2 3 4

Chapter 1 Structure of pollen grains Pollen viability: The period for which pollen grains remain functional
The pollengrain represent the male gametophyte. Spherical shape with 2 layered Pistil,Megasporangium (ovule), Megasporogenesis, Embryo sacs
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS wall.
Gynoecium
1. Exine
Unit of gynoecium is pistil or carpel.
2. Intine
A flower is a modified shoot for the sexual reproduction of flowering plant
Carpel has three parts - Ovary, Style and Stigma.
Hard outer layer is called exine and inner layer is intine. Exine made up of
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollengrain
sporopollenin It can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali, no If gynoecium has a single pistil or carpal is called monocarpellary ovary.
Androecium enzyme that degrades sporopollenin is so far known Pollengrains has prominent
apertures called germpores where sporopllenin is absent . Pollen grains are well If gynoecium ha more than one pistil is called multicarpellary ovary.
Androecium is composed of Stamen. Stamen has two parts - the long and a preserved a fossils because of sporopollinin. Intine is made up of cellulose and
slender stock called the filament and terminal bilobed structure called anther. When more than one carpel and are fused together are called syncarpous ovary
pectin. Pollen grain has two cells; vegetative cell and generative cell. Vegetative
Anther is bilobed, each lobe have two theca (dithecous) Anther is four-sided cell is bigger, has abundant food reserves for developing male gametes. When carpelss are free are called apocarpous ovary.
tertragonal structure consisting of four microsporangia located at the corners Structure of ovule or megasporangium
two in each lobe. When anther is young sporogenous tissue occupy the centre of
each microsporangium. At maturity pollensacsa are packed with the pollen grains Ovule is a small structure attached to placenta by a stalk called funicle. The body
of ovule fuses with funicle in the region called hilum (hilum is the junction
Structure of microsporangia between ovule and funicle)
Circular in outline, surrounded by four wall layers – the epidermis, endothecium, Each ovule has one or two protective envelope called integuments.
middle layers and the tapetum. Outer three layers perform the function of
protection and help in dehiscence of anther to release the pollen, the innermost Integuments encircle the nucellus except at the tip where a small opening called
layer is tapetum that nourishes the developing pollen grains. the micropyle.
Opposite to the micropylar end is the chalaza. Enclosed within integuments is a
mass of cells called nucellus. Nyucellus cell have reserved food materials. In the
nucellus there is a single embryo sac
Figure : Structure of mature pollen grain
Economic importance of pollen grains
Pollengrains are rich in nutrients, used as food supplements, in the form of tablets
and syrup.
It causes severe allergies and bronchial afflictions in some people. It lead to
chronic respiratory disorders, asthma bronchitis eg. parthenium or carrot grass
causes pollen allergy.
Figure : (a) Transverse section of a young anther; (b) Enlarged view of one
microsporangyum showing wall layers; (c) A mature dehisced anther Pollen bank : Pollen grains of a large number of species store for years in liquid
nitrogen (-196oC: Cyropreservation). It can be used as Poland Bank in plant
breeding programme. Figure : Structure of mature ovule ‘

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Megasporogenesis 1) Autogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the Characters of water pollinating flowers
same flower . In a flower which opens and exposes anther and stigma autogamy
The process of formation of megaspore (by meiosis) from the diploid megaspore 1) Pollen grains are long ribbon shaped and are carried passively inside the Water
is rare.
mother cell ( MMC) in micropylar region of nucellus. Out four megaspores one
2) Protected from wetting by a mucilaginous covering
develop into functional megaspore and three degenerate. Autogamy requires
3) Flowers are unisexual and nectorless
Embryo sac formation ( free nuclear embryo development ): i) Synchrony : Pollen release and stigma respectively in same time
ii) anthers and stigma should lie close to each other. 4) Stigma is sticky and unwettable
The nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically into two nuclei that
In some plants eg. Viola, oxalis, commelina there are two type of flowers.
moves to opposite poles, then 4 nucleate and 8 nucleate ie., not followed 4) Insect pollination (Entamophily)
immediately by cell wall formation. Later cellwalls are laid down and form a) Chasmogamous flowers : Flowers which are similar to flowers of other
embryosac. 6 of 8 nuclei forms to cells and remaining 2 nuclei move towards the species with exposed anthers and stigma. 1) Flowers are large and colourful
centre of the embyosac and are called polar nuclei. 2) Produce rich nectar.
b) Cleistogamous flowers : Flowers which do not open at all. Here another and
stigma lie close to each other. 3) Commonly produce fragrance
2) Geitonogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of 4) Pollen grains are usually sticky and spiny
another flower of the same plant. This type of pollination is genetically similar to
autogamy Pollination in Yucca: Pollination done by a special type of moth. Moth deposits its
3) Xenogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different eggs in ovary and the flower in turn get pollinated by the month.
plant. During pollination it brings genetically different type of pollen grains to the
1) Dichogamy : Pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronized
stigma.
(either pollen released before the stigma becomes receptive ( stigma becomes
Agents of pollination : receptive before release of pollens )

1) Wind pollinating flowers : 2) Heterostyl : Anther and stigma are placed at different position. So pollen
cannot come in contact with the stigma of the same flower.
Pollen grains are light and non sticky, well exposed stamens, so that pollens are
easily dispersed. Large feathery sigma, single over in each ovary, numerous 3) Self incompatibility : It is a genetic mechanism that prevent self pollen of the
Figure : A diagrammatic representation of the mature embryo sac
flowers packed into [Link]:- same flower from fertilizing the egg by inhibiting Pollen tube growth in pistil.
coconut,rice,wheat,grasses,maize,datepalam.
4) Dicliny : Unisexual flowers
Three cells at micropylar end is called egg apparatus . It consists of two 2) Water pollinating flowers :
In castor and maize, male and female flowers on same plant (monoecious )
synertgids and one egg cell.
a) In water hyacinth and water lily flowers above the level of water and are prevent autogamy but not geitonogamy. In papaya ( dioecious ) male and female
Synergids have special cellular thickening called filiform apparatus which guide pollinated by insects or wind. flowers are present on different plants.
the pollen tubes into the synergids three cells at chalazal end are called egg
b) In Vallisneria and Hydrilla the female flowers reach the surface of water by Filiform apparatus
apparatus. The large central cell has two polar nuclei. Thus angiosperm
embryosac is said to be 7 celled ans 8 nucleate . long stalk and pollen grains are released on to the surface of water and they are
The synergid cells in embryo sac have special cellular thickenings at micropylar tip
carried passively by water currents.
is called filiform apparatus. It play an important role in guiding the Pollen tubes
Pollination : Pollination is mechanism of transfer of pollen grains from the anthe
c) In seagrasses ( eg. Zostera) female flowers remain submerged in water and into the synergids.
to the stigma of a flower. Based on source of Pollen pollination three types :-
the pollen grains are released inside the water.

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Artificial hybridization : Seed : Seed consists of seed coats, cotyledons and an embryonal axis.
Cotyledons store food reserves as in legumes.
It is the process of crossing different species or genera having desirable
characters to combine and to produce commercially superior varieties. It is Seeds two types :-
important that only desired pollen grains are used and stigma is protected from
1. Non albuminous or ex-albuminous seeds : Seeds have no residual
contamination ( from unwanted pollens ). It has two techniquet – Emasculation
endorsperm as it is completely consumed during embryo development.
and Bagging
Example :- pea, groundnut
1) Emasculation : The process of removal of anther from the flower buds of 2. Albuminous seeds : Seeds have no resaidual endosperm as it is not
female parent before anther dehisces. Emasculation prevent self pollination completely used during embryo development. Example : wheat, barley,
maize, barley etyc.
2) Bagginng : Emasculated flower is covered with butter paper bags.
Strucure of Dicot embryo Perisprem : In some seeds such as black pepper and beet remnants of nucellus
are present is called perisperm
A Dicot embryo consists of an emgryonal axis and two cotyledons, the portion of
Double fertilization : embryonal axis above cotyledons is the epicotyl and portion below the level of Pericarp.: The wall of the ovary develops into the wall of fruit called pericarp.
Syngamy : One of the male gamete moves to egg cell and fuse with its nuclear is cotyledon is hypocotyl. Epicotyl ende in plumule or stem tip and hypocotyl end
in the radical or root tip. Root tip is covered with root cap. Flesh fruits (pericarp fleshy) Eg. Guava, Orange, mango etc.,
called syngamy. It results in diploid zygote.
Dry fruits ( pericarp dry ) – Eg. Groundnut, Mustard etc.
Triple fusion : The other male gamete move towards the two polar muclei in
central cell and fuse to produce triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) is Strucure of Dicot embryo False fruits : Fruit develop from the parts of the flower other than ovary. eg.
called triple fusion. This two type of fusion syngamy and triple fusion takes place Apple, strawberry, cashew etc
in embryo sac is termed as double fertilization. It is an event unique to flowering Monocot embryo has 1 cotyledon called scutellum At lower end of embryonal
Axis (hypocoty) has radicle and root cap enclosed in an undifferentiated sheath True fruits : Fruit develop only from the from the ovary are called true fruits, Eg.
plants. The central cell after triple fusion become primary endorsperm cell (PEC)
called coleorrhiza, the portion of embryonal axis ( epicotyl) has shoot apex and a Mango
and develop into endosperm. Zygote developos into embryo.
few leaf primordial enclosed in a hollow foliar structure called coleoptile Parthenocarpic fruits : Fruit develop without fertilization. Example – Banana.
Endosperm development : PEN undergoes successive nuclear division to give rise
to free nuclei is called free nuclear endosperm. Later cell wall formulation occurs Seeds Viability : The ability of a seed to germinate and produce seedling.
and endosperm becomes cellular. The coconut water from tender coconut is
nothing but free nuclear endosperm, made up of thousands of nuclei and 1. Lupinus arcticus : It is the oldest plant species excavated from Arctic
surrounding white kernel is the cellular endorsperm Tundra region have viable seeds of 10000 years of dormancy.
2. Phoenix dactylifera.: Plant species of date palm have the records of
Embryo development ( embryogeny) : Embryo developes at micropylar end of 2000 years of viable seed discovered during archaeological excavation at
the embryo sac. Endosperm provide nutrition to the developing embryo. Though King Herod’s Palace near the Dead Sea. .
early stage of embryo development are similar in monocots and dicots their seeds
differ greatly. Apomixis : It is a a modified form ofreproduction in which seeds are formed
without fertilization. It is a form of a sexual reproduction that mimics sexual
Four stages of embryo development : Pro embryo, Globulr embryo, Heart shaped reproduction. It overcome the problems of hybrid seeds. Example family
embryo and Mature embryo. asteraceae and grasses.
Polyembryony: The presence of more than one embryo in the seed
Figure (a) A typical dicot embryo ; (b) L.S. of an embryo of grass [Link] and Mango.

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CHAPTER 2
BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES amp R & tet R - Selectable markers rop codes for protein involved in the
Restriction endonucleases ( molecular scissors)
replication of plasmid.
Restriction endonucleases was isolated from Haemophilus influenza – Hind II
[Link] OF BIOTECHNOLOGY [Link] plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens.
Hind II always cut the D N A molecule at a particular point with six base pairs
1. Genetic engineering called recognition sequence , which is a palindrome (the sequence of base pairs
Processes of r D N A technology
2. Manufacture of antibiotics, vaccines ,enzymes etc read the same on both the D N A strands , when the orientation of reading is
1. Isolation of D N A
kept the same ie 3’ direction or 3’ 5’direction.
[Link] of Genetic engineering 2. Fragmentation of D N A by restriction endonucleases
Naming of the RestrictionEnzyme 3. Amplification gene interested by Polymerase Chain Reaction ( P C R)
1. Creation of rDNA
4. Ligation of D N A fragment into a vector using D N A ligase
2. Use of gene cloning Eg : Eco R I ( Esceheria coli Ry 13)
5. Transfer of r D N A into the host
3. Gene transfer
E – First letter indicates Genus name 6. Culturing the host cell on a suitable medium on a large scale
3. Steps in creating G M O 7. Extraction of desired product
Co- Stand for first and second letter of species name
8. Downstream processing
1. Identification of D N A with desirable genes
R-Stand for Strain
2. Introduction of identified D N A in to the host cell
Separation of D N A fragments – Gel electrophoresis
3. Maintenance of the introduced D N A in the host & transfer of the D N A to its I- The Order in which the enzyme were isolated.
Amplification of D N A -Polymerase chain reaction
progeny
Purification of D N A - Downstream processing

Cloning Vectors
Tools of r D N A Technology Methods of r D N A into the host
1. Cell culture with desired DNA 1. Microinjection –Recombinant D N A directly injected into the nucleus of
2. Restriction enzymes animal cell
 2. Gene gum method or Biolistics –The plant cells are bombarded with high
3. D N A Polymerase
4. Ligases Eg . 5’-GAATTC-3’ velocity micro particles of gold or tungsten coated with D N A
5. Vector 3. Disarmed pathogens – These vectors are allowed to infect the cell to transfer
3’-CTTAAG-5’
6. Host cell / organism recombinant D N A

Gel Electrophoresis
r D N A was constructed by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer. They cut the piece Eg 1. pBR 322
of D N A from a plasmid carrying antibiotic resistance gene in the bacterium 4. Restriction endonucleases cut the D N A fragment. These fragments can be
Ori- orgin of replication
Samonella typhimurium and linked in to the plasmid of E coli. This r D N A was separated by a technique known as Gel electrophoresis.
introduced into E coli and made to multiply making a number of replicas Pst 1,EcoR 1,Hind III ,Bam H 1 ,Sal1 5. Gel used – Agarose gel from sea weeds
6. DNA fragments being positively charged are separated by forcing them to
Pvu II, Pvu 1-Restriction site
move through the matrixs towards the anode under the electric field

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7. The DNA fragments separate according to their size

8. Dye- Ethidum bromide
9. Visualized by exposure to U V radiations as orange red band

Elution: Extraction of separated bands of DNA from the Gel

Sparged Stirred Tank Boireactor

Downstream Processing

Bioreactor The process in which a product is subjected to series of processes before being
Bioreactor are vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into marketed as a finished product
Polymerase Chain Reaction (P C R ) specific products in a large scale Steps
Gene Amplification – Synthesis of multiple copies of ‘gene of interest’ It provides optimum growth conditions Separation Purification Addition of Preservatives Clinical Trial
Tools It has an agitator system
Two set of primers – Chemically synthesised oligo nucleotides complementary to A foam control system
D N A. Enzyme- Thermostable DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase ) extracted A PH control system Quality Control Test
from the bacterium thermus aquaticus. An oxygen delivering system and
A temperature control system
Steps Stirring type Bioreactor
1. Denaturation – Heating the target DNA ( Gene of interest ) 94 o c . The strands 1. Simple stirred tank Bioreactor – Oxygen moves through a delivery system
separate and act as template. 2. Sparged stirred tank Boireactor – The surface area of culture medium is
2. Annealing – The temperature slowly lowered about about 52o c and two increased by bubbling the sterile air into the system
primers anneal with 3’ end of template DNA
3. Extension of Primer -The Taq polymerase helps in the extension of primers by
adding oligonucleotides.

Simple Stirred Tank Boireactor

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CHAPTER 3 3 ) Application of biotechnology in medicine 2. rDNA Technology

3. ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay)
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS Genetically Engineered (Humulin)
Human insulin consist of two short Polypeptide chains chain A and chain B Principle of ELISA -
1. Application of biotechnology in Agriculture inked by disulphide bridges. 1. Antigen antibody reaction
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) are plants bacteria fungi and animals Insulin is secreted as prohormone which has to be processed before it becomes a Application of PCR
whose gene have been altered by manipulation. mature and functional hormone. 1. To detect HIV
The Prohormone contains another polypeptide called C-peptide which is removed 2. To detect mutation in gene
Advantages of GMOs during maturation.
1. Increased tolerance against abiotic stress. In 1983 Ell Lilly an American company, prepared two DNA sequences coding for Transgenic Animal
2. Reduced dependence of crops on chemical pesticide. chains A and B of human insulin and introduced the into the plasmids of E cell to 1. Transgenic animals are used for testing the safety of vaccines.
3. Reduced post harvest losses produce insulin. The two chains produced where extracted and combined by 2. To test the toxicity of drugs.
4. Enhanced nutritional value of food ( Vitamin A enriched golden rice) creating this disulphide bridges. 3. Normal physiology and development
5. Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants . 4. Study of diseases.
2) Production of pest resistant plant 5. Biological products.
A) Bt cotton
Soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce crystal protein (Cry protein) that are GEAC Genetic Engineering Approval Committee
toxic to the larvae of insects. The Cry protein exist as inactive Protoxin and get
converted in to active toxin when ingested by the insect, as the alkaline PH of the Maturation of proinsulin into insulin Biopiracy
gut solubilise the crystal. The active toxin binds to the surface of epithelial cell of The use of bioresources by multinational companies and other organizations
midgut and create pores and leading to the death of insects. 2. Gene therapy without proper authorization and compensation to the countries concerned.

B) Protection against Nematodes In this method, genes are inserted into the cells and tissues of an individual to Biopatent
correct certain diseases like cancer, hemophilia It is the right given to a person or organization for a new discovery, no any person
A nematode Meloidegyne incognitina infect tobacco plant and reduce the yield it The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a four year old girl with or organization can sell your product without your permission. Eg: Basmati rice
can be prevented by using RNA interference (RNAi) AdenosineDeaminase (ADA) deficiency. grown in India is distinct for its unique flavor and aroma but an American
The specific genes from the parasite are introduced into the plant using For gene therapy Lymphocytes where grown in a culture and functional ADA company got patent rights on Basmati through the US patent and trade mark
Agrobacterium as the vector, which produce both sense and antisense RNA in the cDNA is then introduced into these lymphocytes. office.
host cell. These Lymphocytes are then transferred into the body of the patient. Thepatient
Since these two RNA are complementary, they form double stranded RNA. The ds request periodic infusion of such genetically engineered lymphocytes.
RNA molecule binds to m RNA and prevent translation of m RNA of the pathogen.
This phenomenon is called RNA silencing of m RNA. 3. Molecular Diagnosis
Techniques ….
1. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

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CHAPTER 4 If pre-reproductive ages is less than reproductive age group it shows a declining
population.

ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

Population:
Ti is a group of similar individuals living together sharing or competing for similar
resources and potentially inbree, in a particular geographical area in a particular
time.
Change in population size = (Births + Immigration) – (Death+ Emigration)
Population size (density) (N)
= (B+I) - (D+E)
Total number of individuals present per unit area or volume at a given time. Figure: Representation of age pyramids for human population.
Carrying capacity: The maximum number of individuals of a population which can
Population attributes Population growth: It is the number of individuals added in a population per unit be provided with all the necessary resources for their healthy living.
time due to birth and immigration over the rate of death and emigration.
A population has certain attributes. Population growth forms or models:
It depends on 4 factors –
1) Birth rate: It is the rate of productionof new individuals in a population by Graphic patterns of a population growth plotted against time are called
birth per unit time. 1) Mortality 2) Natality 3) Immigration 4) Emigration population growth forms.
2) Death rate: It is the rate of loss of individuals from a population per unit
time by death Natality (B): Number of births in a given period and added to the initial density. Two models of population growth:
3) Age Pyramid Mortality (D): Number of death in the population during a given period. 1) Exponential growth
A population at any given time is composed of different age groups, ie, pre- 2) Logistic growth.
reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive if age distribution is plotted for Immigration (I): Number of individuals of the same species that have come into Exponential growth: When resource in a habitat is unlimited each species has the
the population the resulting structure is called an age pyramid. For human age the habitat from elsewhere. ability to fully develops its potential to grow as Darwin observed population grow
pyramid shows males and females in a diagram shape of the pyramid reflect the in an exponential or geometric fashion. If we plot population density N in relation
Emigration (E) : Number of individuals of the population which left the habitat
growth status of the population whether it is growing stable or declining. Base of to time t we get equation is
and gone elsewhere during the time period
the pyramid show the prereproductive age group and above that reproductive
and at the top post reproductive age group. Population growth equation dN /dt=rN.

Age pyramids are of three types N t+1 = Nt + ](B+I) – (D+E)] Logistic growth

1) Expanding pyramid Population growing in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase
If pre-reproductive age group is more than reproductive it shows an expanding then phases of acceleration and deceleration and finally an asymptote when
population. population density reaches the carrying capacity (K). When we plot N in relation
to time t result in a sigmoid curve. This population growth is called Verhulst-pearl
2) Stable pyramid Logistic growth and the question is
If pre reproductive age is no more than reproductive it is shows stable population.
dN/dt=rN[K-N/K]
3) Declining pyramid

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N = population density at time t, Competition two types

r is intrinsic rate of natural increase, 1) Predation (+ - ) 1) Interspecific competition: Competition of different species.
Predation is food relation between two organism in which one animal captures
K is carrying capacity. 2) Intraspecific competition: Competition between individuals of the same
and feeds on another species. Species which eat the other is called the Predator,
species because all members of the species have a of food, habitat, mate etc.
the species consumed is called the prey.
Competition effect herbivores and plants more adversely than carnivores.
Role of Predators
Competitive release
Predation is a conduit for energy – transfer. P
A specious may have restricted distribution due to the presence of a
redation help in maintaining species diversity by reducing the intensity of competitively superior species and when superior species is removed from the
competition among Prey species. area other species expand its distribution is called competitive release. It is
confirmed by Connel’s field experiment with barnacles.
Predation keeps the prey population under control in agriculture Biological
control methods adopted for pest control are based on the ability of the Predator Gause’s competitive exclusion principle:
to regulate prey population.
Two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot coexist
Prey defense mechanism indefinitely and the competitive inferior will be eliminated eventually. Eg.
Abington tortoise became extinct in Galapagoes islands within a decade by
Defence mechanisms in animals
introduction of goats Goats were better Browsers than tortoise.
Figure: Population growth curve a when response are not limiting the growth, plot Some insect and frogs are cryptically coloured camouflaged. Some species are
is exponential, b when responses are limiting the growth, plot is logistic, K is Species facing competition might evolve mechanism that promote coexistence
poisonous to avoid the predator.
carrying capacity rather than exclusion is called resource partitioning. When two species compete
The monarch butterfly is distasteful to its Predator due to poisonous chemical for same resources they avoid competition by choosing different times for feeding,
Population interactions present in its body. foraging is called resource partitioning. Mac Arthur show this by five closely
related species of warblers live in same tree.
Important types of population interactions are:- Defence mechanisms in plants
3) Parasitism (+ -)
Species A Species B Name of Interaction Morphological defense mechanisms in plants
It is negative interaction between two different species in which one organism
+ + Mutualism Thorns in Cactuts and Acasia protects from browsing animals chemicals defence (parasite) derives food from the other (host) parasite is beneficial and the host is
- - Competition in plants. Calotropis produce poisonous cardiac glycosides against herbivores, harmed.
nicotine, caffeine quinine, strychnine are chemical substances produced as
+ - Predation chemical defence against gracious and browsers. Adaptations of parasite

+ - Parasitism 2) Competition (- -) 1) Loss of unnecessary sense organs,

+ 0 Commensalism It is interaction between two or more organism for same resources both suffer in 2) Adhesive organs to cling on to host
competition. Competition occur in closely related species and when resources are
- 0 Amensalism 3) Loss of digestive system
limited. In competition fitness of one species are significantly lower in presence of
another species. 4) High reproductive capacity..

Figure : Population interactions

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Parasite reduce the survival growth and Reproduction of the host, reduce the Plant pollinator relationship
population density of host render the host more vulnerable to the date predation
In many species of fig trees, there is a tight one-to-one relationship with the CHAPTER 5
by making physically weak.
pollinator species of wasp. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while
Parasites two types searching for suitable egg-laying sites. In return for the flower of pollination the Ecosystem
fig offers the wasp some of its developing seeds, as food for the developing wasp
1) Ectoparasite
larvae.
2) Endoparasites Ecosystem is a basic functional unit in which living organism interact with
Orchid – pollinator interaction: Ophrys is a Mediterranean Orchid employs sexual
deceit to get pollination by a species of bee. One Petal of its flower has each other and with their surrounding environment.
Ectoparasite live on the surface of the host eg. lice on humans, ticks on dogs,
endoparasite live inside the body of the host. resemblance to female bee and it attracted and pseudo copulates with the Orchid Classification of Ecosystem
flower then pollen grains are dust from the flower and pseudocopulate with
Brood parasitism another flower, transfer pollen grains to it and pollinates the flower. If female bee Terrestrial Ecosystem
Brood parasite lay eggsin the nest of the other birds for incubation, hatching and colour pattern change the Orchid flower co evolves to maintain the resemblance
Natural Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem
rearing of young ones. eg. Cuckoo lays egg in the nest of crow. it is an example of co-evolution operates in nature. Ecosystem
Artificial Ecosystem
4) Commensalism (+ 0) 6) Amensalim:- (- 0)

Interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor Interaction between two different species in which one species is harmed and the
benefited other is neither benefited nor harmed. Eg. Pencillium secretes penicillin which kill Stratification
bacteria but mould is not affected.
Examples The vertical distribution of different species occupying different level is
called stratification
1) Epiphytes: Plants growing on other plants for accommodation eg. Vanda.
Eg: In forest ecosystem, trees occupy top vertical strata, shrubs the second
2) Barnacles and whale and herbs occupy the bottom layers.
3) Cattle egret and grazing cattle Functions of Ecosystem
4) Sea anemone and clown fish. i productivity
5) Mutualism (+ +) ii Decomposition
Interaction in which both species are benefited, both live together on each other. iii Energy flow
Examples iv Nutrient cycling
1) Lichens: Symbiotic association of Algae and Fungi 1. Productivity : Rate of biomass produced per unit area during a given period.
2) Mycorrhiza is an association of fungus with the roots of higher plants eg. Pinus There are two type of productivity
3) Plant animal relationship: Plant take the help of animals for pollination animals i Primary productivity
help plant in the dispersal of fruits and seeds plants offer fees or rewards in form
of pollen grains and nectar should be safeguard against cheaters. ii Secondary productivity

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Primary productivity: The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time Fragmentation:- Break down of detitus in to small particles by detritivores like Standing crop:- Each tropic level has a certain mass of living material. Total
period by plants during photosynthesis. earth worm. amount of biomass living material present in different trophic level at a given
time
Primary productivity can be divided in to Leaching:- Water soluble morganic nutrials go down in to the soil horizon and get
precipitated.
a) Cross primary productivity (GPP)
b) Net primary productivity (NPP) Catabolism:- Emymatic degradation of detritus in to simples morganic substance. Ecological pyramids
GPP:-The rate of total production of organic matter by plant during
Humification:- Formation of dark coloured substance from detritus is known as Diagramatic representation showing the relationship between the organism
photosynthesis.
humification. at different levels of an ecosystem.
NPP:-The balance biomass remaining after utilizing in their respiration by plant
Mineralisation:- Humus is further degraded by same microbes and releases Three types of ecological pyramids are
NPP = GPP – R inorganic nutrients from humus.
1. Pyramid of number
Secondary Productivity:- Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumer. Factors affecting Decomposition 2. It is usually upright
Represents the number of individuals at various trophic level with produces at
i Climatic factors
base and various consumer at higher levels.
2. Decomposition:- Break down of complex organic matter present in ii Chemical composition of detritus
detritus in to inorganic substance like CO2, H2O and nutrients by decomposers
3. Energy flow
Detritus:- It is the dead remains of plant such as leaves, bank, flower and
Energy flow is a non cydic process and unidirectional from sun to
dead remains of animals
producers, consumers and decomposers
Detritivores:- The organism which break docun detritus
Food Chain
Flow of energy from one organism to another organism by the process of
eating and being eaten.
Eg:- Grass  Goat  Man
Food chain is two types Pyramid of number in a single tree is inverted because number of organism in
each trophic level exceeds.
1 Grazing food chain (GFC)
2 Detritus food chain (DFC)
GFC – Food chain that begins from producers (plants)
DFC – Transfer of energy starts with dead organic matter by decomposer.
Many food chains are interconnected to form a food web
Trophic level:- In a food chain, organisms occupy a specific place is known as
Trophic level.

2. Pyramid of biomass

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It presents the biomass of organism of each trophic level most of pyramid

of biomass are upright but in sea is generally inverted because the biomass of
fishes exceeds that of phytoplankton.

3. Pyramid of Energy
The pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted
The diagrammatic representation of energy used by organism of successive
trophic levels in an ecosystem

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