Chapter 6: The First Law

Analysis for a Control Volume

Thermodynamics 1
The Control Volume
A control volume is a volume in space in which one
has interest for a particular study or analysis.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
 The amount of mass flowing through a cross
section per unit time is called the mass flow rate
and is denoted by m .

The differential mass flow rate

of fluid flowing across a small
area element dAc
 m   n dAc

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 3
 Note that both δ and d are used to indicate
differential quantities.
 But δ is typically used for quantities (such as
heat, work, and mass transfer) that are path
functions and have inexact differentials.

The mass flow rate through the entire cross-

sectional area of a pipe or duct is obtained by
integration
m    m    n dAc  kg/sec 
Ac Ac

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 4
In many practical applications, the density is
essentially uniform over the pipe cross section.
Velocity, however, is never uniform over a
cross section of a pipe. We define the average
velocity  avgas the average value of  n across the
entire cross section,

 avg

1
 n
dAc
Ac Ac

Where Ac is the area of cross-section normal to the

flow direction.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 5
Thus for incompressible flow or even for
compressible flow where ρ is uniform across Ac
m   avg Ac (kg/sec)

For simplicity, we drop

the subscript on the
average velocity. Unless
otherwise stated,  denotes
the average velocity in the
flow direction. Also, Ac
denotes the cross-sectional
area normal to the flow
direction.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 6
 The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross-
section per unit time is called the volume flow
rate.

V   n dAc  avg Ac  A 3
(m /s)
Ac

The mass and volume flow rate are related by

V
m  V  (kg/s)
v
Where ν is the specific volume.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 7
 o
Example: Air at 100 kPa, 50 C, flows through a
pipe with a volume flow rate of 40 m3/min. Find
the mass flow rate through the pipe, in kg/s.
Assume air to be an ideal gas, so
RT kJ (50  273) K m3kPa
v  0.287
P kg×K 100 kPa kJ
m3
 0.9270
kg
V 40 m3 /min 1 min
m 
v 0.9270 m3 /kg 60 s
kg
 0.719
s
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 8
 Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control
volume can be expressed as: The net mass transfer
to or from a control volume during a time interval
Δt is equal to the net change (increase or decrease)
in the total mass within the control volume during
Δt . That is,

 Total mass entering   Total mass leaving   Net change in mass 

 the CV during t    the CV during t    within the CV during t 
     

min  mout  mCV (kg) ----(6.1)

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 9
Conservation of mass principle for
an ordinary bathtub

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 10
It can also be expressed in rate form as

min  mout  dmCV /dt (kg/sec) ---- (6.2)

Where min = total rates of mass flow into the C.V

mout = total rates of mass flow out of the C.V
dmCV/dt = time rate of change of mass within the
control volume

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 11
 time rate of change of   time rate of flow   time rate of flow 
 mass contained within    of mass in across   of mass out across
     
 the control volume at time t  inlet i at time t  exit e at time t 

dmcv
  mi   me
dt i e

where: m   Vn dA
A

The control volume expression for conservation of

mass, which is commonly called as continuity
equation.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 19
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of
mass contained within a control volume does not
change with time (mCV = constant). Then the total
amount of mass entering a control volume equal
the total amount of mass leaving it.

Steady flow : m  m
in out
(kg/sec)
Steady flow (single stream) : 
m1  m2  1  A1   2  A2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 20
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be
simplified even further when the fluid is
incompressible, which is usually the case for
liquids. Canceling the density from both sides of
the general steady-flow relation gives

Steady flow :  
V
in
 V (m
out
3
/sec)
Steady incompressible flow (single stream) : 
V1  V2   A1   A2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 21
The First Law of Thermodynamics for a
Control Volume
 We have already considered the first law of
thermodynamics for a control mass,
E2  E1  1 Q2  1W2
 This may be written as an instantaneous rate
equation as
dEC M
 Q W ------- (6.4)
dt
 To write the first law for a control volume, we
proceed in a manner analogous to that used in
developing a rate equation for the law of
conservation of mass.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 22
 The fundamental physical law states that we
cannot create or destroy energy such that any
rate of change of energy must be caused by rates
of energy into or out of the control volume.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 23
The fluid flowing across the control surface enters
or leaves with an amount of energy per unit mass as

e  u    gz
1 2
2
relating to the state and
position of the fluid.
Whenever a fluid mass
enters a control volume at
state i, or exits at state e,
there is a boundary
movement work associated
with that process.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 24
Flow Work

Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve

mass flow across their boundaries, and some work
is required to push the mass into or out of the
control volume. This work is known as the flow
work, or flow energy, and is necessary for
maintaining a continuous flow through a control
volume.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 25
Consider a fluid element of volume V as shown
below. The fluid immediately upstream forces this
fluid element to enter the control volume; thus, it
can be regarded as an imaginary piston. The fluid
element can be chosen to be sufficiently small
so that it has uniform properties throughout.

Schematic for flow work

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 26
If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area
of the fluid element is A, the force applied on the
fluid element by the imaginary piston is

F  PA
To push the entire fluid element into the control
volume, this force must act through a distance L.
Thus, the work done in pushing the fluid
element across the boundary (i.e., the flow work) is

W flow  FL  PAL  PV (kJ)

  
W flow  PV  P v m (kJ/sec)

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 27
Flow work is the energy needed to push a fluid into
or out of a control volume, and it is equal to Pv.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 28
The total energy associated with the flow of mass is
e  Pv  u  Pv    gz
1 2
2
 h    gz
1 2
2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 29
The extension of the first law of thermodynamics
from eq. 6.4 becomes
dEcv
 QCV  WCV  mi ei  me ee  W flowin  W flowout
dt
dEcv
 QCV  WCV  mi  ei  Pv
i i   me  ee  Pe ve 
dt
dEcv  Vi 2   Ve2 
 QCV  WCV  mi  hi   gzi   me  he   gze 
dt  2   2 
In this form of the energy equation, the rate of work
term is the sum of all shaft work terms and
boundary work terms and any other types of work.
However, the flow work is now listed separately.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 30
 The final form of the first law of thermodynamics
for control volume becomes

dEcv  Vi 2   Ve2 
 QCV  WCV   mi  hi   gzi    me  he   gze 
dt  2   2 

 time rate of change   net rate at which   net rate at which   net rate of energy 
 of the energy   energy is being   energy is being   transfer into the 
       
 contained within    transferred in    transferred out    control volume 
       
 the control volume at   by heat transfer   by work   accompanying 
 time t   at time t   at time t   mass flow 

The control volume expression for conservation of

energy, which is commonly called as energy
equation.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 31
As the kinetic and potential energy terms per unit
mass appear together with enthalpy in all flow
terms, a shorter notation is often used

htot  h    gZ
1 2
2
hstag  h  
1 2
2
defining the total and stagnation enthalpy (fluid
mechanics). The shorter equation then becomes
dEcv
 QCV  W CV   mi htot , i   me htot , e
dt
giving the general energy equation on a rate form.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 32
The Steady-State Process
A certain set of assumptions that leads to a
reasonable model of this type of process, which is
refer to as the steady-state process.
1. The control volume does not move relative to the
coordinate frame means that all velocities
measured relative to the coordinate frame are
also velocities relative to the control surface, and
there is no work associated with the acceleration
of the control volume.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 33
2. The state of the mass at each point in the control
volume does not vary with the time requires that
dmCV dECV
 0 and also 0
dt dt
Therefore, for the steady-state process we can write
Continuity equation :  m  m
i e

 Vi 2 
First law: QCV   mi  hi   gzi  
 2 
 Ve2 
 me  he  2  gze   W
 
CV

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 34
 3. The assumptions that the various mass flows,
states, and rates at which heat and work cross the
control surface remain constant requires that
every quantity in the energy equation be steady
with time. This means that application of
steady-state energy equation to the operation
of some device is independent of time.

 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV   mi  hi   gzi    me  he   gze   W
 2   2 
CV

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 35
Many of the applications of the steady-state model
are such that there is only one flow stream entering
and leaving the control volume. For this type of
process,
Continuity equation : mi  me  m
First law :
 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV  m  hi   gzi   m  he   gze   WCV
 2   2 
Vi 2 Ve2
q  hi   gzi  he   gze  w
2 2
QCV WCV
Where by definition q  and w 
m m
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 36
Steady Flow Devices: Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are normally well-insulated
devices that allow energy exchange between hot
and cold fluids without mixing the fluids. The
pumps, fans, and blowers causing the fluids to flow
across the control surface are normally located
outside the control surface.
Common Form of 1st Law:

QCV   mi hi   me he

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 37
 Condenser
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Radiator

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 38
 Tube-within-a-tube
Direct Contact counterflow

Tube-within-a-
tube parallel flow Cross-flow

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 39
 Heat exchangers typically involve no work
interactions.
 Negligible kinetic and potential changes for
each fluid stream.
 The heat transfer rate associated with the heat
exchanger depends on how the control volume
is selected.
 Heat exchangers are intended for heat transfer
between two fluids within the device, and the
outer shell is usually well insulated to prevent
any heat loss to the surrounding medium.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 40
m h  m h
i i e e QCV   mi hi   me he

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 41
(6.86/6.78) A heat exchanger is used to cool an air
flow from 800 K to 360 K, both states at 1 MPa.
The coolant is a water flow at 15°C, 0.1 MPa. If the
water leaves as saturated vapor, find the ratio of the
flow rates mwater / mair .

T1  800K, T2  360K T3  15  273  288K 

air   H 2O
 P1  P2  1MPa P3  P4  0.1MPa 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 42
  Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV   mi  hi   gzi    me  he   gze   WCV
 2   2 
 m h    m h 
i i e e

m1h1  m3h3  m2 h2  m4 h4
mAir h1  mH O h3  mAir h2  mH O h4
2 2

mAir  h1  h2   mH O  h4  h3 
2

mH O h1  h2
2

mAir h4  h3
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 43
Air states : from table A.7.1 (page 660) →
h1 = 822.2 kJ/kg (800 K), h2 = 360.86 kJ/Kg (360 K)

Water states : T3 = 15oC, P3= 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa →

it is compressed liquid h3 = hf@ 15oC = 62.98 kJ/kg
P4 = 100 kPa → h4 = hg=2675.46 kJ/kg

mH O 822.2  360.86
2
  0.1766
mAir 2675.45  62.98

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 44
(6.89/6.83) A two fluid heat exchanger has 2 kg/s
o
liquid ammonia at 20 C, 1003 kPa entering state 3
and exiting at state 4. It is heated by a flow of
1 kg/s nitrogen at 1500 K, state 1, leaving at 600 K,
state 2. Find the total rate of heat transfer inside the
heat exchanger. Sketch the temperature versus
distance for the ammonia and find state 4 (T, ν) of
the ammonia.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 45
 T1  1500K, T2  600K T3  20  273  293K 
N2   NH3
mN  1 kg/s
2
mNH  2 kg/s, P3 =1003KPa 
3

N2 states : from table A.8 (page 662) →

h1 = 1680.7 kJ/kg(1500 K), h2 = 627.24 kJ/Kg (600 K)
Qout  mN h1  mN h2
2 2

Qout  mN  h2  h1 
2

 1 627.24  1680.7   1053.5 kW

Qout  mN CP 0 T2  T1 
2

 1  1.042  600  1500   937.8 kW

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 46
P3 =1003kPa 
 NH3  it is compressed liquid
T3  20  273  293K 
h3  hf  274.3 kJ/kg

m h   m h 
i i e e

mN h1  mNH h3  mN h2  mNH h4
2 3 2 3

mN  h1  h2 
h4  h3  2

mNH 3

 274.3 +1 1680.7- 627.24  / 2

 801 kJ/kg

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 47
P4 = 1003 kPa  h f < h4 < hg 
o
Tsat = T4 = 25 C

801 kJ/kg  h4  298.25  x4  1165.2

 x4  0.4315

v4  0.001638 + 0.4315  0.12647

3
= 0.0562 m /kg

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 48
Application of Heat Exchangers
Device Purpose Given Assumption

Boiler Bring substance to a vapor state w=0 P = constant

Condenser Take q out to bring substance to w=0 P = constant
liquid state
Economizer Low-T, low-P heat exchanger w=0 P = constant
Evaporator Bring a substance to vapor state w=0 P = constant
Regenerator Usually a heat exchanger to w=0 P = constant
recover energy
Steam generator Same as boiler, heat liquid water w=0 P = constant
to superheat vapor
Superheater A heat exchanger that brings T up w=0 P = constant
over Tsat

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 49
Steady Flow Devices: Nozzles and Diffusers

 A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of

a fluid at the expense of pressure.
 A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure
of a fluid by slowing it down.
 That is, nozzles and diffusers perform opposite
tasks.
 They are commonly utilized in jet engines,
rockets, spacecraft, and even garden hoses.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 50
 The cross-sectional
area of nozzle
decreases in the flow
direction for subsonic
flows and increases
for supersonic flows.
The reverse is true for
diffusers.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 51
A diffuser converts
high speed, low
pressure flow to low
speed, high
pressure flow

A nozzle converts
high pressure, low
speed flow to low
pressure, high
speed flow

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 52
For flow through nozzles, the heat transfer, work,
and potential energy are normally neglected, and
nozzles have one entrance and one exit. The
conservation of energy becomes
Continuity equation: min  mout
mi  me  m
Energy equation: Ein  Eout
 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV   mi  hi   gzi   WCV   me  he   gze 
 2   2 
for each inlet for each outlet
 Vi 2   Ve2 
m  hi    m  he  
 2   2 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 53
 Common Form of 1st Law:

V12 V22
h1   h2 
2 2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 54
 Wind Tunnel
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 55
IIT Kanpur Low-Speed Wind Tunnel
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 56
IIT Kanpur High-Speed Wind Tunnel

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 57
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 58
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 59
(Q) Steam at 1.8 MPa and 400oC steadily enters a
nozzle whose inlet area is 0.02 m2. The mass flow rate
of steam through the nozzle is 5 kg/s. Steam leaves the
nozzle at 1.4 MPa and with a velocity of 275 m/s. Heat
from the nozzle to be 2.8 kJ/kg. Determine (a) the inlet
velocity and (b) the exit temperature of the steam.
qout  2.8 kJ/kg

m  5 kg/s

P2  1.4 MPa
P1  1.8MPa V2  275m/s
T1  400o C
A1  0.02m 2
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 60
P1  1800KPa 
 v1  0.16847m /kg, h1  3250.9kJ/kg
3

T1  400 C 
o

From table B.1.3 (page 684 - superheated)

V1 AV
m  1V1   1 1 
v1 v1
mv1 5  0.16847
V1    42.21 m/s
A1 0.02
Continuity equation  m1  m2  m
 V12   V22 
QCV  m  h1   gz1   m  h2   gz2   W
 2   2 
CV

V12  V22
h2  h1   qout
2
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 61
 42.122  2752
h2  3250.9    2.8 
2  1000
 3250.9  (-36.93)   2.8 
 3211.2 kJ/kg
Then,
P2  1400kPa 
 by interpolation T  378.6 o
C
h2  3211.2 kJ/kg  2
From superheated table B.1.3 (page 684)
Discussion: Note that the temperature of steam
drops by 21.4°C as it flows through the nozzle. This
drop in temperature is mainly due to the conversion
of internal energy to kinetic energy. (The heat loss is
too small to cause any significant effect in this case.)

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 62
Energy equation: Ein  Eout
V12 V22
h1   h2   qout
2 2
V12 V22
(u1  Pv
1 1)   (u2  P2 v2 )   qout
2 2
 2947.66 + 303.24  0.887   2916.8 + 294.4   37.81  2.8
3250.9 3211.2
3251.8 3251.8
Comments: The temperature drop is mainly due to
the conversion of internal energy to kinetic energy.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 63
(Q) Air at 10°C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of
a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 200 m/s. The
inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the
diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared
with the inlet velocity. Determine (a) the mass flow
rate of the air and (b) the temperature of the air
leaving the diffuser.

V2 V1

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 64
P1  80KPa 
 h1  283.14kJ/kg (by interpolation)
T1  10 C (283 K) 
o

From table A.7.1 (page 660)

RT1 0.287  283
v1    1.015 m /kg
3

P1 80
V1 AV
m  1V1   1 1
v1 v1
0.4 m 2  200m/s

1.015m3 /kg
 78.82 kg/s
Continuity equation  m1  m2  m

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 65
  V12   V22 
QCV  m  h1   gz1   m  h2   gz2   W
 2   2 
CV

V12
h2  h1 
2 2002
 283.14   303.14 kJ/kg
2  1000
From table A.7.1, the temperature corresponding to
o
this enthalpy value is T2 = 303 K = 30 C
Discussion: This result shows that the
temperature of the air increases by about 20°C as
it is slowed down in the diffuser. The temperature
rise of the air is mainly due to the conversion of
kinetic energy to internal energy.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 66
Steady Flow Devices: Turbine
 It is a rotary steady-state machine whose
purpose is to produce shaft work at the expense
of the pressure of the working fluid.
 Used in
 Almost all power plants.

 Some propulsion systems (e.g., turbofan and

turbojet engines).
 Working Fluid:
 Liquids (e.g., hydro power plants)
 Vapors (e.g., steam power plants)
 Gases (e.g., gas power plants)
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 67
 Inside the turbine, there are two distinct
processes.
 In the first, the working fluid passes through
a set of nozzles, or the equivalent-fixed
blade passages countered to expand the fluid
to a lower pressure and to a high velocity.
 In the second process inside the turbine, this
high-velocity fluid stream is directed onto a
set of moving blades (rotating) blades.
 This directed velocity produces a torque on the
rotating shaft, resulting in a shaft work output. The
low-velocity, low-pressure fluid then exhaust from
the turbine.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 68
 Common Form of 1st Law:

W  V12  V22 
  h1  h2      g  z1  z2 
m  2 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 69
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 70
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 71
If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential
energies as fluid flows through an adiabatic turbine
having one entrance and one exit, the conservation
of mass and the steady-state, steady-flow first law
becomes

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 72
Continuity equation: min  mout
mi  me  m

Energy equation: Ein  Eout

 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV   mi  hi   gzi   WCV   me  he   gze 
 2   2 
for each inlet for each outlet
m hi  m he  WCV
WCV  m  hi  he 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 73
(6.50/6.38) A liquid water turbine receives 2 kg/s
o
water at 2000 kPa, 20 C and velocity of 15m/s. The
exit is at 100 kPa, 20oC and very low velocity. Find
the specific work and the power produced.

State i : mi  2 kg/s, P1 = 2000 kPa, T1 = 293 K, Vi  15 m/s

Compressed liquid  hi  h f  85.82 kJ/kg (From table B.1.4)
State e : me  2 kg/s, P2 = 100 kPa, T1 = 293 K
Compressed liquid  he  h f  83.94 kJ/kg (From table B.1.1)

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 74
  Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV  m  hi   gzi   m  he   gze   WCV
 2   2 
Vi 2
hi   he  wT
2
Vi 2
wT  hi   he
2
152
 85.82 +  83.94
2  1000
 85.82  0.1125  83.94
 1.9925 kJ/kg
WT  m  wT  2  1.9925  3.985kW

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 75
Steady Flow Devices: Compressor & fan
 The purpose of a steady-state compressor or fan
is the same; to increase the pressure of a fluid by
putting in shaft work.
 A fan increases the pressure of a gas slightly and
is mainly used to mobilize a gas.
 A compressor is capable of compressing the gas
to very high pressure.
 There are two fundamental different classes of
compressors : - rotary-type compressor (either
axial flow or radial/centrifugal flow) and
reciprocating compressor.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 76
 Reciprocating compressor

Rotating compressors
Common Form of 1st Law:

W  V12  V22 
  h1  h2      g  z1  z2 
m  2 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 77
If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential
energies as fluid flows through an adiabatic
compressor having one entrance and one exit, the
steady-state, steady-flow first law or the
conservation of energy equation becomes

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 78
Continuity equation: min  mout
mi  me  m

Energy equation: Ein  Eout

 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV   mi  hi   gzi   WCV   me  he   gze 
 2   2 
for each inlet for each outlet
-WCV  m he  m hi
-  Win   m  he  hi 
Win  m  he  hi 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 79
(6.59/6.50) An air compressor takes in air at 100
o
kPa, 17 C and delivers it at 1 MPa, 600 K to a
constant-pressure cooler, which it exits at 300 K.
Find the specific compressor work and the specific
heat transfer in the cooler.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 80
Air Compressor - C.V  Q = 0
h1 = 290.43 kJ/kg (290 K) 
 From table A.7.1 (page 660)
h2 = 607.32 kJ/kg (600 K) 
Continuity equation m1  m2  m
 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV  m  hi   gzi   m  he   gze   WCV
 2   2 
hi  he  wC
wC  hi  he
 290.43 - 607.32
= - 316.89 kJ/kg

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 81
Cooler - C.V  W = 0
h2 = 607.32 kJ/kg (600 K) 
 From table A.7.1 (page 660)
h3 = 300.47 kJ/kg (300 K) 
Continuity equation m2  m3  m
 V22   V32 
QCV  m  h2   gz2   m  h3   gz3   WCV
 2   2 
q  h2  h3
q  h3  h2
 300.47  607.32
 306.85 kJ/kg

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 82
(6.61/6.51) An exhaust fan in a building should be
able to move 2.5 kg/s air at 98 kPa, 20oC through a
0.4 m diameter vent hole. How high a velocity must
it generate and how much power is required to do
that?
Continuity Eq.: m  constant   AV  AV / v

Ideal gas : Pv  RT , and area is A  D2
4
mv m  RT / P  2.5 kg/s  0.287  293.15 K
V  
A  2 
D 98 kPa  0.42
4 4
 17.1 m/s
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 83
Energy Equation 
q  hi  Vi / 2  he  Ve / 2  w
2 2

Here q  0, Vi  0 and hi  he same P and T

1 2
Win  m  Ve 
2 
1 1 
 -2.5 kg/s   17.1m/s  
2

2 1000 
 -2.5  0.146
 -0.366 kW

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 84
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 85
 Turbofan

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 86
 Turbo-propeller

Engineering Thermodynamics 87
 Ram jet (subsonic combustion)

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 88
Scram jet (supersonic combustion)
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 89
A Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine for the
F-15 Eagle and the F-16 Falcon being tested
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 90
Steady Flow Devices: Throttling Devices
 Throttling devices are any kind of flow-
restricting devices that cause a significant
pressure drop in the fluid.
 The pressure drop in the fluid is often
accompanied by a large drop in temperature.
 The magnitude of the temperature drop (or,
sometimes, the temperature rise) during a
throttling process is governed by Joule-
Thomson coefficient.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 95
 Throttling
Valve

Some of the throttling devices

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 96
 Some of the throttling devices

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 97
 Flow through them may be assumed to be
adiabatic, since there is neither sufficient time
nor large enough area for any effective heat
transfer to take place (q ≈ 0).
 Also there is no work done (w = 0), and the
change in potential energy, if any, is very
small(ΔPE ≈ 0).
 Even though the exit velocity is often
considerably higher than the inlet velocity, in
many cases, the increase in kinetic energy is
insignificant (ΔKE ≈ 0)..

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 98
 Common Form of 1st Law:

hi  he
For this reason throttle valve is sometimes called
an isenthalpic device.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 99
To gain some insight into how throttling affect
fluid properties, let us express

u1  Pv
1 1
 u2  P2v2
Internal energy + Flow energy = Constant

The final outcome of a throttling process depends

on which of the two quantities increases during the
process. If the flow energy increases during the
process (P2v2 > P1v1), it can do so at the expense of
the internal energy. As a result, internal energy
decreases, which is usually accompanied by a
drop in temperature.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 100

Joule-Thomson Coefficient ( J )
The actual throttling device outlet temperature for a
pure substance is dependent upon its Joule-Thomson
coefficient defined as μJ = (T p)h .

It is an intensive thermodynamic property. A

throttling process that has a negligible change in
specific kinetic energy is a process of constant
enthalpy h, so the Joule-Thomson coefficient for any
pure substance can be approximated from data taken
during such a throttling process as μJ  ( ΔT Δp)throttling process
and ΔT  μJ ( Δp)throttling process

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 101

Joule-Thomson Coefficient ( J )
If we take p = pout - pin then ∆p normally is a negative
number for such process. Clearly, a positive value for
µJ means that temperature drops during such a
throttling process ( T = Tout -Tin ) and a negative value
for µJ means that temperature increases. For an
isothermal throttling process (such as occurs with an
ideal gas), µJ =0.

The following figure shows the variation in the

Joule-Thomson coefficient with pressure and
temperature for air and carbon dioxide.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 102
Joule-Thomson Coefficient ( J )

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 103

 Capillary Tube

Refrigerator
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 104
 Refrigerator Plant
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 105
(eg.) Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of a
refrigerator as saturated liquid at 0.887 MPa and is
throttled to a pressure of 0.1337 MPa. Determine
the quality of the refrigerant at the final state
and the temperature drop during this process.

284.34 236.13
0.66 12.96
249.1 249.1

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 106

At inlet, i: Pi  0.887 MPa, Sat. liquid
Table B.5.1  Ti  Tsat  350C, hi  h f @0.887 MPa  249.1 kJ/kg
vi  v f @0.887 MPa  0.000857 m3 /kg
ui  u f @0.887 MPa  248.34 kJ/kg
Pv
i i = 0.7601 kJ/kg

At exit, e: Pe  0.1337 MPa , he  hi  249.1 kJ/kg

h f  173.74 kJ/kg 
Table B.5.1   @ Pe  0.1337 MPa
hg  386.08 kJ/kg 
 h f  he  hg  Saturated mixture
Te  Tsat  20o C
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 107
The referigerant exits as a saturated mixture at the exit state.
he  h f 249.1-173.74
xe    0.355
h fg 212.34
ue  173.65 + 0.355  192.85 = 242.11 kJ/kg
Pe ve = 7.02 kJ/kg
The temperature change for this process 
T  Ti  Te  35  (20)  55o C
 T 
Joule-Thomson coefficient,  J   
 p h
 T  Te  Ti 20  35
J       0.0663 K/kPa
 p h pe  pi 133.7  887
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 108
Throttling calorimeter is used to determine the
quality of saturated steam. The steam is throttled
from the pressure in the pipe to ambient pressure in
the calorimeter. The pressure drop is sufficient to
superheat the steam in the calorimeter. Thus, the
temperature and pressure in the calorimeter will
specify the quality of the steam in the pipe.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 109

(eg.) Saturated steam at 0.4 MPa is throttled to 0.1
MPa, 100oC. Determine the quality of the steam at
0.4 MPa.
Throttling orifice

1 2
Control
Surface

Process: Steady-state, steady-flow, no work, no

heat transfer, neglect kinetic and potential energies,
one entrance, one exit

min   mout
m1  m2  m

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 110

 Neglecting kinetic and potential energies and noting
the process is adiabatic with no work, we have for
one entrance and one exit
m1h1  m2 h2  h1  h2
T2  100 C 
o
kJ
 h2  2676
P2  0.1 MPa  kg
kJ
Therefore, h1  h2  2676 h1  h f
kg x1 
  h f  x1h fg  h fg
@ P1  0.4 MPa
2676  604.73

2133.81
 0.971
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 111
(Q) What happens when an ideal gas is throttled?

hi  he
he  hi  0
e

C
i
P
(T ) dT  0

or
Te  Ti

When throttling an ideal gas, the temperature does

not change.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 112
Steady Flow Devices: Pumps
The purpose of a steady-state pump is to increase the
pressure of a fluid by putting in shaft work.

The work required when

pumping an incompressible
liquid in an adiabatic
steady-state, steady-flow
process is given by
 V22  V12 
W  m  h2  h1   g ( z2  z1 )  (kW)
 2 
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 113
The enthalpy difference can be written as
h2  h1  (u2  u1 )  ( Pv)2  ( Pv)1 
For incompressible liquids the density and specific
volume are constant. The pumping process for an
incompressible liquid is essentially isothermal
(therefore u2 = u1). Thus, the enthalpy difference
reduces to the difference in the pressure-specific
volume products. Since v2 = v1 = v the work input
to the pump becomes
 V2  V1
2 2

W  m v( P2  P1 )   g ( z2  z1 )  (kW)
 2 
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 114
W is the net work done by the control volume, and
it is noted that work is input to the pump; so,
W  Win, pump
If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential
energies, the pump work becomes

(Win , pump )  m v( P2  P1 ) 

Win , pump  m v( P2  P1 )  (kW)

We use this result to calculate the work supplied to

boiler feedwater pumps in steam power plants.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 115
If we apply the above energy balance to a pipe
section that has no pump (W  0 ), we obtain.
 V22  V12 
W  m v( P2  P1 )   g ( z2  z1 )  (kW)
 2 
 V22  V12 
0  m v( P2  P1 )   g ( z2  z1 ) 
 2 
1
v

P2 V22 P1 V12
  z2    z1
 g 2g  g 2g
The famous Bernoulli’s equation for frictionless,
incompressible fluid flow through a pipe.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 116
(6.74/6.67) The main waterline
into a tall building has a
pressure of 600 kPa at 5 m
below ground level. A pump
brings the pressure up so the
water can be delivered at 200
kPa at the top floor 150 m
above ground level. Assume a
flow rate of 10 kg/s liquid
o
water at 10 C and neglect any
difference in kinetic energy
and internal energy u. Find the
pump work.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 117

C.V : Pipe line m  10 kg/s
Pi  600 kPa 

Ti  10 C   Compressed liquid  vi  0.001 m 3 /kg
o

Z i  -5 m 
Pe  200 kPa 

Te  10 C   Compressed liquid  ve  0.001 m3 /kg
o

Z e  150 m 
Continuity equation m1  m2  m
 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV  m  hi   gzi   m  he   gze   WCV
 2   2 
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 118
hi  gzi  he  gze  wp
wPin  hi  he  g  zi  ze 
 Pv
i i
 Pe ve  g  zi  ze 
(5  150)
 600  0.001  200  0.001  9.81
1000
 0.4  1.52
 1.12 kJ/kg

WPin  m  wP
 10 kg/s   1.12 kJ/kg   11.2 kW
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 119
Steady Flow Devices: Mixing Chambers
The section where the mixing
process takes place is
commonly referred to as a
mixing chamber.
Eg. An ordinary T-elbow or a
Y-elbow in a shower.

Common Form of 1st Law:

m1h1  m2 h2   m1  m2  h3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 120

(6.94/6.89) A mixing chamber with heat transfer
receives 2 kg/s of R-22 at 1 MPa, 40°C in one line
and 1 kg/s of R-22 at 30°C, quality 50% in a line
with a valve. The outgoing flow is at 1 MPa, 60°C.
Find the rate of heat transfer to the mixing chamber.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 121

Continuity equation:
m1  m2  m3
Energy equation:
m1h1  m2 h2  QCV  m3h3
o
m1 = 2 kg/s, P1 = 1 MPa, T1 = 40 C
o
m2 = 1 kg/s, T2 = 30 C, x2 = 0.5
 P3 = 1 MPa, T3 = 60 C
o
State 3 
m3  m1  m2  2  1  3kg/s
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 122
From table B.4.2 (706)
1 MPa, 40o C  superheated  h1  271.04 kJ/kg
1 MPa, 60o C  superheated  h3  286.97 kJ/kg
From table B.4.1 (703)
T2 = 30o C, x2 = 0.5  saturated mixture 
h2  81.25 + 0.5  177.87 = 170.185 kJ/kg

QCV  m3h3   m1h1  m2 h2 

 3  286.97-  2  271.04 + 1 170.185
 148.66 kW

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 123

Thermal Power Plant

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 124

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 125
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 126
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 127
Economizer
The cold feed water to the boilers was first warmed
by heat which would otherwise have been wasted
up the chimney. Between the boilers and the
chimney was a device known as an economizer.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 128

Superheater
After the steam had been produced, it passed
through a superheater before leaving the boiler. The
superheater is a grid of pipes, suspended in the hot
furnace gasses.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 129

Supercharger
A compressor driven by engine shaft work to
charge air into an automotive engine.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 130

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 131
Turbocharger
A compressor driven by an exhaust flow turbine to
charge air into an engine.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 132

The turbocharger uses
the exhaust flow from
the engine to spin a
turbine, which in turn
spins an air pump.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 133

 The key difference between a turbocharger and a
supercharger is its power supply. Something has
to supply the power to run the air compressor. In
a supercharger, there is a belt that connects
directly to the engine.
 The advantage of compressing the air is that it
lets the engine stuff more air into a cylinder.
More air means that more fuel can be stuffed in,
too, so you get more power from each explosion
in each cylinder. A turbo/supercharged engine
produces more power overall than the same
engine without the charging.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 134

Refrigerator

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 135

Summary of Steady-State Devices
DEVICE PURPOSE GIVEN ASSUMPTION
Heat Transfer of Heat from w=0 P = Constant
Exchanger one medium to
(e.g., another
Condenser,
Superheater)
Nozzle KE increases; P w=0 q=0
decreases
Diffuser KE decreases; P w=0 q=0
increases
Turbine Shaft work from high wout q=0
pressure flow
Compressor Bring a (gas) win q=0
substance to higher P

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6
Summary of Steady-State Devices
DEVICE PURPOSE GIVEN ASSUMPTION
Fan Move a win , KE up P = C, q = 0
substance,
e.g. Air
Pump Same as win , P up q=0
compressor,
but handles
liquid
Throttle Control flow w = 0 q=0
by
restriction:
P drops

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6
The Transient Process
Many processes of interest involve changes within
the control volume are called unsteady-flow, or
transient-flow. Some of the examples are
 Filling closed tanks with a gas or liquid
 Discharge from a pressurized vessel.
 Inflating tires or balloons and even cooking
with an ordinary pressure cooker.
Unlike steady-state processes, unsteady-flow
processes start and end over some finite period
instead of continuing indefinitely.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 138
Steady-state systems are fixed in space, size, and
shape. Unsteady-flow systems, however, are not.
They are fixed in space, but they may involve
moving boundaries and thus boundary work.

The shape and size of a CV

may change during an
Charging of a rigid tank unsteady-flow process.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 139

The assumptions for a reasonable model for
transient process are,
 The control volume remains fixed relative to the
coordinate frame but they may involve moving
boundaries.
 The process takes place over a specified time
period.
 The state of the mass within the control volume
is uniform at any instant of time but may vary
with time.
 The state of mass crossing the control surface is
uniform and steady although the mass flow rates
may be vary with time.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 140
The overall process occurs during time t. At any
instant of time during the process, the continuity
equation is
dmCV
  mi   me
dt
The change of mass within the CV during the time
t is
t
 dmCV 
0  dt  dt   m2  m1 CV
The total mass entering the CV during the time t is
t

   m  dt   m
0
i i

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 141

 And the total mass leaving the CV during the time t
is t

   me  dt   me
0

The continuity equation for the transient process

for this period of time ‘t’ is

m 2
 m1 CV   mi   me

The energy equation at any instant time is

dECV  Vi 2   Ve2 
 QCV  WCV   mi  hi   gzi    me  he   gze 
dt  2   2 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 142

Since at any instant time the state within the CV is
uniform, the first law for transient process becomes

d   V 2
   V 2

m  u   gz    QCV  WCV   mi  hi  i
 gzi  -
dt   2   2 
 Ve2 
 me  he  2  gze 
 
Integrate this equation over time t,
t
d   V2 
0 dt  m  u  2  gz  dt 
    CV
  V2 2   V12 
 m2  u2   gz2   m1  u1   gz1  
  2   2   CV
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 143
 t

Q
0
CV
dt  QCV
t

W
0
CV
dt  WCV

t   Vi 2   Vi 2 
0  mi  hi  2  gzi   dt   mi  hi  2  gzi 
     

t   Ve2   Ve2 
0  me  he  2  gze   dt   me  he  2  gze 
     

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 144

 Therefore, for this period of time t, we can write the
energy equation for the transient process as

  V2 2
  V1 2

 m2  u2   gz2   m1  u1   gz1   
  2   2   CV

 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV  WCV   mi  hi   gzi    me  he   gze 
 2   2 

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 145

(Ex.6.11) Steam at a pressure of 1.4 MPa and
o
temperature of 300 C is flowing in a pipe.
Connected to this pipe through a valve is an
evacuated tank. The valve is opened and the
tank fills with steam until the pressure is 1.4
MPa, and the valve is closed. The process takes
place adiabatically and kinetic energies and
potential energies are negligible. Determine the
final temperature.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 146

Pi  1400 kPa 
 hi  3040.4 kJ/kg
Ti  300 C 
o

P2  1400 kPa
We note that QCV  0, WCV  0, me  0, and  m1 CV  0.
Further the changes in kinetic and potential energy are
negligible.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 147
The continuity equation for the transient process is
m 2
 m1 CV  me  mi  0
it reduced to m2  mi

The first law for the transient process as

  V2 2
  V1 2

 m2  u2   gz2   m1  u1   gz1   
  2   2   CV
 Vi 2   Ve2 
QCV  mi  hi   gzi   me  he   gze   WCV
 2   2 
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 148
First law reduced to mi hi  m2u2
Therefore, combining the continuity equation and
with the first law, we have
hi  u2
That is, the final internal energy of the steam in the
tank is equal to the enthalpy of the steam of the
steam entering the tank.
u2  hi  3040.4 kJ/kg, P2  1400 kPa
From Table B.1.3  400 C  T2  500 C
o o

T2  452 Co

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 149

This problem can also be solved by considering the
steam that enters the tank and the evacuated space
as control mass.

Pi  1.4MPa Pi  1.4 MPa

P2  1.4MPa
P2  1.4MPa

Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 150

 Flow into an evacuated vessel –control mass
The steam in the pipe does work on the steam that
comprises the control mass. The amount of this work
is
Wb ,in   PdV
i
 Pi Vtank  Vtank  Vi  
  PV i i
 mi Pi vi
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 151
First law for the control mass (kinetic and potential
energies are neglected)
1 Q2  U 2 - U1  1W2
0  U 2 - U1  1W2
0  m2u2   mi ui  0   mi Pv
i i

0  m2u2  mi ui  mi Pv
i i

0  m2u2  mi hi
Therefore,
m2u2  mi hi
which is the same conclusion that was reached using
control volume analysis.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 6 152