe with a single moving
wave .Instead ,one must analyze what happens when two or more waves pass through the
same region of space .For such analyses one can use the superposition principle : If two or more
traveling waves are moving through a medium , the resultant wave is found by adding together
the displacement of the individual waves point by point .
One consequence of the superposition principle is that two travelling waves can pass through
each other without being destroyed or even altered .
If two waves having the same frequency and amplitude are in phase , the resultant wave when
they combine has the same frequency as the individual waves but twice their amplitude .Waves
coming together like this are said to be in phase and to undergo constructive interference .
When two waves with the same frequency and amplitude are inverted ( 180°out of Phase ) one
to the other , the result when they combine is complete cancellation .Waves undergo
destructive interface .
Reflection of Waves -
Whenever a travelling wave reaches a boundary, part or all of the wave is reflected. For
example, consider a pulse travelling on a string that is fixed at one end. When the pulse reaches
the wall, it is reflected. Note, that the reflected pulse is inverted (according to Newton's third
law).
In a case in which the pulse arrives at the string’s end, which is attached to the ring of negligible
mass that is free. Pulse is reflected, but it is not inverted.
Exercises:

Q: A mass spring system undergoes simple harmonic motion with an amplitude A. Does the
total energy change if the mass is doubled but the amplitude is not changed? Are the kinetic
and potential energies at a given point in its motion affected by the change in mass? Explain.
A: NO! Because the total energy E = ½ kA^2, changing the mass while keeping A constant has no
effect on the total energy. When the mass is at displacement x from equilibrium, the potential
energy is ½ kx^2,, independent of mass, and the kinetic energy is E-½ kx^2. The larger mass
must move slower to have the same kinetic energy. At the particular instant in time, both
kinetic and potential energy would change as the mass is increased.

Q: A grandfather clock depends on the period of a pendulum to keep correct tim. Suppose the
clock is calibrated correctly and the temperature of the room in which it resides increases. Does
the clock run slow, fast or correctly? (A metal expands when its temperature increases).

A: As the temperature increases, the length of the pendulum will increase. Due to thermal
expansion. With the longer length, the period of the pendulum will increase, Thus it will take
longer to execute each swing, so that each second according to the clock will take longer than
an actual second. Thus, the clock will run slow.

Q: What is the total distance traveled by a body executing a simple harmonic nation in a time
equal to its period if its amplitude is A ?

A: It travels a distance of 4 A .

Q: Determine whether or not the following quantities can be in the same direction for a simple
harmonic oscillator :displacement and velocity , velocity and acceleration ,displacement and
acceleration .

A: There are times when both the displacement and the velocity are in the same direction.
There are also times when the velocity and the acceleration are in the same direction .
The displacement and the acceleration are always in opposite directions .

Q:A 0.4 kg mass is attached to a spring with a spring constant of 160 N/m so that the mass is
allowed to move on a horizontal frictionless surface .The mass is released from rest when the
spring is compressed 0.15 m .Find the force on the mass and its acceleration at this instant .

A: F=-kx=-(160N/m) (0.15m) =-24N

a= F/m =-24N/0.4kg =-60m/s2

Q:A Child's toy consists of a piece of plastic attached to a spring .The spring is compressed
against the floor a distance of 2cm ,and the toy is released .If the toy has a mass of 100 g and
rises to a maximum height of cm,estimate the spring constant .
 A: ½ kx2=mgh
k=2mgh/x2=2(0.1m) (9.8m/s2) (0.6m) /(0.02m)2 =2.94.10^3 N/m

Q:A mass of 0.4 kg connected to a light spring with a spring constant of 19.6 N/m oscillates on a
frictionless horizontal surface .If the spring is compressed 4 cm and released from rest
,determine the maximum speed of the mass , the speed of the mass when the spring is
compressed 1.5cm ,and the speed of the mass when the spring is stretched 1.5 cm .

A: V=√K/m(A2-x2)
Vmax=√19.6N/m/((0.04m)2-02) =0.28m/s
Vcom =√19.6N/m/0.4kg ((0.04m)2-(-0.015m)2) =0.26m/s
Vstr=√19.6N/m/0.4kg ((0.04m)2-(+0.015m)2) =0.26m/s

Q: The motion of an object is described by the equation

X=(0.3m) cos ( /3 Hz)t)
Find the position of the object at t=0 and t=0.6s, the amplitude of the motion , the frequency of
the motion ,and the period of the motion .
A : x=A cos (wt)
x(t=)s) =(0.3m) cos[ ( /3 Hz) (0s) ] =0.3 m
x(t=o.6s) (0.3m) cos [(0.3m)cos[( /3Hz)(0.6s)] =0.24m
A=0.3 m
w= /3 Hz
F =W/2 = /3Hz/2 =⅙ Hz
T=1/f=1/1/6 Hz =6 s

Q: A simple 2 m long pendulum oscillates in a location in a location where g =9.8m/s2 . How

many complete oscillations does it make in 5 min ?
A: T =2 √L/9=2 √2m/9.8m/s2
n=t/T =300s/2.84s =105.6 ( 105 complete oscillations )

Q: A uniform string with a mass of 0.3 kg and a length of 6 m .Tension is maintained in the
spring by suspending a 2 kg block from one end .Find the speed of a pulse on this string .
A: Ft=mg =(2kg)(9.8m/s2) =19.6N
= Ms/L =0.3kg/6m =0.05kg/m
V =√Ft/ =√19.6N /0.05kg/m
=19.8m/s

Producing A Sound Wave -

Sound waves are the most important example of longitudinal waves .Any sound wave has its
source in a vibrating object .Musical instruments produce sounds in a variety of ways . For
example ,the sound from a clarinet is produced by a vibrating reed ,the sound from a piano by
vibrating strings and the sound from a singer by vibrating vocal folds .
Sound waves are longitudinal waves travelling through a medium , such as air . In order to
investigate how sound waves are produced , we focus our attention on the tuning fork , a
common device for producing pure musical notes .A tuning fork consists of two metal prongs
that vibrate when struck . Their vibration disturbs the air near them .
A region of high molecular density and high air pressure is called a compression .A region of
lower than normal density is called a rarefaction .As the tuning fork vibrates ,a series of
condensations and rarefactions moves outward ,away from the fork .The crests of the wave
correspond to condensations ,and the troughs to rarefactions .
Characteristics of Sound Waves -
General motion of air molecules near a vibrating object is back and forth between regions of
Compression and rarefaction .Back and forth molecular motion in the direction of the
disturbance is characteristic of a longitudinal wave .
Sound waves fall into three categories covering different ranges of frequencies .
Audible waves are longitudinal waves that lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear
,approximately 20 Hz to 20000 Hz .
Infrasonic waves are longitudinal waves with frequencies below the audible range .Earthquake
waves are an example .
Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves with frequencies above the audible range for humans
.For example certain types of whistles produce ultrasonic waves .Some animals ,such as dogs ,
can hear the waves emitted by these whistles ,even though humans cannot .

Speed of Sound -
The speed of a sound wave in a liquid or gas depends on the medium’s compressibility and
inertia . If the fluid has a bulk modulus of B and an equilibrium density of p,the speed of sound
is
V= √B/p
The speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid rode is -
V =√Y/p
Where Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid ,and p is the density of the solid .
The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium .for Example travelling
through air , the relationship between the speed of the sound and temperature in degrees
celsius is -
V =(331m/s) √1+ /273

Energy and Intensity of Sound Waves -

As the tines of a tuning fork move back and forth through the air ,they exert a force on layer of
air and cause i to move .In other words , the tines do work on the layer of air .
We define the intensity ,I , of a wave to be the rate at which energy flows through a unit area ,A
perpendicularly to the direction of travel of the wave .
I =1 E /A t
It can be written in an alternative from
I =Power/area =P/A
Where P is the sound power passing through A . The intensity has units of watts per square
meter .
The fintest sounds the human ear can detect at a frequency of 1000 HZ have intensity of about
10^-12 W/m2 .This intercity is called the threshold of hearing .The loudest sounds the ear can
tolerate have an intensity of about 1 W/m2 , which is called the threshold of Pain .

Intensity levels in Decibels -

The Human ear can detect a wide range of intensities with the loudest tolerable sounds having
intensities about 10^12 times greater than those of the faintest detectable sounds .However ,
the most intense sound is not perceived as being 10^12 times louder than the Faintest sound .
The relative intensity of a sound is called the intensity level , ,and defined as
= 10 log( / 0)
Where 0 = 10^-12 W / m2 is the reference intensity and is any intensity . is measured in
decibels (dB) .
On this scale , the threshold of pain corresponds to an intercity level of = 120 dB .Nearby jet
airplanes can create intensity levels of 150 dB. The electronically amplified sound heard at rock
concerts can be at levels of up to 120 dB , the threshold of pain . Recent evidence suggests that
noise pollution may be a contributing factor to high blood pressure , anxiety and nervousness .

Courves of Intensity level -

Figure shows the frequency response curves of an average human ear for sounds of equal
loudness , ranging from 0 to 120 dB .To interpret this series of graphs ,take the bottom curve as
the threshold of hearing .The easiest frequencies to hear are around 3300 HZ .
The Doppler Effect -
If a car is moving while its horn is blowing , the frequency of the sound you hear is higher as the
vehicle approaches you and lower as it moves away from you . This is one example of the
Doppler effect .
When the source and observer are moving toward each other , the observer hears a frequency
higher than the frequency of the source in the absence of relative motion . When the source
and observer are moving away from each other , the observer hears a frequency lower than the
source frequency .The Doppler effect is a phenomenon common to all waves , not only to
sound waves .
One finds the following general relationship for the observer frequency -
f0=fs( V V0/V Vs)
The upper signs ( +v0and -vs) refer to motion of one toward the other and the lower signs ( -
v0and +vS) refer to motion of one away the other .
Shock Waves -
Shock waves are produced when the source speed exceeds the wave velocity .figure describes
this situation graphically . The circles represent spherical wavefronts emitted by the source at
various times during its motion .The conical wavefront produced is known as a shock wave .
A shock wave carries a great deal of energy concentrated on the surface of the cone ,with great
pressure variations .Shock waves are unpleasant to hear and can damage buildings when , for
example ,aircraft fly supersonically at low altitudes .
Standing Waves -
Standing waves can be set up in a stretched string by connecting one end of the string to a
stationary clamp and connecting the other end to a vibrating object . In this situations ,
travelling waves reflect from the ends , creating waves travelling in both directions on the string
.The incident and reflected waves combine according to the superposition principle . If the
string is vibrated at exactly the right frequency , the wave appears to stand .A node occurs
where the two traveling waves always have the same magnitude of displacement but of
opposite sign , so that the net displacement is zero at this point .But midway between two
nodes ,at an antinude , the string vibrates with the largest amplitude .Note ,that the ends of the
string must be nodes because these points are fixed .The characteristic frequencies of standing
waves in a stretched string of length L are -
Fn =n/2L √FT/ n =1,2,3
Where Ft is the tension in the string is its mass per unit length .

Exercises -
Q; Find the speed of the sound in water ,which has a bulk modulus of about 2.1.10^9 Pa and a
density of about 10^3 kg/m3 .

A: Vw=√B/P=√2.1.10^9Pa/10^3kg/m3≈1500m/s
Q: If a solid bar is struck at one end with a hammer ,a longitudinal pulse propagates down the
bar .Find the speed in a bar of aluminium ,which has a Young’s modulus of 7.10^10 Pa and a
density of 2.7.10^3 kg/m3 .

A: Val=√Y/P =√7.10^9Pa /2.7.10^3kg/m3 ≈5100m/s

Q: Determine the intensity level of a sound wave with an intensity of 5.10^-7 W/m2 .

A: =10 log ( / 0)
=10 log ( 5.10^-7W/m2/10^12W/m2) =57dB

Q: A noise grinding machine in a factory produces a sound intensity of 1.10^-5W/m2 .Find the
intensity level of this machine ,and calculate the new intensity level when a second ,identical
calculate is added to the factory .

A: 1 =10 log ( / 0) =10log( 1.10-5W/m2) /10^-12W/m2) =70dB

2=10log=(2 / 0) =10 Log ( 2.10^-5/10^-12W/m2) =73dB

Q: A train moving at a speed of 40 m/s sounds its whistle ,which has a frequency of 500 Hz
.Determine the frequency heard by a stationary observer as the train approaches the observer
.(Take 340m/s as the speed of sound in air ) .

A : f0=fs*V/V-Vs
=(500Hz) 340m/s /(340m/s) -(40m/s )
=567 Hz

Determine the frequency heard by the stationary observer as the train recedes from the
observer .
f0=fs*V/V+Vs
=(500 Hz) 340m/s /(340m/s) +(40m/s) =447Hz

Q: An Ambulance travels down a highway at a speed of 120km/h , its siren emitting sound at a
frequency of 400 Hz .What frequency is heard by a passenger in a car traveling at 90 km/h in
the opposite direction as the car approaches ?

A : Vs=120km/h =33.3m/s
V0 =90 km/h=25.0 m/s
f0=fs*V+V0/V-Vs
= (400 Hz) 340m/s +(25m/s) /(340m/s) -(33.3m/s ) =476 Hz

What frequency is heard as the car moves away from the ambulance ?
f0=fs*V-V0/V+Vs
=(400 Hz) 340m/s -(25m/s /(340m/s)+(33.3m/s) = 338 Hz

Q: Find the first four harmonics of a 1 -m - long string if the string has a mass per unit length of
2.10^-3kg/m and is under a tension of 80 N .

A: fn=n/2L√ft/ n=1,2,3 ,4
F1 = 1/2(1 m) √80N /2.10^-3kg/m=100Hz
F2=200Hz
F3 =300 Hz
F4= 400 Hz

Temperature -
We now move to a new branch of Physics , thermal physics .We shall find that quantitative
descriptions of thermal phenomena require careful definitions of the concepts of temperature
,heat and internal energy .
In order to understand the concept of temperature , it is useful to define thermal contact and
thermal equilibrium .
Two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be exchanged between them
.Thermal equilibrium is the situation in which two objects in thermal contact with each other
case to have any exchange of energy .
Zeroth law of thermodynamics :
If bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body ,C,then A and B will be
in thermal equilibrium with each other if placed in thermal contact .
This statement , insignificant and obvious as it may seem ,is easily proved experimentally and is
very important because it makes it possible to define temperature .We can think of
temperature as the property that determines whether or not an object will be in thermal
equilibrium with other objects .Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are at the
same temperature .

Thermometers and Temperature Scales -

Thermometers are devices used to measure the temperature of a system .All thermometers
make use of a change in some physical property with temperature .One common thermometer
in everyday use consists of a mass of liquid ( usually mercury or alcohol ) that expands into a
glass capillary tube when heated . In this case the physical property is the change in volume of a
liquid . The thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact with some natural
systems ( Example mixture water and ice ) .it is defined to have a temperature of zero degree
celsius ( 0°C ) .Another commonly used system is a mixture of water and steam at atmospheric
pressure (100°C ) .
In a gas thermometer , the temperature readings are nearly independent of the type of gas
used ,so long as the gas pressure is low and the temperature is well above the point at which
the gas liquifies . if the curves in figure are extended back toward negative temperatures , in
every case the pressure is zero when the temperature is -273.15°C .This significant temperature
is used as the basis for the kelvin scale , which sets -273.15°C as its zero point (0 K) .The size of a
kelvin is identical to the size of a degree on the celsius scale : T (K) =T(°C ) +273.15

Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids -

The phenomenon known as thermal expansion plays an important role in numerous
applications .For example ,thermal expansion joints must be included in buildings , concrete
highways ,and bridges to compensate for changes in dimensions with temperature variations .
The overall thermal Expansion of an object is a consequence of the change in the average
separation between its constituent atoms or molecules .At ordinary temperatures , the atoms
vibrate about their equilibrium positions with an amplitude of about 10^-11 m and the average
spacing between the atoms is about 10^-10 m .As the temperature of the solid increase , the
atoms vibrate with greater amplitudes and the average separation between them increases
.Consequently , the solid as a whole expands .
The length of some object increases by for the change in temperature .Experiment show
that when is small enough , is proportional to and the initial length 0 of the object
 =a 0
Where a is called the average coefficient of linear expansion for a given material .

Because the linear dimensions of an object change with temperature ,if follows that surface
area and volume also change with temperature .
It is possible to get similar expression for change in the area A of an object
= A0
Where the quantity =2a is called the average cocefficient of area expansion . 0 is the initial
area of the object .
Similarly , we can have it for change in volume of an object
V = V0
Where =3a is the average coefficient of volume expansion .As Table indicates has its own
characteristic coefficients of expansion .

An Example -
● When the temperatures of a brass rod and a steel rod of equal length are raised by the
same amount from some common initial value ,the brass rod expands more than the
steel rod because brass has a large coefficient of expansion than steel .A simple device
that utilizes that principle , called a bimetallic strip ,is found in practical devices such as
thermostats . The strip is made by securely bonding two different metals together .As
the temperature of the strip increases , the two metals expand by different amounts
and the strip bends ,as in figure .
The Unusual Behavior of Water

Liquids generally increase in volume with increasing temperature and have volume expansion
coefficients about ten times greater than those of solids .Water is an exception to this rule ,as
we can see from density versus temperature curve .As the temperature increases from 0°C to
4°C water contrasts and thus its density increases .above 4°C water expands with increasing
temperature .The density of water reaches its maximum value 4 degrees above the freezing
point .
When the atmospheric temperature is between 4°C and 0°C the surface water expands as it
cools becoming less dense than the water below it .The mixing process stops ,and eventually
the surface water freezes .As the water freezes , the ice remains on the surface because ice is
less dense than water . The ice continues to build up on the surface and water near the bottom
of the pool remains at 4° [Link] this did not happen , fish and other forms of marine life would not
survive .

Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas -

It is useful to know how temperature ,pressure p,volume V and mass m of a gas are related .In
general , the equation that interrelates these quantities , called the equation of state , is very
complicated .However ,if the gas is maintained at a very low pressure or low density ( ideal gas )
, the equation of state is found experimentally to be quite simple .
It is convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in terms of the number of moles
n . Recall that one mole of any substance is that mass of the substance that contains Avogadro’s
number 6.022 .10^23 , of molecules .The number of moles of a substance is related to its mass
,m, as n=m /M ,where M is the molar mass .
Equation of state for an ideal gas is
pV=
Where is the same for all quantities , called the universal gas constant =8.31 / ( mol ) .

Molecular Interpretation of Pressure -

We discuss the properties of an ideal gas , using such quantities as pressure , volume , number
of moles and temperature . We shall find that pressure and temperature can be understood on
the basis of what is happening on the atomic scale .We use the kinetic theory of gases to show
that the pressure a gas exerts on the walls of its container is a consequence of the collisions of
the gas molecules with the walls .
We make the following assumptions of molecular model for an ideal gas -
● The number of molecules is large , and the average separation between them is large
compared with their dimensions .This means that the molecules occupy a negligible
volume in the container .
● The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion ,but as a whole they move randomly .Any
molecule can move equally in any direction .
● The molecules undergo elastic collisions with each other and with the walls of the
container .Thus ,in the collisions kinetic energy is constant .
● The forces between molecules are negligible except during a collision .The gas under
consideration is a pure substance .That is ,all molecules are identical .
Molecular interpretation of Pressure -
To derive an expression for the pressure of N molecules of an ideal gas in a container of Volume
V , we suppose that the container is a cube with edges of length d. We focus our attention on
one of these molecules of mass m .As the molecule collides elastically with any wall ,its velocity
is reserved .Applying Newton's second law one can find the pressure exerted on the wall .
p=F/A =F/d2=1N/3d3mv2=1N/3v(mv2)
=2N/3v(½ mv2)
This results shows that the pressure is proportional to the number of molecules per unit
volume and to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules (,½ mv2 ).With this
simplified model of an ideal gas , we have arrived at an important result that relates the
macroscopic quantity of pressure to an atomic quantity , the average value of the translational
kinetic energy .Thus we have a key link between the atomic world

Molecular interpretation of Temperature -

The expression for pressure we can write as -
 Pv=⅔ N(½ mv2)
And the equation of state for an ideal gas as -
pV= =N/Na* =Nkb
Where we use alternative method for calculating the number of moles = / a
( a=6.02.10^23 Molecules / mol is Avagador’s number ) b=R/Na =1.38.10^-23 J/k is
Boltzmann's number .Equating the right sides of these expressions ,we find that -
=2/3kb(½ mv2)
Temperature is a direct measure of average molecular kinetic energy the total translational
kinetic energy of N molecules of gas is
E=N(½ mv2) =3/2 Nkbt =3/2 nRT

Exercises -
Q: What is the temperature 10 °C in kelvins ?

A: = 10°C + 273.15 K ≈283 K

Q: A pan of water is heated from 25°C to 80° [Link] is the change in its temperature on the
Kelvin scale and on the Celsius scale ?

A: c =80°C -25°C =55°C

= 353K -298K = 55K

Q: A steel railroad track has a length of 30 m when the temperature is 0°C . What is its length
on a hot day when the temperature is 40°C ?

A: =a 0 =[11.10^-6(°C) -1](30m) (40°C)

=0.013m
= 0+ =30 m +0.013 m
= 30.013 m
Q: A hole of cross section area 100 Cm2 is cut in a piece of steel at 20°C . What is the area of the
hole if the steel is heated from 20°C to 100°C ?

A : A hole in a substance expands in exactly the same way as we would a piece of the substance
having the same shape as the hole .
= 0 =[2.11.10^-6(°C)-1 ( 100 cm2 )(80°C)
= 0.18 cm
A =A0+ = 100cm2+ )0.18cm2
= 100.18 m2

Q: Verify that one mole of any gas at standard temperature ( 0°C) and pressure ( 1atm
=1.013.10^5Pa) occupies a volume of 22.41

A: V=nRT/P =(1mol) (8.31J/(molK) (273K) /1.103.10^5Pa

= 22.4.10^-3m3=22.41

Q: An ideal gas occupies a volume of 100cm3 at 20°C and pressure of 10^5 Pa .Determin the
Number of moles of gas in the container .
A: n=pv/Rt =(10^5Pa) (100.10^-6M3) /(8.31J/(molk)(293K)
= 4.1.10^-3 mol

Q: Pure Helium gas is admitted into a leakproof cylinder containing a movable piston . The
initial volume ,pressure and temperature are 151 ,2atm ,and 300 K . If the volume is decreased
to 121 and the pressure increased to 3.5 atm , find the final temperature of the gas .( Assume
that helium behaves as an ideal gas ) .
A : Because no gas escapes from the cylinder , the number of moles remains constant
.Therefore , use of pV=nRT at the initial and final points gives -
piVi /Ti=pfvf/Tf
Tf=pfVf/piVi
Ti=(3.5atm) (121) /(2.0atm )(151 ) (300k) =420 K

Q: A tank contains 2 mol of helium gas at 20 °C .Assume that the helium behaves as an ideal gas
. find the total internal energy of the system ,
A: E =3/2 nRT =3/2 ( 2mol ) (8.31J /( mol K) ( 293K ) =7.3.10^3J
What is the average kinetic energy per molecule ?
½ mv2 =3/2 kbT = 3/2 ( 1.38.10^-23 J/K ) ( 293K ) =6.1.10^-21J

Q: Two sharpeners are made of the same metal and have the same radius , but one is hollow
and the other is solid . The spheres are taken enough the same temperature increase .Which
sphere expands more ?

A: A cavity in a material expands in exactly the same way as if the cavity were filled with
material .Thus both spheres will expand by the same amount .

Q: Common Thermometers are made of a mercury column in a glass tube .Based on the
operation of these common thermometers ,which has the larger coefficient of linear expansion
,glass or mercury ? ( Don’t answer this by looking in a table )

A : Mercury must have the larger coefficient of expansion .As the temperature of a
thermometer rises ,both the mercury and the glass expand .If they both had the same
coefficient of linear expansion , the mercury and the cavity in the glass would both expand by
the same amount ,and there would be no apparent movement of the end of the mercury
column relative to the calibration scale on the glass .If the glass expanded more than the
mercury , the reading would go down as the temperature went up .( Now we can look in a table
and find that the coefficient for mercury is about 20 times as large as for glass , so that the
expansion of the glass can sometimes be ignored )

Q: Some picnickers stop at a store to buy food ,including bags of potato chips . They drive up
into the mountains to their picnic site .When they unload the food , they notice that the chip
bags are puffed up like balloons .Why did this happen ?

A : The chip bags contain a sealed sample of air .When the bags are taken up the mountain , the
external atmosphere pressure on the bags is reduced .As a result , the difference between the
pressure of the air inside the bags and the reduced pressure outside results in a net force
pushing the plastic of the bag outward .

Q: A gold ring has an inner diameter of 2.168 cm at a temperature of 15°C .Determine its inner
diameter at 100°C .
(a gold =1.42.10^-5(°C)-1)

A: d = ad0 = ( 1.42.10^-5(°C) -1) (2.168cm) ( 85°C)

= 2.6.10^-3cm
d =d0+ d = (2.168cm ) + (2.6.10^-3cm )
= 2.171 cm

Home Lab -
● Tie and tape two inverted empty paper bags to the ends of a rod as in the figure .
balance the setup .Then place a candle under one of the bags and note what happens
.Why does this system become unbalanced ? What do your results tell you concerning
the density of warm air versus the density of cold air ?
Heat -
Heat is defined as energy that is transferred between a system and its environment because of
a temperature difference between them .The SI Unit of heat is the same as for energy , joule ( J)
.
Because of early misunderstanding about heat the unusual units in which heat was measured
had already been developed .One of the most widely used is the calorie ( Cal ) , defined as the
heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C .A related Unit is
the kilocalorie (Kcal ) , 1kcal = 1000 cal .Heat is most often measured in joules 1 cal =4.186 J .
Example - A student eats a dinner rated at 2000 kcal .He wishes to do an equivalent amount of
work by lifting a 50 kg mass .How many times must he raise the weight to expend this much
energy ? Assume that he raises the weight a distance of 2m each time and that no work is done
when the weight is dropped to the floor .
The work done in lifting the weight n times is W =nmgh ,Thus
n=W/mgh =2.10^6.4.186J /(50kg) (9.8m/s2) ( 2m) = 8540 Times
( it assumes perfect conversion of chemical energy into mechanical )

Specific Heat -
The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass of a substance
by some amount varies from one substance to another . for example the heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C is 4186 J but for copper is only 387 J .Every substance
has a unique value for the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 kg of it by
1°C .Suppose that a quantity ,Q, of heat is transferred to a substance of mass m , thereby
changing its temperature by . The specific heat ,c, of the substance is defined as
c= Q/m
From this definition we can express the heat transferred between a system of mass m and its
surrounding for the temperature change of as -
Q =mc
When and Q are negative , heat flows out of the system .
Sea Breezes -
The fact that the specific heat of water is higher than that of land is responsible for the pattern
of air flow at a beach . During the day , the Sun adds roughly equal amounts of energy to beach
and water , but the lower specific heat of sand causes the beach to reach a higher temperature
than the water . As a consequence , the air above the land reaches a higher temperature than
that over the water ,and cooler air from above the water is drawn in to displace this rising hot
air , resulting in a breeze from water to land during the day Because the hot air gradually cools
as it rises ,it subsequently sinks ,setting up the circulating pattern shown in figure .During the
night , the land looks cools more quickly than the water ,and the circulating pattern reverses
itself because the hotter air is now over the water .The offshore and onshore breezes are
certainly well known to sailors .
A similar effect produces rising layers of air , called thermals that can help eagles to soar higher
and hang gliders to stay in flight longer .

Conservation of Energy -
Situations in which mechanical energy is converted to thermal energy occur frequently .In
problems using the procedure called calorimetry , only the transfer of thermal energy between
the system and its surroundings is considered .
One technique for measuring the specific heat of a solid or liquid is simply to heat the
substance to some known temperature ,place it in a vessel containing water of known mass and
temperature ,and measure the temperature of the water after equilibrium is reached .
Suppose that mx is the mass of a substance whose specific heat we wish to measure ,Cx its
specific heat and Tx its initial temperature .Let mw,Cw ,and Tw represent the corresponding
values for the water .If T is the final equilibrium temperature after everything is mixed . The
heat gained by the water must equal the heat lost by the substance .( Conservation of energy )
C ( - w) =mxCx( x- )
Solving it , one can have specific heat Cx of a substance .
Latent Heat and Phase Changes -
A substance usually undergoes a change in temperature when heat is transferred between it
and its surroundings. There are situations ,however ,in which the flow of heat does not result in
a change in temperature . This is a case whenever the substance undergoes a physical
alteration from one from to another , referred to as a phase change .Some common phase
changes are solid to liquid ( melting ) ,liquid to gas ( boiling ) and a change in crystalline
structure of a solid .Every phase change involves a change in internal energy .The heat required
to change the phase of a given mass ,m, of a pure substance is
Q=mL
Where L is called the latent heat of the substance and depends on the nature of the phase
change as well as on the properties of the substance .Latent heat of Fusion , Lf is the term used
when the phase change is from solid to liquid and latent heat of vaporization ,Lv,is the term
used when the phase change is from liquid to gas . For example the latent heat of fusion for
water at atmospheric pressure is 3.33.10^5J /Kg and the latent heat of vaporization for water is
2.26.10^6 J/kg .Latent heats of different substances vary considerably .

Table : Latent Heat

Latent heat of fusion and Vaporization

Example (water )
Consider , for example , the heat required to convert a 1g block of ice at -30°C to steam ( water
vapor ) at 120 °C . Figure indicates the experimental results .
Part =The ice is changing from -30°C to 0°C . The heat added is
= = ( 10^-3kg ) ( 2090J/kg°C ) ( 30°C ) = 62.7 J

= The ice water mixture remains at 0°C ( even though heat is being added ) until all the ice
melts to become water at 0°C . The heat is
= f = ( 10^-3kg) ( 3.33.10^5 J/kg ) =333J

=The heat is being used to increase temperature of the water

= =( 10^3kg) ( 4.190.10^3J/kg°C ) ( 100°C ) =419 J

= At 100°C , another phase change occurs ( water to steam ) . Just as in Part , the heat
required for that is
= v=( 10^3kg) ( 2.26.10^6J/kg) =2260 J
 = The heat is being used to increase temperature of the steam is
= =(10^3kg ) ( 2.01 .10^3 J /kg° ) ( 20° ) =40.2 J
The total heat is therefore 3115 J . Conversely , to cool one gram of steam at 120° down to -
30° , we must remove about 3115 J of heat .

Description of Phase Changes -

Phase changes can be described in terms of rearrangements of molecules when heat is added
to or ,remove from a substance .Consider first the liquid- gas phase change .The molecules in a
liquid are close together ,and the forces between them are stronger than those between the
more widely separated molecules of a gas . Therefore work must be done on the liquid against
these attractive molecular forces in order to separate the molecules .The latent heat of
vaporization is the amount of energy that must be added to the liquid to accomplish this .
Similarly , at the melting point of a solid ,we imagine that the amplitude of vibration of the
atoms about their equilibrium positions becomes great enough to allow the atoms to pass the
barriers of adjacent atoms and move to their new positions .The new locations are , on the
average , less symmetrical and therefore have higher energy .The latent heat of fusion is equal
to the work required at the molecular level to transform the mass from the ordered solid phase
to the disordered liquid phase .
The average distance between atoms is much greater in the gas phase than in either the liquid
or the solid phase .Each atom or molecule is removed from its neighbors , without the
compensation of attractive forces to new neighbors . Therefore , it is not surprising that more
work is required at the molecular level to vaporize a given mass of substance than to melt it
.Thus the latent heat of vaporization is much greater than the latent heat of fusion .

Heat Transfer By Conduction -

There are three ways in which heat energy can be transferred from one location to another
:Conduction ,convection and Radiation .Regardless of the process , however no net heat
transfer takes place between a system and its surroundings when the two are at the same
temperature .
Each of the methods of heat transfer can be examined by considering the ways in which you
can warm your hands over an open fire .If you insert a copper rod into flame , the temperature
of the metal in your hand increases rapidly .Conduction ,The process by which heat is
transferred from the flame through the copper rod to your hand ,can be understood by
examining what is happening to the atoms of the metal .As the flame heats the rod , the copper
atoms near the flame begin to vibrate with greater and greater amplitude .These vibrating
atoms collide with their neighbors and transfer some of their energy in the collisions .
The rate of heat conduction depends on the properties of the substance being heated .Metals
are good conductors of heat because they contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively
free to move through the metal and transport energy from one region to another .In these
conductors heat conduction takes place both via the vibration of atoms and via the motions of
free electrons .

Heat Transfer Rate

If is the amount of heat transferred from one location on an object to another in the time t,
the heat transfer rate ,H is defined as -
H= / t
Note that is expressed in watts .
The conduction of heat occurs only if a difference in temperature exists between two parts of
the conducting medium .Consider a slab of thickness and cross sectional area . Suppose
that one face is maintained at a temperature of 2 and other face is held at a lower
temperature , [Link] rate of flow of heat is given by -
=ka* 2- 1 /
Where k is a constant called the thermal conductivity of the material .
Heat Transfer By Convection -
The air directly above the flame is heated and expands .As a result , the density of the air
decreases and the air rises .This warmed mass of air heats your hands as it flows by .Heat
transferred by the movement of a heated substance is said to have been transferred by
convection .When the movement results from differences in density , as it does in air around a
fire , it is referred to as natural convection .When the heated substance is forced to move by a
fan or pump ,as in some heating systems ,the process is called forced convection .
The circulating pattern of air flow at a beach is an example of convection .Convection process
occurs when a room is heated by a radiator .The warm air expands and rises to the ceiling
because of its lower density .The denser regions of cooler air from above replace the warm air
.Your automobile engine is maintained at a safe operating temperature by a combination of
conduction and temperature by a combination of conduction and forced convection .
Example - Algal Blooms -
The algal blooms often seen in temperate lakes and ponds during spring or autumn are caused
by convection currents in the water .During the summer ,bodies of water develop temperature
gradients such that an upper warm layer of water is separated from a lower cold layer by a
buffer zone called a thermocline . In the spring or autumn , the temperature changes in the
water break down this thermocline ,setting up convection currents that mix the water . This
mixing process transports nutrients from the bottom to the surface .The nutrient rich water
forming at the surface can cause a rapid , temporary increase in the population of algae .
Heat transfer By Radiation -
The third way of transferring heat is through radiation .You have must likely experienced
radiant heat when sitting in front of a fireplace .The hands that are placed to one side of the
flame are not in physical contact with flame ,and therefore conduction can not account for the
heat transfer . Furthermore ,convection is not important in this situation because the hands are
not above the flame in the path of convection currents . The important process in this case is
the radiation of heat energy .
All objects continuously radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves ,which we shall
discuss later .Electromagnetic radiation associated with the loss of heat energy from an object
at a temperature of a few hundred kelvins is referred to as infrared radiation .
The Surface of the Sun is at a few thousand kelvins and most strongly radiates visible light
.Approximately 1340 J of sunlight energy strikes 1m2 of the top of the Earth’s atmosphere
every second .Some of this energy is reflected back into space ,and some is absorbed by the
atmosphere , but enough arrives at the surface of the Earth .

Stefan’s Law
The rate at which an object emits radiant energy is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature .This is known as Stefan’s Law and is expressed as
P= e 4
Where P is power radiant by the object in watts , = 5.67 .10^-8 W/m2k4 is a constant , is the
surface area of the object , e is a constant called the emissivity and is the object ‘s
temperature .The value of e can vary between 0 and 1 , depending on the properties of the
surface .
An object radiates energy ,and at the same time the object also absorbs electromagnetic
radiation .When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings , it radiates and absorbs
energy at the same rate ,and so its temperature remains constant ,
An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all of the energy incident on it .Its
emissivity is equal to 1 .Such an object is called black body .An ideal absorber is also an ideal
radiator of energy .In contrast , an object with an emissivity equal to zero reflects all the
incident energy and so is perfect reflector .

Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases -

During the day , sunlight passes into the greenhouse and is absorbed by the walls ,earth and
plants . This absorbed visible light is subsequently reradiated as infrared radiation , which
causes the temperature of the interior to rise . In addition , convection currents are inhibited in
a greenhouse .
A phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect can also play a major role in determining the
Earth’s temperature .Earth’s atmosphere is a good transmitter of visible radiation and good
absorber of infrared radiation from that reaches the Earth’s Surface is absorbed and re-radiated
as infrared light ,which in turn is absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere .
At present , about 350 billions tons of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere each
year .Most of this gas results from human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels , thE
cutting of forests and manufacturing processes .Other greenhouse gases are also increasing in
concentration in the atmosphere .One of these is methane ( cows and termites are major
producers ) , nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide ( automobile and industrial pollution )
Whether the increasing greenhouse gases are responsible or not , there is convincing evidence
that global warming is certainly underway.

Exercises

• A 0.05-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200°C and then dropped into a beaker containing 0.4-kg
of water that is initially at 20°C. If the final equilibrium temperature of the mixed system is
22.4°C, find the specific heat of the metal.

=453 J/kg°C

The ingot is most likely iron.

• If 10 W of power is supplied to 1 kg of water at 100°C, how long will it take for the water to
completely boil away?

t=QP=mLvPt = \frac{Q}{P} = \frac{m L_v}{P}t=PQ​=PmLv​​ =(1 kg)(2.26 106 J/kg)10 W= \frac{(1

\text{ kg})(2.26 \cdot 10^6 \text{ J/kg})}{10 \text{ W}}=10 W(1 kg)(2.26 106 J/kg)​ =2.26 105
s=62.8 h= 2.26 \cdot 10^5 \text{ s} = 62.8 \text{ h}=2.26 105 s=62.8 h

Exercises

• Find the amount of heat transferred in 1 h by conduction through a concrete wall 2 m high,
3.65 m long, and 0.2 m thick if one side of the wall is held at 20°C and the other side is at 5°C.

A=(2 m)(3.65 m)=7.3 m2A = (2 \text{ m})(3.65 \text{ m}) = 7.3 \text{ m}^2A=(2 m)(3.65 m)=7.3
m2 QΔt=kAT2−T1L\frac{Q}{\Delta t} = k A \frac{T_2 - T_1}{L}ΔtQ​=kALT2​−T1​​ Q=(1.3
J/s\cdotpm°C)(7.3 m2)(3600 s)15 C0.2 m=2.6 106 JQ = (1.3 \text{ J/s·m°C})(7.3 \text{
m}^2)(3600 \text{ s}) \frac{15^\circ\text{C}}{0.2 \text{ m}} = 2.6 \cdot 10^6 \text{ J}Q=(1.3
J/s\cdotpm°C)(7.3 m2)(3600 s)0.2 m15 C​=2.6 106 J

• A tile floor may feel uncomfortably cold to your bare feet, but a carpeted floor in an adjoining
room at the same temperature feels warm. Why?

The tile is a better conductor of heat than carpet. Thus, energy is conducted away from your
feet more rapidly by the tile than by the carpeted floor.

A solar collector is thermally insulated, so conduction is negligible in comparison with radiation.

On a cold but sunny day the temperature outside is -20°C, and the Sun irradiates the collector
with a power per unit area of 300 W/m?. Treating the

collector as a black body (emissivity = 1), determine its interior

temperature after the collector has achieved a steady-state condition (radiating energy as fast
as it is received).

Pabsorbs = Pradiates

팬 = I+

PSun

o Ae
(300 W/m*)A

=(253 K)" + (5.67-10 8 W/m?K*)(1)

= 9.4•10° K*

Te = 311K = 38°C

Heat and Internal Energy

A major distinction must be made between internal energy and heat. Internal energy is all of
the energy belonging to a system while it is stationary (neither translating nor rotating),
including heat as well as nuclear energy, chemical energy, and strain energy. Thermal energy is
the portion of internal energy that changes when the temperature of the system changes. Heat
transfer is caused by a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. We
showed that the thermal energy of a monoatomic ideal gas is associated with the motion of its
atoms. In this special case, the thermal energy is simply kinetic energy on a microscopic scale.
In general, thermal energy includes other forms of molecular energy, such as rotational energy
and vibrational kinetic and potential energy.

The work done on (or by) a system is a measure of the energy transferred between the system
and its surroundings. When a person does work on a system, energy is transferred from the
person to the system. It makes no sense to talk about the work of a system - one should refer
only to the work done on or by a system when some process has occurred in which energy has
been transferred to or from the system. Likewise, it makes no sense to use the term heat unless
energy has been transferred as a result of a temperature difference.

Work

The state of a system can be described with the use of such variables as pressure, volume,
temperature, and internal energy. The number of macroscopic variables needed to characterize
a system depends on the system's nature. For a homogeneous system, usually only two
variables are needed. It is important to note that a macroscopic state of an isolated system can
be specified only if the system is in thermal equilibrium internally.

Consider a gas contained by a cylinder fitted with a movable piston. In equilibrium, the gas
occupies a volume of V and exerts a uniform pressure, p, on the cylinder walls and piston. If the
piston has cross-sectional area A, the force

exerted by the gas on the piston is F = pA. As the piston

moves up a distance of Ay, the work done on the piston by the gas is

The work done by the system is zero when the volume remains constant. The work done by a
system depends on the process by which the system goes from the initial to the final state.
Heat

The heat transferred into or out of a system is also found to depend on the process. This can be
demonstrated by the situations depicted in figures. In each case, the gas has the same initial
volume, temperature, and pressure, and is assumed to be ideal. In one figure, the gas expands
slowly by absorbing heat from a reservoir at the same temperature. In other figure, the gas
expands rapidly into an evacuated region after a membrane separating it from that region is
broken. In both cases temperatures remain constant.

The initial and final states of the ideal gas in one figure are identical to the initial and final states
in other figure, but processes are different. In the first case, heat is transfered slowly to the gas,
and the gas does work on the piston. In the second case, no heat is transferred, and the work
done is zero. Therefore, we conclude that heat transfer, like work, depends on the initial, final,
and intermediate states of the system.
The First law of Thermodynamics

When the principle of conservation of energy was first introduced, it was stated that the
mechanical energy of a system is constant in the absence of nonconservative forces, such as
friction. That mechanical model did not encompass changes in the internal energy of the
system. We now broaden our scope for all kinds of processes.

For a system that undergoes a change from an initial state to a final state, one can find that Q -
W is the same for all processes connecting the initial and final states. We conclude that the
quantity

Q - W is determined completely by the initial and final states of the system, and we call it the
change in the internal energy of the system. If we represent the internal energy function with
U, than
the change in internal energy, AU = Uf - U1, can be expressed as

AU = Q -W

This equation is known as the first law of thermodynamics.

For an isolated system, no heat transfer takes place and the work done is zero. Hence, the
internal energy remains constant.

For a cyclic process (originates and ends at the same state) the change in the internal energy
must again be zero. Therefore, the heat added to the system must equal the work done during
the cycle.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

A heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy to other useful forms, such as
mechanical energy. A heat engine carries some working substance through a cyclic process
during which (1) heat is absorbed from a source at high temperature, (2) work is done by the
engine, and (3) heat is expelled by the engine to a reservoir at a lower temperature. The engine
absorbs a quantity of heat Qh, does a work W, and gives heat Qc to the cold reservoir. Because
the working substance goes through cycle, the work W done equals the net heat flowing into it,
@h - Qc

W= Qn -Qc

The thermal efficiency, e, of a heat engine is the ratio of the net work done to the heat
absorbed at the higher temperature during one cycle

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated as follows:

It is impossible to convert a heat engine that, operating in a cycle, produces no other effect
than the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the performance of an equal amount of work.

Reversible and Irreversible Processes

A reversible process is one in which every state between the initial and final states is an
equilibrium state, and that can be reversed in order to be followed exactly from the final state
back to the initial state. A process that does not satisfy these requirements is irreversible.

All natural processes are known to be irreversible. But some are almost reversible. If a real
process occurs very slowly so that the system is virtually always in equilibrium, the process can
be considered reversible.

A general characteristic of a reversible process is that no dissipative effects that convert

mechanical energy to thermal energy, such as turbulence or friction, can be present. In reality,
such effects are impossible to eliminate completely, and hence it is not surprising that real
processes in nature are irreversible.
The Carnot Engine
Sadi Carnot showed that a heat engine operating in an ideal, reversible cycle (called Carnot
cycle) between two reservoirs is the most efficient engine possible.
No real engine operating
between two heat reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine, operating between
the same two reservoirs.
The cycle consists of two
adiabatic and two isothermal processes, all reversible.
(1) The first process is an isothermal expansion at temperature Th.
During the process, the gas absorbs heat h from the reservoir and does work in raising the
piston. (2) Then the gas expands adiabatically; that is no heat enters or leaves the system.
During the process, the temperature falls from Th to Te, and gas does work WBc in raising the
piston. (3) Next, the gas is placed in thermal contact with a heat reservoir at temperature Tc
and is compressed isothermally at temperature Te. The gas expels heat Qc to the reservoir, and
the work done on the gas is WoD. (4) In the final stage, the gas is compressed adiabatically. The
temperature of the gas increases to In and the work done on the gas is WDA.
Thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is
ec = 1 - Tc / Th
All real engines are less efficient than the Carnot engine because they are subject to practical
difficulties, including friction, but especially the need to operate irreversibly to complete a cycle
in a brief time period.

Entropy

The concept of temperature is involved in the zeroth law of thermodynamics, and the concept
of internal energy is involved in the first law. Temperature and internal function are both state
functions. Another state function related to the second law of thermodynamics is the entropy
function, S.
Consider a reversible process between two equilibrium states. If AQT is the heat absorbed or
expelled by the system, the change of entropy, AS, between two equilibrium states is given by
the heat transferred, Qr, divided by the absolute temperature, I, of the system
where subscript r emphasizes that the definition applies only to reversible processes. When a
heat is absorbed, the entropy increases.
Note, that the change in entropy is defined, but not entropy.
It was found that the entropy of the Universe increases in all natural processes. This is another
way of stating the second law of thermodynamics.
Entropy can also be interpreted in terms of probabilities.

Statistical View of Entropy

Boltzmann found an alternative method for calculating entropy through use of the relation
S = kBInW
where kB = 1.38 • 10-23 J/K is Boltzmann's constant and W is a probability that the system has
a particular configuration. ("In" is abbreviation for the natural logarithm)
Grade of energy.
Various forms of energy can be converted to thermal energy, but the reverse transformation is
never complete. In general, if two kinds of energy can be completely interconverted, we say
that they are the same grade. However, if form A can be completely converted to form B and
the reverse is never complete, then form A is a higher grade of energy than form B. For
example, kinetic energy of the ball is of higher grade than the thermal energy contained in the
ball and the wall after the collision.
In all real processes where heat transfer occurs, the energy available for doing work decreases.

Exercises

In the system shown in figure, the gas in the cylinder is at a pressure of 8000 Pa and the piston
has an area of 0.1 m?. As heat is slowly added to the gas, the piston is pushed up a distance of 4
cm. Calculate the work done on the surroundings by the expanding gas. Assume that the
pressure remains constant. (Any process in which the pressure remains constant is called an
isobaric process.)
AV = AAy = (0.1 m')(4• 10-3m) = 4. 10-3
m3
W = pV = (8000 Pa)(4•10-3m°) = 32 J
If 42 J of heat is added to the system during the expansion, what is the change in internal
energy of the system?
AU = Q - W = 42 J- 32 J = 10 J
If 42 J of heat is added to the system with the piston clamped in a fixed position, what is the
work done by the gas? What is the change in its internal energy?
W=0
AU = Q -W= 42J- 0J= 42 J

Water with a mass of 2 kg is held at constant volume in a

container while 10000 J of heat is slowly added by a flame. The container is not well insulated,
and as a result 2000 J of heat leaks out to the surroundings. What is the temperature increase
of the water? (A process that takes place at constant volume is called an isovolumetric process.)
ДТ = Q/mc
=10000 J - 2000 J /
(2 kg) (4.186 - 103 J/kg°C) = 0.96°C
• Find the efficiency of an engine that introduces 2000 J of heat during the combustion phase
and loses 1500 J at exhaust.
e= 1 - Qc/ Qh

=1- 1500 J/ 2000 J

= 0.25 (or 25 %)

If an engine has an efficiency of 20 % and loses 3000 J at exhaust and to the cooling water, how
much work is done by the engine?

W= Qn -Qc= 3750 J - 3000 J = 750 J

● A steam engine has a boiler that operates at 500 K. The heat changes water to steam,
which drives the piston. The temperature of the exhaust is that of the outside air, about
300 K. What is the maximum thermal efficiency of this steam engine?
ec = 1 - Tc/Th = 1 - 300 K/ 500 K = 0.4

Determine the maximum work the engine can perform in each cycle of operation if it
absorbs 200 J of thermal energy from the hot reservoir during each cycle.

● The highest theoretical efficiency of a gasoline engine, based on the Carnot

cycle, is 30 %. If this engine expels its gases into the atmosphere, which has a
temperature of 300 K, what is the temperature in the cylinder immediatelly after
combustion?

Th = Tc/ (1 - ec) = 300 K / (1 - 0.3) = 430 K

Actual gasoline engines operate on a cycle significantly different from the Carnot
cycle and therefore have lower maximum possible efficiency.

● Calculate the change in entropy when 300 g of lead melts at 327°C. Lead has a latent
heat of fusion of 2.45 • 10* J/kg.

● A large, cold object is at 273 K, and a large hot object is at 373 K. Show that it is
impossible for a small amount of heat energy, say 8 J, to be transferred from the cold
object to the hot object without decreasing the entropy of the isolated system and
hence violating the second law. Assume that during the heat transfer the two systems
undergo no significant temperature change.
 This is in violation of the law that the entropy of an isolated system always increases in
natural processes. That is, the spontaneous transfer of heat from a cold object to a hot
object cannot occur.
Suppose that 8 J of heat were transferred from the hot to the cold object. What would
be the net change in entropy?
AS = 0.0079 J/K.

● What is wrong with the statement: "Given any two bodies, the one with the higher
temperature contains more heat"?
Heat is energy in the process of being transferred, not a form of energy that is held or
contained. Correct statement would be: (1)
"Given any two objects in thermal contact, the one with the higher temperature will
transfer heat to the other." or (2) "Given any two objects of equal mass, the one with
the higher products of absolute temperature and specific heat contains more internal
energy."
● • A thermodynamic process occurs in which the entropy of a system changes by -10 J/K.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, what can you conclude about the
entropy change of the environment?
The environment must have an entropy change of +10 J/K or more.

Electric Charges:

A number of simple experiments demonstrate the existence of electrostatic forces. For

example, after running a plastic comb through your hair, you will find that the comb
attracts bits of paper.
When materials behave in this way, they are said to have become electrically charged.
You can give your body an electric charge by sliding across a cat seat. You can then feel,
and remove, the charge on your body by lightly touching another person. Under the
right conditions, a visible spark can be seen when you touch, and a slight tingle is felt by
both parties.
Experiments also demonstrate that there are two kinds of electric charge, which
Benjamin Franklin named positive and negative. A rubber rod that has been rubbed with
fur is suspended by a piece of string. When a glass rod that has been rubbed with silk is
brought near the rubber rod, the rubber rod is attracted toward the glass rod. If two
charged rubber rods (or two charged glass rods) are brought near each other, the force
between them is repulsive. This observation demonstrates that the rubber and glass
have different kinds of charge (on the glass rod is called positive, and on the rubber rod
negative).
We now know that the origin of charge is atoms. Nature's basis carrier of positive
electricity is the proton located in the nucleus of an atom, and protons never moved
from one material to another. Thus, when an object becomes charged, it does so
because it has either gained or lost nature's basic carrier of negative electricity, the
electron.
An important characteristic of charge is that electric charge is always conserved.
One object gains some amount of negative charge while the other loses an equal
amount of negative charge and hence is left with a positive charge. For example, when a
glass rod is rubbed with silk, the silk obtains a negative charge that is equal in magnitude
to the positive charge on the glass rod as negatively charged electrons
are transferred from the glass to the silk in the rubbing process. Likewise, when rubber
is rubbed with fur, electrons are transferred from the fur to the rubber.
In 1909 Robert Millikan discovered that the charge is quantized. This means that charge
occurs as discrete bundles in nature. Thus, an object may have a charge of *e, 2e, and so
on. An electron has a charge of -e. The value of e is now known to be 1.6•10-1 C

It is convenient to classify substances in terms of their ability to conduct

electric charge.
Conductors are materials in which electric charges move freely, and insulators are
materials in which electric charges do not move freely.
Glass and rubber are insulators. When such materials are charged by rubbing, only the
rubbed area becomes charged, and there is no tendency for the charge to move into
other regions of the material. In contrast, materials such as copper, aluminium, silver, or
gold are good conductors. When such materials are charged in some small region, the
charge readily distributes itself over the entire surface of the material.
Semiconductors are third class of materials, and their electrical
properties are somewhere between those of insulators and those of conductors. Silicon
and germanium are well-known semiconductors that are widely used in the fabrication
of a variety of electronic devices.
Coulomb's Law

In 1785 Charles Coulomb established the fundamental law of electric force between two
stationary charged particles. From the experimental observations, the magnitude of the
electric force between two charges separated by a distance of r can be expressed as

where k = 9. 109 Nm'/C* is the Coulomb constant (k = Areo, where

E0 = 8.85 - 10-12 C7/Nm' is the permittivity of free space); 11| and
@2 are the magnitudes of the charges on the two particles. Electric force is attractive if
the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive if the charges have the same sign.
The mathematical form of the Coulomb force is the same as that of the gravitational
force. However, there are some important differences between electric and
gravitational forces. Electric forces can be either attractive or repulsive, but gravitational
forces are always attractive.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

The Electric Field

The question about action at a distance can be answered by saying that one charge sets
up an electric field in the space surrounding it. When another charged object enters this
electric field, forces of an electrical nature arise.
An electric field is a vector quantity, and has both magnitude and direction.
The magnitude of the electric field, due to the point-like charge @, at the distance r
from that charge is

If Q is positive, the electric field, due to this charge, is radially outward from Q. If Q is
negative, the field is directed toward Q;
Thus, the electric force on the charge q due to an electric field E at the position of the
charge q is
F =qE

Electric Field Lines

A convenient aid for visualizing electric field patterns is to draw lines pointing in the
direction of the electric field vector at any point. These lines, called electric field lines,
are related to the electric field in any region of space in the following manner:
- The electric field vector is tangent to the electric field lines at each point.
• The number of lines per unt area through a surface perpendicular to the lines is
proportional to the strength of the electric field in a given region.
Thus the magnitude of electric field is large when the field lines are close
together and small when they are far apart.
Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

A good electric conductor, such as copper, contains charges (electrons) that are not
bound to any atom and are free to move about within the material.
When no net motion of charge occurs within a conductor, the conductor is said to be in
electrostatic equilibrium.
It is possible to see that an isolated conductor (one that is insulated from
ground) has the following properties:
• The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
• Any excess charge on an isolated conductor resides entirely on its surface.
• The electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the conductor's
surface.
• On an irregularly shaped conductor, the charge tends to accumulate at locations
where the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest. That is, at a sharp point.
• Why is it safe to stay inside an automobile during a lightning storm?
Although many people believe that this is safe because of the insulating
characteristics of the rubber tires, this is not true. Lighting is able to penetrate a
centimeter of rubber. The safety of remaining in the car is due to the fact that charges
on the metal shell of the car will reside on the outer surface of the car.
Thus an occupant in the automobile touching the inner surfaces is not in danger.

Electric Flux and Gauss's Law

Consider an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and direction. The electric
field lines penetrate a surface of area A, which is perpendicular to the field. We define
the magnitude of the electric flux as

When the area is constructed such that a closed surface is formed, we say that flux lines
passing into the interior of the volume are negative and those passing out of the interior
of the volume are positive.
Gauss's Law: The net electric flux through any closed surface (gaussian surface) is equal
to the net charge inside the surface divided by Eo = 8.85 • 10-12 C2/Nm2.

Electrical Potential Energy

Because the Coulomb force is conservative, it is possible to define a electrical potential

energy function associated with this force.
Imagine a small positive charge Q placed at point A in a uniform electric field of
magnitude E. As the charge moves from point A to point B under the influence of the
electric force exerted on it, QE, the work done on the charge by the electric force is
W= Fd = QEd
where d is the distance between A and B.
By definition, the work done by the conservative force equals the negative of the charge
in potential energy,

This is valid only for the case of a uniform electric field.

Electric Potential

More practical importance in the study of electricity is the concept of electric potential.
Potential difference, AV, between two points A and B, is defined as the change in
potential energy of a charge Q, moved from A and B, divided by the charge Q

Because electrical energy is a scalar quantity, electric potential is also scalar quantity.
The Sl units of electric potential are joules per coulomb, called volts

In the case of a uniform electric field, E, the potential difference (between two points) is

where d is the distance between the points.

Electric Potential Due to Point Charge

In electric circuits a point of zero electric potential is often defined by grounding

(connecting to Earth) at some point in the circuit. It is possible to define the electric
potential due to a point charge at a point in space. In this case, the point of zero electric
potential is taken to be at an infinite distance from the charge. With this choice it is
possible to show that the electric potential created by a point charge Q at any distance r
from the charge is given by

The electric potential of two or more charges is obtained by applying the superposition
principle. That is, the total electric potential at some point due to several point charges
is the algebraic sum of the electric potentials due to the individual charges.
Now, we can express the electrical potential energy of pair of charges Q1 and Q2 as
potential created by charge Qi times charge Q2
Capacitance

A capacitor is a device used in a variety of electric circuits. For example, to tune the
frequency of radio receivers, eliminate sparking in automobile ignition systems, or store
short-term energy in electronic flash units.
It consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a distance of d. When used in an
electric circuit, the plates are connected to the positive and negative terminals of some
voltage source. When this connection is made, electrons are
Area = A
pulled off one of the plates, leaving it with a charge of +Q, and other plates with -Q.
The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the
charge on either conductor to the magnitude of the potential difference between the
conductors
C -
AV
Large capacitance is needed to store a large amount of charge for a given applied
voltage. Capacitance has SI units coulombs per volt, called farads 1F=1C/V. The farad is a
very large unit of capacitance. In practice, most typical capacitors have capacitance
ranging from microfarads to picofarads.
For example, the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor whose plates are separated
by air is

where A is the area of one of the plates and d is the distance of the plates.
Combinations of Capacitors

Two or more capacitors can be combined in circuits in several ways.

The equivalent capacitance of certain combinations can be calculated.
Parallel Combination of capacitors
Ceq = C1+ C2 + ...
Series Combination of capacitors
Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

Almost everyone who works with electronic equipment has at some time verified that a
capacitor can store energy.
It is possible to show that the energy stored in the capacitor can be expressed as

From the definition of capacitance, we find @ = CAV, hence, we

can express the energy stored as

This can be applied to any capacitor. In practice, there is a limit to the maximum energy
that can be stored, because electrical breakdown ultimately occurs between the plates
at a sufficiently large value of AV.

Capacitors with Dielectrics

A dielectric is an insulating material, such as glass, rubber or waxed paper.

When a dielectric is inserted between the plates of a capacitor, the capacitance
increases. If the dielectric completely fills the space between the plates, the capacitance
is multiplied by the factor k, called the dielectric constant
C= KC.
(C, is the capacitance in the absence of a dielectric)
● Find the electric force on a proton placed in an electric field of 2 • 10* N/C, that
is directed along the positive x axis. Because the charge on a proton is te = 1.6 •
10-19 C, the electric force acting on the proton is

​where the force is in the positive x direction.

● Find a uniform electric flux oriented in the z direction. Find the net electric flux
through the surface of a cube of edges L oriented as in figure.
The net flux can be evaluated by summing up the fluxes through each face of the
cube. First, note that the flux through four of the faces is zero, because electric
field is parallel to the area on these surfaces. For surfaces 1 and 2 that lie in the
yz-plane are
● Charge qi = 7•10 C is at the origin, and charge 92 = -5 • 10 6 C is on the x axis, 0.3 m
from the origin. Find the magnitude of the electric field at point P which has coordinates
on the y axis 0.4 m from the origin.
The magnitudes of E, and E2 are

● If a suspended object A is attracted to object B, which is charged, can we

conclude that object A is charged?
No. Object A might have a charge opposite in sign to that of
B, but it also might be a neutral conductor. In the later case, object B causes object A to
be polarized, pulling charge of one sign to the near face of A and pushing an equal
amount of charge of the opposite sign to the far face. Then the force of attraction
exerted on B by the induced charge on the near side of A is slightly larger than the force
of repulsion exerted on B by the induced charge on the far side of A. Therefore, the net
force on A is toward B.
● If a metal object receives a positive charge, does its mass increase, decrease, or
stay the same? What happens to its mass if the object receives a negative
charge?
An object's mass decreases very slightly (immeasurably) when it is given a positive
charge, because it loses electrons. When the object is given a negative charge, its mass
increases slightly because it gains electrons.
● In fair weatherm there is an electric field at the surface of the Earth, pointing
down into the ground. What is the electric charge on the ground in this
situations?
 Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges. Thus, if the fair
weather field is directed into the ground, the ground must have a negative charge.

● The figure illustrates a situation in which a constant electric filed can be set up. A 12-V
battery is connected between two parallel metal plates separated by 0.003 m. Find the
magnitude of the electric field.

● The direction of this field is from the positive plate to the negative plate.

●
A 3-uF capacitor is connected to a 12-V battery. What is the magnitude of the charge on
each plate of the capacitor?

● A parallel-plate capacitor has an area of 2 cm? and a plate separation of 1 mm. Find its
capacitance.

● Determine the capacitance of the single capacitor that is equivalent to the parallel
combination of capacitors in figure.
Find the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor if they are connected in series with the
battery.

Find the amount of energy stored in a 4uF capacitor when it is connected across a 120 V
battery.

Electric Current
 Whenever electric charges like signs move, an electric current is said to exist. The
current is the rate at which charge flows through this surface. If AQ is the amount of
charge that passes through this area in a time of At, the current, I, is equal to the ratio of
the charge to the time interval

The SI unit of current is the ampere, 1 A = 1 C/s. The current has

the same direction as the flow of positive charge. In a common conductor, such as
copper, the current is due to the motion of the negatively charged electrons. Therefore,
when we speak of current in such a conductor, the direction of the current is opposite
the direction of flow of electrons.

Resistance and Ohm’s Law

When a potential difference (voltage) AV, is applied across the ends of a metallic
conductor, the current in the conductor is found to be proportional to the applied
voltage. If the proportionality is exact, we can write
AV = IR
where the proportionality constant R is called the resistance of the conductor.
Resistance has the SI units volts per ampere, called ohms, . For many materials,
including most metals, experiments show that the resistance is constant over a wide
range of applied voltages. This statement is known as Ohm's law.
Ohm's law is an empirical relationship that is valid only for certain materials, called
ohmic materials.
The resistance R of an ohmic conductor is proportional to its length, 1, and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area, A,
where p is called the resistivity of the material.

Resistivity

The resistivity, and hence the resistance, of a conductor depends on a number of

factors. One of the most important is the temperature of the metal. For most metals,
resistivity increases with increasing temperature.
Good electric conductors have very low resistivity, and good insulators have very high
resistivity. Table lists the resistivities of a variety of materials at 20°C.

Electric Energy and Power

If a battery is used to establish an electric current in a conductor, chemical energy

stored in the battery is continuously transformed into thermal energy in the resistor.
It is possible to show that the power dissipated in the resistor is
P = IAV
Using the fact that AV = IR for a resistor, we can express the
power dissipated by the resistor in the alternative form

Regardless of the ways in which you use electrical energy in your home, you ultimately
must pay for it. The unit of energy used by electric companies to calculate consumption,
the kilowatt-hour 1 kWh = 3.6 • 106 J

Combinations of Resistors

Series combination of resistors

Req = R1+ R2...
The equivalent resistance of a series combination is greater than any individual
resistance.
Parallel combination of resistors

The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is less than any individual resistance.
Exercises

Electrical devices are often rated with a voltage and a current (for example, 120 V, 5 A).
Batteries, however, are only rated with a voltage (for example, 1.5 V). Why?
An electrical appliance has a given resistance. Thus, when it is attached to a power
source with a known potential difference, a definite current will be drawn. The device
can be labeled with both the voltage and the current. Batteries, however, can be applied
to a number of devices. Each device will have a different resistance, so the current from
the battery will vary with the device. As a result, only the voltage of the battery can be
specified.

• Why is it possible for a bird to sit on a high-voltage wire without being electrocuted?
The bird is resting on a wire of a fixed potential. In order to be electrocuted, a potential
difference is required. There is no potential (very low) difference between the bird's
feet.

All devices are required to have identifying plates that specify their electrical
characteristics. The plate on a certain steam iron states that the iron carries a current of
5 A when connected to a
220-V source. What is the resistance of the steam iron?
From Ohm's law, we find that the resistance to be
 • An electric heater is operated by applying a potential difference of 50 V to a nichrome
wire of total resistance 8 S. Find the current by the wire and the power rating of the
heater.

Four resistors are arranged as shown in figure. Find the equivalent resistance and the
current in the circuit.

Magnets
Most people have had experience with some form of magnet. Iron objects are most strongly
attracted to the ends of a magnet, called its poles. One end is called the north pole and the
other the south pole. The names come from the behaviour of a magnet in the presence of the
Earth's magnetic field (north pole points to the north of the Earth).
Magnetic poles also exert attractive or repulsive forces on each other similar to the electrical
forces between charged objects. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each
other.
Electric charges can be isolated, but magnetic poles cannot. Magnetic poles always occur in
pairs.
Magnetism can be induced in some materials. For example, if a piece of
unmagnetized iron is placed near a strong permanent magnet, the piece of iron eventually
becomes magnetized. Iron is easily magnetized but also tend to lose their magnetism easily. In
contrast, cobalt and nickel are difficult to magnetize but tend to retain their magnetism.
Recall that an electric field surrounds any electric charge. The region of space surrounding a
moving charge also includes a magnetic field.

Magnetic Field of the Earth

The geographic north pole corresponds to a magnetic south pole, and the geographic south
pole corresponds to a magnetic north pole.
If a compass needle is suspended in bearings that allow it to rotate in the vertical plane as well
as in the horizontal plane, the needle is horizontal with respect to the Earth's surface only near
the Equator. As the device is moved
northward the needle rotates so that it points more and more toward the surface of the Earth.
Finally, at a point just north of Hudson Bay in Canada, the north pole of the needle points
directly downward. It is about 2000 km from the Earth's geographic north pole and varies with
time.
Thus it is only
approximately correct to say that a compass needle points north.

Magnetic Fields

A stationary charged particle does not interact with a static magnetic field.
However, when moving through a magnetic field a charged particle experiences a magnetic
force. This force has its maximum value when the charge moves perpendicularly to the
magnetic field lines. It becomes zero when the particle moves along the field lines.
The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T). For example, the Earth's
The magnetic field near its surface is about 0.00005 T.
From a simple experiment it is possible to demonstrate that a current-carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field (first found by Oersted, 1820).
Solenoid

If a long straight wire is bent into a coil of several closely spaced loops, the resulting device is a
solenoid. This device is important in many applications because it acts as a magnet only when it
carries a current. The magnitude of the magnetic field B inside a solenoid increases with the
current I and is proportional to the number of coils per unit length N/l

Exercises

Why does the picture on a television screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near
the screen? (You should not do this at home on a color television set, because it may
permanently affect the television picture quality.)
The magnetic field of the magnet produces a magnetic force on the electrons moving toward
the screen that produce the image. This magnetic force deflects the electrons to regions on the
screen other than the ones to which they are supposed to go. The result is a distorted image.
• Can you use a compass to detect the currents in wires in the walls near light switches in your
home?
A compass would not detect currents in wires near light switches for two reasons. Because the
cable to the light switch contains two wires, with one carrying current to the switch and the
other away from the switch, the net magnetic field would be very small and fall off rapidly. The
second reason is that the current is alternating at 50 Hz. As a result, the magnetic field is
oscillating at 50 Hz, also. This frequency would be too fast for the compass to follow, so the
effect on the compass reading would average to zero.

Maxwell's Predictions

In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell provided a mathematical theory that showed a close relationship
between electric and magnetic phenomena. His theory predicted that electric and magnetic
fields can move through space as waves. The theory he developed is based on the following:
• Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative charges.
- Magnetic field lines always form closed loops.
• A varying magnetic field induces an electric field.
• Magnetic fields are generated by moving charges (or currents) or by a varying electric fields.
The waves sent out by the oscillating charges are fluctuating electric and magnetic fields, and so
they are called electromagnetic waves, traveling through empty space with a speed of about
300 000 000 m/s.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz was the first to generate and detect electromagnetic waves in a
laboratory setting.

Production of Electromagnetic Waves .

Electromagnetic waves are radiated by any circuit carrying an alternating current. The
fundamental mechanism responsible for this radiation is the acceleration of a charged particle.
Whenever a charged particle undergoes an acceleration, it must radiate energy.
An alternating voltage applied to the wires of an antenna forces an electric charge in the
antenna to oscillate.
This is a common technique for accelerating charged particles and is the source of the radio
waves emitted by the broadcast antenna of a radio station. As the charges continue to oscillate
between the rods, the electric field moves away from the antenna at the speed of light.

Production of Electromagnetic Waves .

Because the oscillating charges create a current in the rods, a magnetic field is also generated.
The magnetic field lines circle the antenna and are perpendicular to the electric field at all
points. Both fields are perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. Hence, we see that
an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave.
At great distance from the antenna, the strengths of the electric and magnetic
fields become very weak.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light. In fact, it can be shown that the speed of
an electromagnetic wave is related to the permeability and permittivity of the medium through
which it travels. For free space it is

where c is speed of light, 1o = 4 • 10-7 Ns?/C is the permeability constant of vacuum, and eo =
8.85 • 10-12 C/Nm? is the permittivity of vacuum.
It can be shown also that the magnitude of the electric to the magnetic field in an
electromagnetic wave equals the speed of light

Electromagnetic waves carry both energy and momentum as they travel through space.

The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves .

All electromagnetic waves travel through vacuum with a speed of c. Hence, their frequency, f,
and wavelength, 2, are related by the expression
The types of electromagnetic waves are (there are no sharp division
between one kind of wave and the next:
• Radio waves are the result of charges accelerating through conduction wires. They are used in
radio and television communication systems.
Microwaves have wavelengths ranging between about 1 mm and 30 cm, and are generated by
electronic devices. They are well suited for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic application.
• Infrared waves (sometimes called heat waves), produced by hot bodies and molecules, have
wavelengths ranging from about 1 mm to the longest wavelength of visible light, 700 nm. They
are readily absorbed by most materials. The infrared energy absorbed by a substance appears
as heat. This is because the energy agitates the atoms of the object, increasing their vibrational
or translational motion, and the result is a temperature rise. Physical therapy and infrared
photography are some practical applications.

Visible light, the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves, may be defined as the part of
the spectrum that is detected by a human eye. Light is produced by the rearrangement of
electrons in atoms and molecules. The wavelengths of visible light are classified as colors
ranging from violet, 400 nm, to red, 700 nm.
The eye's sensitivity is a function of wavelength and is greatest at a wavelength of about 560
nm (yellow-green).

Ultraviolet light (UV) covers wavelengths ranging from about 400 nm to 0.6 nm. The Sun is an
important source of ultraviolet light (which is the main cause of suntans). Most of the
ultraviolet light from the Sun is absorbed by atoms in the upper atmosphere, or stratosphere.
This is fortunate, because UV light in large quantities has harmful effects on humans. One
important constituent of the stratosphere is ozone from reactions of oxygen with ultraviolet
radiation. This ozone shield converts lethal high-energy ultraviolet radiation to heat, which
warms the stratosphere.
• X-rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from about 10 nm to 0.1 pm. The most
common source of x-rays is the acceleration of high-energy electrons bombarding a metal
target. X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of
cancer. Because X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be taken to
avoid unnecessary exposure and overexposure.
Gamma rays are emitted by radioactive nuclei. They are highly penetrating and cause serious
damage when absorbed by living tissues. Those working near such radiation must be protected
by garments containing heavily absorbing materials, such as layers of lead.

Exercises
The human eye is sensitive to electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from
400 nm to 700 nm. What range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation can the eye detect?

What are the wavelength ranges in the FM (frequency

modulation) radio band, 88 - 108 MHz

The Nature of Light

Until the beginning of the 19th century, light was considered to be a stream of particles,
emitted by a light source, that stimulated the sense of sight on entering the eye. That was
proposed by Newton.
During Newton's lifetime Christian Huygens proposed another theory - wave theory of light.
The wave theory did not receive immediate acceptance because there were not clear
experimental evidence and also due to Newton's great reputation as a scientist. The first clear
demonstration of the wave nature of light was provided in 1801 by Thomas Young, who
showed that light exhibits interference behavior.
That is, for example, at certain points in the vicinity of two sources, light waves can combine
and cancel each other by destructive interference.
The most important development concerning the theory of light was the work of
Maxwell, who in 1865 predicted that light was a form of electromagnetic wave.
Although his theory explained most known properties of light, some subsequent experiments
could not be explained by the assumption that light was a wave. The most striking of these was
the photoelectric effect (clean metal surfaces emit charges when exposed to ultraviolet light).
In 1905 Einstein formulated the theory of light quanta and explained the photoelectric effect.
He concluded that light is composed of corpuscles (photons) with energy proportional to the
frequency of the electromagnetic wave, E=hf, where h is
Planck's constant.
Thus, light must have a dual nature. That is, in some cases light acts as a wave and in others as a
particle, but never acts as both in the same experiments.

The Speed of Light

Light travels so fast that early attempts to measure its speed were unsuccessful. The first
known successful estimate of the speed of light was made in 1675 by Ole Roemer. His
technique involved astronomical observations of one of the moons of Jupiter, Io. He estimated
the speed of light to be about 210 000 km/s.

Later, in 1849, Fizeau arrived at a value of 310 000 m/s.

A recent value of the speed of light in a vacuum, obtained using a laser
technique, is 299 792 458 m/s.

Geometric Optics

Firstly, our discussion of light will be concerned with what happens when light passes through
some optic materials or reflects from them (lenses, mirrors, etc). Explanations of such
phenomena can be done by geometrical analysis of light rays. That part of optics is often called
geometric optics.
The first property of light, inside geometric optics, can be understood based on common
experience: light travels in a straight line path until it encounters a boundary between two
different materials. When light strikes a boundary it either is

reflected from the boundary, passes into the material on the other side of the boundary, or
partially does both.
We use the ray approximation to represent beams of light.

Reflection of Light

When a light ray traveling in a transparent medium

encounters a boundary leading into a second medium, part (or total) of the incident ray is
reflected back into the first medium. Reflection of light from a smooth surface is called specular
reflection. If the reflecting surface is rough, the surface reflects the rays in a variety of
directions. Reflection from any rough surface is known as diffuse reflection. We will concern
ourselves only with specular reflection, and we use the term reflection to mean specular
reflection.
Experiments show that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence, that is,
Refraction of Light

When a ray of light traveling through a

A transparent medium encounters a boundary leading into another transparent medium, part
of the ray enters the second medium, and is said to be refracted.
Experiments show that the angle of
refraction depends on the properties of the two media and on the angle of incidence as
n, sin 0, = n, sin 02
(called Snell's law)
where n, and n, are indices of refraction of two mediums, defined as
Indices of Refraction

From the definition, we see that the index of refraction is a dimensionless number that is
greater than 1, because the speed of light in any medium is less than the speed of light in
vacuum. (For a vacuum index equals 1.)
It is possible to show that, as light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength changes
but its frequency remains constant.
Dispersion of Light

An important property of the index of refraction is that its value in anything but vacuum
depends on the wavelength of light. This phenomenon is called dispersion. Using Snell's law we
can see that light of different wavelengths is bent at different angles when incident on a
refracting material.
Blue light (~470 nm) bends more than red light (~650 nm) when passing into a refracting
material.
Suppose a beam of white light (a
combination of all visible wavelengths) is incident on a prism. Because of dispersion, the rays
that emerge from the second face of the prism fan out in a series of colors known as a visible
spectrum.
The Rainbow

The dispersion of light into a spectrum is demonstrated most vividly in nature through the
formation of a rainbow, often seen by an observer positioned between the Sun and a rain
shower. A ray of light passing overhead strikes a drop of water in the atmosphere and is
refracted and reflected as shown in figure. The small angular difference between the returning
violet and red rays causes us to see the bow.
Total Internal Reflection

An interesting effect called total internal reflection can occur when light attempts to move from
a medium with a high index of refraction to one with a lower index of refraction. At some
particular angle of incidence, called the critical angle, the refracted light ray moves parallel to
the boundary. For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, the beam is entirely
reflected at the boundary.
Intersecting applications are submarine periscopes and fiber optics (in medicine and
telecommunications)
Exercises

Tape a coin to the bottom of a large opaque bowl as in figure.

Look at the coin from the side and move backwards until you can no longer see the coin.
Remain still at that position, and have a friend pour water into the bowl until it is full as in
figure. Note that you are now able to see the coin because the light is refracted at the water-air
interface.

● Why do astronomers looking at distant galaxies talk about looking backward in time?
Light travels through a vacuum at a speed of 3000 000 km/s.
Thus an image we see from a distant star or galaxy must have been generted some time ago.

● Find the speed of light in water (n = 1.333).

 ● A beam of light enters a layer of water at an angle of 36° with the vertical. What is the
angle between the refracted ray and the vertical?

Flat Mirrors

A distance, p, of a point light source (called object) in front of a flat mirror is called the object
distance. Light rays leave the source and are reflected from the mirror. After reflection, the reys
diverge (spread apart), but they appear to the viewer to come from a point behind the mirror,
called the image of the object. Images are formed at the point at which rays of light actuylly
intersect or at which they appear to originate.

A distance, q, of the image is called image distance.

Images are classified as real or virtual. A real image is one in which light actually intersects, or
passes through, the image point; a virtual image is one in which the light does not pass through
the image point but appears to come (diverge) from that point. The image formed by the flat
mirror in the figure is a virtual image. Real images can be displayed on a screan, but virtual
images cannot.
The image formed by an object placed in front of a flat mirror is as far behind
the mirror as the object is in front of
the mirror, p=q.

Spherical Mirror

A spherical mirror has the shape of a segment of a sphere. A spherical mirror with light
reflecting from its inner concave surface is called a concave mirror. The mirror has radius of
curvature R, and its center
Principal axis
of curvature is at point C.
A spherical mirror that light is reflected from the outer convex surface is called convex mirror.
Using simple algebra it is possible to get the expression
called the mirror equation
where f is the focal length defined as f = R/2.

For the magnification of the mirror we can find

Refracting Surfac
Using Snell’s law of refraction and simple geometrical techniques it is possible to show that, if
the refracting surface is flat, the object distance and image distance are related by the equation

Furthermore, the magnification of a refracting surface is

Mirage and Halo
The mirage is a phenomenon of nature produced by refraction in the atmosphere. A mirage can
be observed when the ground is so hot that the air directly above it is warmer than the air at
higher elevations. The desert is a region in which such circumstances prevail, but mirages are
also seen on heated roadways during the summer. The layers of air at different heights above
the Earth have different densities and different refractive indices.
A halo around the Moon is another phenomenon of nature. These halos are most commonly
seen on winter nights because an abundance of ice crystals in the sky is necessary for their
production. When a light ray passes through, it is deflected by an angle of about 22°.
Thin Lenses
A typical thin lens consists of a piece of glass or plastic, ground so that each of its two refracting
surfaces is a segment of either a sphere or a plane. Lenses are commonly used to form images
by refraction in optical instruments, such as cameras, microscopes, and telescopes. The
equation that relates object and images distances for a lens

is virtually identical to the mirror equation.

Lenses can be placed in two groups. The lenses that are thicker at the center than at the tim are
called converging lenses, and those that are thinner at the center than at the rim are diverging
lenses.
Focal Length
The focal length, f, is defined as the image distance that corresponds to an infinite object
distance. Note that a converging lens has a positive focal length, and a diverging lens has a
negative focal length. Hence the names positive and negative are often given to those lenses.
The focal length for a lens in air is related to the curvatures of its front and back surfaces and to
the index of refraction of the lens material by

Lens Aberrations
One of the basic problems of lenses is the imperfect quality of the images. The departures of
real (imperfect) images from the ideal predicted by the simple theory are called aberrations.
Two common types of aberrations are spherical and chromatic aberrations.
Spherical aberration results from the fact that the focal points of light rays far from the
principal axis of a spherical lens (or mirror) are different from the focal points of rays passing
near the axis. In the case of mirrors one can minimize spherical aberration by employing a
parabolic rather than spherical surface (but they are very expensive).
The fact that different wavelengths of light refracted by a lens focused at different points rise to
chromatic aberration. When light passes through a lens, for example, violet light rays are
refracted more than red light rays. Chromatic aberration can be greatly reduced by the use of a
combination of converging and diverging lenses made from two different types of glasses.

Exercises

• A 1.8m tall man stands in front of a mirror in hopes of seeing his full height, no more and no
less. If his eyes are 0.1m from the top of his head, what is the minimum height of the mirror?
• Assume that a certain concave spherical mirror has a focal length of 10cm. Locate the images
for object distance of 25cm. Describe the image.
• An object 3cm high is placed 20cm from a convex mirror with a focal length of 8cm. Find the
position of the final image, the height of the image , and the magnification of the mirror.

• A small fish is swimming at a depth of 1m below the surface of a pond. Find the apparent
depth of the fish as viewed from directly overhead and magnification.
• The biconvex lens has an index of refraction of 1.5. The radius of curvature of the front
surface is R1=10cm, and that of back surface is R2=-15cm. Find the focal length of lens.

• A converging lens of focal length 10cm forms images of objects placed 30cm from the lens.
Find the image distance and describe the image.

Interference

Our discussion of light has been concerned with what happens when light passes through a lens
or reflects from a mirror. Explanations of such phenomena rely on a geometric analysis of light
rays. That part of optics is called geometric optics. Interference, diffraction, and polarization are
phenomena that cannot be adequately explained with ray optics, but the wave theory leads us
to a satisfying description. That part of optics we call wave optics.

In our discussion of interference of mechanical waves (Part 7), we found that two waves could
add together either constructively or destructively. In constructive interference, the amplitude
of the resultant wave is greater than that of either of the individual waves, whereas in
destructive interference, the resultant amplitude is less than that of either individual wave.
Electromagnetic waves also undergo interference. Furthermore, all interference associated
with electromagnetic waves arises from the combining of the electric and magnetic fields that
constitute the individual waves.

Interference effects in light waves are not easy to observe because of the short wavelengths
involved (about 400-750 nm). For sustained interference between two sources of light to be
observed, the sources must contain a constant phase with respect to each other (must be
coherent), and must have identical wavelengths.

Diffraction

If the light truly traveled in straight-line paths after passing through the slits, the waves would
not overlap and no interference pattern would be seen. But, the light deviates from a straight-
line path and enters the region that would otherwise be shadowed. This divergence of light
from its initial line of travel is called diffraction.

In general, diffraction occurs when waves pass through small openings, around obstacles, or by
sharp edges. This phenomena cannot be explained within the framework of geometric optics,
which says that light rays travel in straight lines.
Polarization

We described the transverse nature of electromagnetic waves. The electric and magnetic field
vectors associated with an electromagnetic wave are at right angles to each other and also to
the direction of wave propagation.

An ordinary beam of light consists of a large number of waves emitted by the atoms or
molecules of the light source. Each atom produces a wave with its own orientation of electric
field vector, corresponding to the direction of atomic vibration. However, because all directions
of vibration are possible, the resultant electromagnetic wave is a superposition of waves
produced by the individual atomic sources. The result is an unpolarized light wave.

A wave is said to be linearly polarized if the electric field vector is in the same direction at all
times at a particular point.
Polarization by Selective Absorbers

The most common technique for polarizing light is to use a material that transmits waves
whose electric field vectors are in a plane parallel to a certain direction and absorbs those
waves whose electric field vectors are in directions perpendicular to that direction.

In 1932, Land discovered a material, called polaroid, that polarizes light through selective
absorption by oriented molecules. This material is fabricated in thin sheets of long-chain
hydrocarbons. The molecules absorb light whose electric field vector is perpendicular to their
lengths.

Polarization by Reflection

When an unpolarized light beam is reflected from a surface, the reflected light is completely
polarized, partially polarized, or unpolarized, depending on the angle of incidence. If the angle
of incidence is either 0°or 90°, the reflected beam is unpolarized. However, for angles of
incidence between 0°or 90°, the reflected light is polarized to some extent. For one particular
angle of incidence, the reflected beam is completely polarized. This angle is called the polarizing
angle(or Brewster’s angle), and it is valid
where n is the relative index of refraction. This occurs when the angle between the reflected
and refracted beams is 90°.

Polarization by reflection is a common phenomena. Sunlight reflected from water, glass, or

snow is partially polarized. If the surface is horizontal, the electric field vector of the reflected
light has a strong horizontal component. Sunglasses made of polarizing material reduce the
glare of reflected light.
Polarization by Scattering

When light is incident on a system of particles, such as a gas, the electrons in the medium can
absorb and reradiate part of light. The absorption and reradiation of light by the medium, called
scattering, is what causes sunlight reaching an observer on the Earth from straight overhead to
be polarized. You can observe this effect by looking directly up through a pair of sunglasses
made of polarizing glass. Less light passes through at certain orientations of the lenses than at
others.

Bees and homing pigeons use the polarization of sunlight as a navigational aid.
The Camera

The single-lens photographic camera is a simple optical instrument whose essential features are
shown in figure. It consists of a light-tight box, a converging lens that produces a real image,
and a film behind the lens to receive the image. For proper focusing, which leads to sharp
images, the lens-to-film distance will depend on the object distance as well as on the focal
length of the lens. The shutter, located behind the lens, is a mechanical device that is opened
for selected time intervals. With this arrangement, moving objects can be photographed with
the use of short exposure times, and dark scenes with the use of long exposure [Link]
shutter times are 1/30, 1/60, 1/125, and 1/250 s.
The Eye

Like the camera, the eye gathers light and produces a sharp image. The front of the eye is
covered by a transparent membrane called the cornea. Inward from the cornea are a clear
liquid region (the aqueous humor), a variable aperture (the iris surrounding the pupil), and the
crystalline lens. Most of the refraction occurs in the cornea, because the liquid medium
surrounding the lens has an average index of refraction close to that of the lens. The iris, the
colored portion of the eye, is a muscular diaphragm that regulates the amount of light entering
the eye by dilating the pupil (increasing diameter) in light of low-intensity and contracting the
pupil in high-intensity light.

Light entering the eye is focused by the cornea-lens system onto the back surface of the eye,
called the retina. The surface of the retina consists of millions of sensitive receptors called rods
and cones. When stimulated by light, these structures send impulses via the optic nerve to the
brain, where a distinct image of an object is perceived.

The eye focuses on a given object by varying the shape of the pliable crystalline lens through an
amazing process called accommodation. An important component in accommodation is the
ciliary muscle, which is attached to the lens. It is evident that there is a limit to accommodation,
because objects that are very close to the eye produce blurred images. The near point is the
smallest distance for which the lens will produce a sharp image on the retina. This distance
usually increases with age.

Defects of the Eye

An eye can have several abnormalities that keep it from functioning properly. When the relaxed
eye produces an image of a nearby object behind the retina, the abnormality is known as
hyperopia, and the person is said to be farsighted. With this defect, distant objects are seen
clearly but near objects are blurred. Either the hyperopic eye is too short or the ciliary muscle
cannot change the shape of the lens enough to focus the image properly. The condition can be
corrected with a converging lens.

Another condition, known as myopia, or nearsightedness, occurs when a distant object is

focused in front of the retina. This can be corrected with a diverging lens.

A common eye defect is astigmatism, in which light from a point source produces a line image
on the retina. This occurs when the cornea or the lens are not perfectly spherical. A cylindrical
lens is used to correct this.

The Power

The power, P,of a lens in diopters equals the inverse of the focal length in meters. That is,
P=1/f. For example, a converging lens whose focal length is +20 cm has a power of 1/(+0.2
m)=+5 diopters, and a diverging lens whose focal length is –40 cm has a power of 1/(-0.4 m)=-
2.5 diopters
Exercises

• The near point of an eye is 50cm. What focal length must a corrective lens have to enable the
eye to see clearly an object 25cm away? What is the power of this lens?

• A nearsighted person cannot see objects clearly when they are beyond 50cm (the far point of
an eye). What focal length should the prescribed lens have to correct this problem?
Relativity

Most of our everyday experiences and observations deal with objects that move at speeds
much lower than the speed of light. Newtonian mechanics and the early ideas on space and
time were formulated to describe the motion of such objects. Although Newtonian mechanics
works very well at low speeds, it fails when applied to particles whose speeds approach that of
light.

In 1905, Einstein published his special theory of relativity which covers such phenomena. This
theory is based on two postulates:

● The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference systems.
● The speed of light in a vacuum is always measured to be 300 000 km/s, and the
measured value is independent of the motion of the observer or of the motion of the
source of light.
Relativistic Momentum and Energy

Within the framework of Einstein’s postulates of relativity, it is found that momentum is not
conserved if the classical definition of momentum, p=mv, is used. However, according to the
principle of relativity, momentum must be conserved in all reference systems. The correct
relativistic equation for momentum that satisfies these conditions is

where v is the velocity of the particle.

It is also found that the minimum energy of some object is E=mc² called the rest energy, where
mis mass of the object and cis speed of the light. This famous mass-energy equivalence
equation shows that mass is one possible manifestation of energy. It shows that a small mass
corresponds to an enormous amount of energy.

Blackbody Radiation

A modern version of mechanics called quantum physics was highly successful in explaining the
behaviour of atoms, molecules, and nuclei. The earliest and most basic ideas of quantum theory
were introduced by Planck. An extensive study of quantum theory is beyond the scope of this
course, as well as relativistic theory. We will only underlie ideas of quantum theory.

An object at any temperature is known to emit radiation (Stefan’s law, Part 10). The spectrum
of the radiation depends on the temperature and properties of the object. At low
temperatures, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are mainly in the infrared region and
hence not observable by the eye. As the temperature of an object increases, the object
eventually begins to glow red. At sufficiently high temperatures, it appears to be white. With
increasing temperature, the peak of the distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths. This shift
was found to obey the following relationship, called Wien’s law

Planck’s Hypothesis

Early attempts to use classical ideas to explain the blackbody radiation failed. In 1900 Planck
developed a formula for blackbody radiation that was in complete agreement with
experiments. He made assumption that submicroscopic electric oscillators can emit discrete
units of light energy that are called photons with energy of

f is the frequency of an electric oscillator (and light emitted). The key point in Planck’s theory is
the radical assumption of quantized energy states.

The Photoelectric Effect

Experiments showed that, when light is incident on certain metallic surfaces, electrons are
emitted from the surface. This phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect. According to
photoelectric effect equation (introduced by Einstein)the kinetic energy for those liberated
electrons is

where W is called the work function of the metal. The work function represents the minimum
energy with which an electron is bound in the metal.

Many practical devices in our everyday lives depend on the photoelectric effect. For example, a
use familiar to everyday is that of turning street lights on at night and off in the morning. A
photoelectric control unit in the base of the light activates a switch to turn off the streetlight
when ambient light of the correct frequency falls on it.

The Wave Properties of Particles

In 1923 Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have wave and particle
characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have wave as well as particle properties. He
suggested that material particles, of momentum p, should also have wave properties and a
corresponding wavelength λ

This proposal was first regarded as pure speculation. But in 1927 Davisson and Germer
succeeded in measuring the wavelength of electrons.

The Electron Microscope

A practical device that relies on the wave characteristics of electrons is the electron
microscope, which is in many respects similar to an ordinary compound microscope. One
important difference is that the electron microscope has a much greater resolving power
because electrons can be accelerated to high momentum, giving them a very short wavelength.
Any sort of microscope is capable of detecting details that are comparable in size to the
wavelength of the radiation used to illuminate the object. The wavelengths of electrons
typically are about 100 times shorter than those of the visible light used in optical microscopes.
As a result, electron microscopes are able to distinguish details about 100 times smaller.
The Uncertainty Principle

If you were to measure the position and velocity of a particle at any instant, you would always
be faced with reducing the experimental uncertainties in the measurements as much as
possible.

According to classical mechanics, there is no fundamental barrier to an ultimate refinement of

the apparatures or experimental procedures.

Quantum theory predicts, however, that it is impossible to make simultaneous measurements

of a particle’s position and velocity with infinite accuracy. This statement, known as the
uncertainty principle, was first derived by Heisenberg in 1927.

Suppose that Δxand Δpx represent the uncertainty in the measured values of the particle’s
position and momentum along the x axis at some instant. The uncertainty principle says that
the product ΔxΔpx, is never less than a number of the order of Planck’s constant h

That is, it is physically impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact
momentum of a particle.
Exercises

• What is the Sun’s surface temperature if the peak wavelength in its radiation is 500nm?

• Calculate the energy of a photon having wavelength in x-ray range, 5nm.

• Suppose optical radiation is used to determine the position of an electron to within the
wavelength of radiation. What will be the resulting uncertainty in the electron’s velocity?
Early Models of the Atom

The model of the atom in the days of Newton was a tiny, hard, indestructible sphere.

Thomson suggested a model of the atom as a volume of positive charge with electrons
embedded throughout the volume.

Rutherford assumed that the positive charge in an atom was concentrated in a region that was
small relative to the size of the atom, called the nucleus. Any electrons belonging to the atom
were assumed to be in the volume outside the nucleus, moving in the same manner as the
planets orbit the Sun.

Using the simplest atom, hydrogen, Bohr proposed a model of the hydrogen atom based on a
clever combination of classical and early quantum concepts. His basic assumption –that atoms
exist in discrete quantum states of well-defined energy –was a bold break with classical ideas.
In spite of its successes, Bohr’s specific model of the hydrogen atom was inconsistent with the
uncertainty principle and was replaced by the probability density model derived from
Schrödinger’s work.

Atomic Spectra

If a voltage is applied between metal electrodes in the tube (filled with some gas), the tube
emits light whose color is characteristic of the gas in the tube. When the emitted light is
analyzed with a spectrometer, a series of lines is observed. Such a series of spectral lines is
commonly referred to as an emission spectrum. The wavelengths contained in a given line
spectrum are characteristic of the element emitting the light. Because no two elements emit
the same line spectrum, this phenomenon represents a marvelous and reliable technique for
identifying elements in a substance.

An element can also absorb light at specific wavelengths, known as absorption spectrum. The
absorption spectrum consists of a series of dark lines superimposed on the otherwise
continuous spectrum. Each line in the absorption spectrum of a given element coincides with a
line in the emission spectrum of the element.

Quantum Mechanics and the Hydrogen Atom

One of the first great achievements of quantum mechanics was the solution of the wave
equation for the hydrogen atom. Three quantum numbers emerged from the solution of the
wave equation

● principal quantum number, n=1,2,3,...

● orbital quantum number, l=0,1,2,...,n-1
● orbital magnetic quantum number, ml=-l,...,l

It was later found that another quantum number, ms, the spin magnetic quantum number had
to be introduced with two values, +½, -½.
The Periodic Table

The state of an electron in an atom is specified by four quantum numbers that we introduced
(n, l, ml, ms).These quantum numbers can be used to describe all the electronic states of an
atom regardless of the number of electrons in its structure. The obvious question that arises is,
how many electrons in an atom can have a particular set of quantum numbers. Pauli answered
this in statements known as the exclusion principle: no two electrons in an atom can ever be in
the same quantum state; that is, no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of
quantum numbers.

Hydrogen has only one electron, which, in its ground state, can be described by either of two
sets of quantum numbers: 1,0,0,+½or 1,0,0,-½. The electronic configuration of this atom is
designated as 1s¹. The notation 1s refers to a state for which n=1 and l=1, and the superscript
indicates that one electron is present in this level. Neutral helium has two electrons. The
quantum numbers are 1,0,0,+½and 1,0,0,-½, with configuration 1s².

Atomic Transitions

An atom will emit radiation only at a certain frequency that corresponds to the energy
separation between the various allowed states. When light is incident on the atom, only those
photons whose energy, hf, matches the energy separation ΔEbetween two levels can be
absorbed by the atom (stimulated absorption process). As a result, some atoms are raised to
various allowed higher energy levels, called excited states.
Once an atom is in an excited state, there is a constant probability that it will jump back to a
lower energy level by emitting a photon. This process is known as spontaneous emission.

A third process that is important in lasers, stimulated emission, was predicted by Einstein in
1917. Suppose an atom is in the excited state and a photon with energy hf=ΔE is incident on it.
The incoming photon increases the probability that the excited electron will return to the
ground state and thereby emit a second photon having the same energy hf. These photons can
stimulate other atoms to emit photons in a chain of similar processes. The many photons
produced in this fashion are the source of the intense, coherent light in a laser.

Some Properties of Nuclei

All nuclei are composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons. In describing some of
the properties of nuclei, such as their charge, mass, and radius, we make use of the following
quantities:
 ● the atomic number, Z, which equals the number of protons in the nucleus
● the neutron number, N, which equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus
● the mass number, A, which equals the number of nucleons in the nucleus. (Nucleon is a
generic term used to refer to either a proton or a neutron.)

The symbol we use to represent nuclei is , where X represents the chemical symbol for the
element. The subscript Z can be omitted because the chemical symbol determines Z. The nuclei
of all atoms of a particular element must contain the same number of protons, but they may
contain different numbers of neutrons. Nuclei that are related in this way are called isotopes.
The isotopes of an element have the same Z value but different N and A values. The proton
carries a single positive charge, +e, where the neutron is electrically neutral. The masses of the
proton and the neutron are almost equal, and about 2000 times as massive as the electron. It is
convenient to define the unified mass unit, u, in such a way that the mass of one atom of the
isotope ¹²C is exactly 12u, where

Nuclear Stability

The very large repulsive electrostatic forces between protons should cause the nucleus to fly
[Link], nuclei are stable, because of the presence of another,short-range force, the
nuclear force. This is an attractive force that acts between all nuclear particles. The protons
attract each other via the nuclear force, and at the same time they repel each other through
the coulomb force. The nuclear force also acts between pairs of neutrons and between
neutrons and protons.

The nuclear force dominates the coulomb force within the nucleus, and this strong nuclear
force is nearly independent of charge.

There are about 260 stable nuclei; hundreds of others have been observed but are unstable.
Light nuclei are most stable if they contain equal numbers of protons, but heavy nuclei are
more stable if N>Z. Elements that contain more than 83 protons do not have stable nuclei.
Binding Energy

The total mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons. Because
mass is another manifestation of energy, the total energy of the bound system (the nucleus) is
less than the combined energy of the separated nucleons. This difference in energy is called the
binding energy of the nucleus and can be thought of as the energy that must be added to a
nucleus to break it apart into its components. Therefore, in order to separate a nucleus into
protons and neutrons, energy must be put into the system.

It is interesting to examine a plot of binding energy per nucleon E/A as a function of mass
number for various stable nuclei. Nuclei with mass numbers greater or less than about 60 are
not as strongly bound as those with about A=60.

Radioactivity
In 1896 Becquerel accidentally discovered that uranium salt crystals emit an invisible radiation
that can darken a photographic plate even if the plate is covered to exclude light. This
spontaneous emission of radiation was soon called radioactivity.

Three types of radiation can be emitted by a radioactive: alpha (α) rays, in which the emitted
particles are He nuclei; beta (β) rays, in which the emitted particles are either electrons or
positrons; and gamma (γ) rays, in which high-energy photons are emitted.

The three types of radiation have quite different penetrating powers, Alpha particles barely
penetrate a sheet of paper, beta particles can penetrate a few millimeters of aluminium, and
gamma rays can penetrate several centimeters of lead.

Decay Constant

If a radioactive sample contains N radioactive nuclei at some instant, it is found that the
number of nuclei, ΔN, that decay in a small time interval δt is proportional to N:

ΔN = −λNΔt

where λ is a constant called the decay constant. The negative sign signifies that N decreases
with time. The value of λ for any isotope determines the rate at which that isotope will decay.
The decay rate, or activity, R, of a sample is defined as the number of decays per second:

R = |ΔN/δt| = λN

A general decay curve for a radioactive sample varies with time according to the expression:

N = N₀e^(−λt)

where N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t. N₀ is the number present at time
t = 0, and e = 2.718 is the base of the natural logarithms.

Half-Life

Another parameter that is useful for characterizing radioactive decay is the half-life. The half-
life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of a given number of radioactive
nuclei to decay.

The unit of activity is the curie (Ci), defined as:

but the SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq):

Alpha Decay

If a nucleus emits an alpha particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons. It can be written
symbolically as:

where X is called the parent nucleus and Y the daughter nucleus. For example:

When one element changes into another, as happens in alpha decay, the process is called
spontaneous decay, or transmutation. As a general rule, the sum of the mass numbers A must
be the same on both sides of the equation, and also the sum of the atomic numbers Z.

Beta and Gamma Decays

When a radioactive nucleus undergoes beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the same number
of nucleons as the parent nucleus, but the atomic number is changed by 1.

where ν¯indicates antineutrino and ν neutrino (both electrically neutral and have little or no
mass); e+ indicates positron and e− electron.

A typical beta decay event is:

Very often a nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay is left in an excited energy state. The
nucleus can then undergo a second decay to a lower energy state, perhaps to the ground state,
by emitting one or more photons. The photons emitted in such a de-excitation process are
called gamma rays.
Carbon Dating

The beta decay of 14C is commonly used to date organic samples. Cosmic rays (high-energy
particles from outer space) in the upper atmosphere cause nuclear reactions that create 14C
from 14N. In fact, the ratio of 14C to 12C in the carbon dioxide molecules of our atmosphere
has a constant value of about 1.3×10, as determined by measuring carbon ratios in tree rings.
All living organisms have the same ratio of 14C to 12C because they continuously exchange
carbon dioxide with their surroundings. When an organism dies, however, it no longer absorbs
14C from the atmosphere, and so the ratio of 14C to 12C decreases as the result of the beta
decay of 14C. It is therefore possible to determine the age of a material by measuring its
activity per unit mass as a result of the decay of 14C. Using carbon dating, samples of wood,
charcoal, bone, and shell have been identified as having lived from 1000 to 25000 years ago
(14C has a half-life of 5730 years). This knowledge has helped scientists and researchers to
reconstruct the history of living organisms during this time span.

Radiation Damage

Radiation absorbed by matter can cause severe damage. The degree and type of damage
depend on several factors, including the type and energy of the radiation and the properties of
the absorbing material. Radiation damage in biological organisms is primarily due to ionization
effects in cells. The normal function of a cell may be disrupted when highly reactive ions or
radicals are formed as the result of ionizing radiation. Cells that do survive the radiation may
become defective, which can lead to cancer.

In biological systems, it is common to separate radiation damage into two categories: somatic
and genetic damage. Somatic damage is radiation damage to any cells except the reproductive
cells. Such damage can lead to cancer at high radiation levels or seriously alter the
characteristics of specific organisms. Genetic damage affects only reproductive cells. Damage to
the genes in reproductive cells can lead to defective offspring.

Several units are used to quantify radiation exposure and dose. The rad (radiation absorbed
dose) is defined as that amount of radiation that deposits 0.01 J of energy into 1 kg of
absorbing material.

Although the rad is a perfectly good physical unit, it is not the best unit for measuring the
degree of biological damage produced by [Link] is because the degree of damage
depends not only on the dose but also on the type of radiation. For example, a given dose of
alpha particles causes about ten times more biological damage than an equal dose of x-rays.
The RBE(relative biological effectiveness) factor is defined as the number of rad of x-radiation
or gamma radiation that produces the same biological damage as 1 rad of the radiation being
used.

The rem(roentgen equivalent in man) is defined as the product of the dose in rad and the RBE
factor (Dose in rem) = (dose in rad) x (RBE) .

According to this definition, q rem of any two radiation will produce the same amount of
biological damage. From the table, we see that a dose of 1rad of fast neutrons represents an
effective dose of 10 rem and that 1 rad of x-radiation is equivalent to a dose of 1 rem.

Low-level radiation from natural sources, such as cosmic rays and radioactive rocks and soil,
delivers to each of us a dose of about 0.13 rem/year. The upper limit of radiation dose
(recommended) is 0.5 rem/year. An acute whole-body dose of 500 rem results in a mortality
rate of about 50 %.

Exercises

● Can carbon-14 dating be used to measure the age of a stone? Carbon dating cannot
generally be used to estimate the age of a stone, because the stone was not alive to
take up carbon from the environment. Only the ages of artifacts that were alive can be
estimated with carbon dating.
● What fraction of a radioactive sample has decayed after two half-lives have elapsed?
After the first half-life, half the original sample remains. After the second half-life a
 quarter of the original sample remains. Thus,three quarters of a radioactive sample has
decayed after two half-lives.
● A person whose mass is 75 kg is exposed to a whole-body dose of 25 rad. How many
joules of energy are deposited in the person’s body? E = (75 kg)(25)(0.01 J/kg) = 18.75J.

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus, such as U-235, splits, or fissions, into two smaller
nuclei. In such a reaction, the total mass of the products is less than the original mass of the
heavy nucleus. A typical reaction of this type is

The fission fragments, barium and krypton, and the released neutrons have a great deal of
kinetic energy following the fission event. Neutrons that are emitted can in turn trigger other
nuclei to undergo fission, with the possibility of a chain reaction. If the chain reaction is not
controlled, it could result in a violent explosion, with the release of an enormous amount of
energy.

Nuclear Reactor

The basic design of a nuclear reactor is shown in figure. The fuel element consists of enriched
uranium. Moderator substances regulate neutron energies slowing the neutrons down. Control
rods are made of materials such as cadmium that are very efficient in absorbing neutrons. The
rods controlled the average number of neutrons from each fission event that will cause another
event. This average number has to be 1.
Nuclear Fusion

Binding energy for light nuclei is much smaller than the binding energy for heavier nuclei. When
two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, the process is called nuclear fusion.
Because the mass of the final nucleus is less than the masses of the original nuclei, there is a
loss of mass accompanied by a release of energy. Although fusion power plants have not yet
been developed, a great worldwide effort is under way to harness the energy from fusion
reactions in the laboratory.

The hydrogen bomb, first exploded in 1952, is an example of an uncontrolled fusion.

All stars generate their energy through fusion processes. About 90 % of the stars, including the
Sun, fuse hydrogen. The Sun radiates energy at the rate of 390 YW (yotta watt) and has been
doing so for several billion years. The fusion in the Sun is a multistep process in which hydrogen
is burned into helium. There is enough hydrogen to keep the Sun going for about 5 billion years
into the future.