Chapter 1

Introduction
 1.1 Introduction to Internet and
1.1.1 Internet
Intranet
●
The internet, short for "interconnected networks," is a global network of computer networks that
allows for the exchange of information and communication between computers and other devices
around the world. It is a vast and decentralized network infrastructure that enables various
services, such as email, web browsing, file sharing, online gaming, and more.

●
The internet operates on a set of protocols and technologies, the most common of which is the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). It allows different devices, regardless
of their location or hardware, to connect and communicate with each other. Data is broken down
into packets, which are transmitted over the network and reassembled at their destination.

●
The internet is a versatile and ever-expanding tool that has had a profound impact on various
aspects of modern life, from education and business to entertainment and social interaction. It
has revolutionized the way we access and share information, enabling global connectivity and
facilitating the rapid exchange of data and ideas.
1.1.2 Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network that operates within an organization or a specific
group of people, such as a company, government agency, or educational institution. Unlike
the internet, which is a global and public network, an intranet is restricted to a defined and
often secure environment.

Key characteristics of an intranet include:

a. Private Network: Intranets are used to facilitate communication and information sharing
within a closed group, like employees of a company. They are not accessible to the general
public.

b. Internal Use: Intranets are typically used for internal purposes, such as sharing
documents, collaborating on projects, and accessing company resources. However, some
organizations also use extranets, which are similar but allow limited access to external
parties, like partners or clients.

c. Information Sharing: Intranets serve as a platform for sharing information, including

company news, documents, databases, and communication tools like email and messaging.
d. Security: Intranets often employ security measures to protect sensitive data and control
access. This can include user authentication, encryption, and firewalls.

e. Customization: Intranets can be customized to meet the specific needs of the organization.
They can include features like document management systems, forums, and employee
directories.

f. Collaboration: Intranets facilitate collaboration among members of the organization, allowing

them to work together on projects, share knowledge, and communicate effectively.

Intranets have become a valuable tool for improving internal communication and information
management within organizations. They can enhance productivity, streamline workflows, and
provide a centralized platform for employees to access the resources and information they need
to perform their jobs.
 Similarities between Internet and
Intranet
●
Network Infrastructure: Both the internet and intranet rely on network infrastructure to facilitate
communication and data exchange. They use similar networking protocols and technologies, including
TCP/IP, to enable the transmission of data.
●
Web-Based: Both the internet and intranet often use web-based technologies. Web browsers are
commonly used to access and interact with content on both platforms.
●
Information Sharing: Both the internet and intranet are used for information sharing. The internet allows
global sharing of information with the public, while intranets restrict information sharing to a specific
group or organization.
●
Communication: They both support various forms of communication, including email, messaging, and
real-time collaboration tools.
●
Access Control: Both the internet and intranet can employ access controls and authentication
mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users can access certain resources or content.
●
Use of URLs: Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) are used in both the internet and intranet to specify
the address of web resources, making it easy for users to access specific content.
●
Web Content: Both the internet and intranet can host web pages, documents, multimedia, and other
content that users can access through web browsers.
1.1.3 Extranet
An extranet is a controlled, private network that extends certain aspects of an organization's
intranet to external parties, such as partners, suppliers, customers, or other specific groups. It
is a secure network that allows authorized external users to access limited resources or
information typically found within the organization's intranet.

Key characteristics of an extranet include:

a. Limited Access: Extranets provide access to specific external users or groups who have a
legitimate business need for certain information or services. Access is controlled and restricted.

b. Privacy and Security: Extranets, like intranets, employ security measures to protect sensitive
data and control access. This includes user authentication, encryption, and firewalls.

c. Collaboration: Extranets are often used to facilitate collaboration between an organization

and its external partners, allowing for shared projects, data exchange, and communication.

d. Shared Resources: They enable the sharing of resources, such as documents, databases,
and applications, with authorized external users, improving the efficiency of business
operations.
e. Customization: Extranets can be tailored to meet the specific needs of the organization and its
external partners, ensuring that the right information and tools are accessible.

f. Accessibility: Users access an extranet using web-based technologies and are typically required
to log in with authorized credentials.

Extranets are widely used in business-to-business (B2B) relationships. For example, a company
might set up an extranet to allow its suppliers to check inventory levels, submit orders, or access
product specifications. Similarly, in the legal or financial sectors, law firms or financial institutions
might create extranets to share sensitive documents with their clients securely.

Extranets provide a way to securely share information and collaborate with external partners
while maintaining control over access and data security.
Differentiate between Internet , Intranet and
Extranet
 1.2 History and development of
Internet and Intranet
The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. It can be
described as follows:
●
The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including
the development of the ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).
●
The first message was sent over the ARPANET from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory
at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute
(SRI).
●
Between 1960 and 1970, various other packet switching networks were developed such as NPL network,
CYCLADES,
●
Tymnet, Telenet and so on using communication protocols.
●
The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate
networks could be joined into a network of networks.
●
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the
Computer Science Network (CSNET).
●
In 1982, the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the
ARPANET.
●
Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the very late 1980s. The ARPANET was
decommissioned in 1990.
●
Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged in several American
cities by late 1989 and 1990, and the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the
use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
●
In the 1980s, research at CERN in Switzerland by British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee resulted in the
World Wide Web, linking hypertext documents into an information system, accessible from any node on the
network.
●
Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture, commerce, and technology,
including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion
forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites.
●
Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-
Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more.
●
The Internet's takeover of the global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only
communicated 1% of the information flowing through twoway telecommunications networks in the year 1993,
already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007.
●
Today, the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information, commerce,
entertainment, and social networking.
 1.3 IANA, RIR/NIR/LIR and ISPs for Internet Number
Management
1.3.1 IANA(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
●
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is an organization responsible for the global coordination
of certain key resources on the internet. These key resources include domain names, IP addresses, and
protocol parameters. IANA plays a crucial role in ensuring the stable and secure operation of the internet.
Key functions of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) include:

●
Domain Names: IANA manages the global domain name system (DNS). It oversees the allocation of top-
level domain (TLD) names, such as .com, .org, and country code TLDs like .us and .uk. IANA ensures that
TLDs are assigned to the appropriate registries and that the DNS root zone is maintained.

●
IP Address Allocation: IANA is responsible for the allocation of IP address space to regional internet
registries (RIRs). RIRs, in turn, allocate IP addresses to internet service providers and organizations.

●
Protocol Parameters: IANA maintains registries of protocol parameters for various internet protocols. These
parameters include numbers and codes used in protocols like the Internet Protocol (IP), Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), and many others.
IANA does not operate in isolation but is part of a larger ecosystem that includes regional
internet registries (RIRs) and other internet governance organizations. Together, they ensure
that internet resources are allocated and managed in a coordinated and consistent manner,
promoting the stability and scalability of the internet.
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers)
●
ICANN is an internationally organized non-profit corporation whose major role is
to keep the Internet stable, secure and interoperable. In a Public Private
Partnership (PPP), ICANN now performs IANA functions under a contract from
the US Department of Commerce.
●
The major activities of ICANN are:
 To preserve the operational stability of Internet.
 To promote competition and develop policies for Internet’s unique identifier and
naming.
 To achieve greater participation from global Internet communities.
 To achieve policies and procedures and follow a consensus driven approach.
1.3.2 Hierarchy of IANA
1. RIR stands for "Regional Internet Registry." RIRs are organizations responsible for the allocation
and management of IP (Internet Protocol) address space and autonomous system numbers within
specific geographic regions. They play a crucial role in the distribution and administration of IP
addresses, which are essential for the functioning of the global internet.

There are five main RIRs, each responsible for a specific region of the world:

a. American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN): ARIN serves North America, including the
United States, Canada, and many Caribbean and North Atlantic islands.

b. Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC): RIPE NCC covers Europe,
the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia.

c. Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC): APNIC serves the Asia-Pacific region,
including countries in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands.

d. Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC): LACNIC is responsible
for Latin America and the Caribbean.

e. African Network Information Centre (AFRINIC): AFRINIC serves the African continent.
These RIRs manage and allocate IP address space within their respective regions, ensuring that
IP resources are distributed fairly and efficiently. They work with internet service providers (ISPs),
network operators, and organizations to assign IP addresses and autonomous system numbers,
helping to maintain the uniqueness and integrity of the global IP addressing system.

RIRs also contribute to the overall stability and growth of the internet by promoting responsible IP
address management and providing technical support and resources to their communities. They
play an important role in maintaining the proper functioning of the internet and ensuring the
continued availability of IP addresses for new networks and devices.
2. A National Internet Registry (NIR) is an organization or entity responsible for the allocation and
management of IP addresses and related internet resources within a specific country or national.
NIRs are typically part of a hierarchical structure of internet resource management,
working in conjunction with Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) and the global Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA).

The primary functions of a National Internet Registry (NIR) include:

a. IP Address Allocation: NIRs are responsible for allocating IP address space within their
respective countries or territories. They distribute IP addresses and autonomous system numbers
to internet service providers (ISPs), network operators, and organizations operating within their
nationa.

b. Database Management: NIRs maintain databases of IP address allocations and registrations

for entities within their nation. This information helps ensure the uniqueness and proper
management of IP resources.

c. Policy Development: NIRs often work with the local internet community to develop and
implement policies related to IP address allocation and management. These policies are typically
aligned with global policies established by the respective RIRs and the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
d. Technical Support: NIRs provide technical support and expertise to local network operators
and organizations to help them effectively manage their IP resources.

NIRs operate under the authority of the respective RIR responsible for their region. The RIRs
ensure that NIRs follow established global and regional policies to maintain the integrity and
stability of the global internet addressing system.

It's important to note that not all countries have their own NIRs. Some smaller nations may rely
directly on their regional RIR for IP address allocation and management. The specific structure
and roles of NIRs can vary from one country to another, and their existence is often shaped by
the needs and requirements of the local internet community.
3. A Local Internet Registry (LIR) is an organization that has been allocated a block of IP
addresses by a regional Internet registry (RIR), and that assigns most parts of this block to
its own customers. Most LIRs are Internet service providers, enterprises, or academic
institutions. Membership in a Regional Internet Registry is required to become an LIR.

4. ISP(Internet Service Provider) is an organization that provides services for accessing,

using, the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such
as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Mercantile was the first company to provide Internet service in Nepal. Currently, there are over
40 registered Internet service providers in our country. The major ISPs in Nepal are:
■ World link Communication
■ Subisu Cablenet Pvt. Ltd.
■ Nepal Telecom
■ Vianet Communication
■ Classic Tech
 1.3.3 Internet Number
"Internet number" is a broad term that can refer to various numerical identifiers and
resources associated with the Internet. Here are some common types of Internet
numbers:
●
IP Addresses (Internet Protocol Addresses): These are numerical labels assigned to
devices connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication. There are two main versions of IP addresses, IPv4 and IPv6, each
represented as a series of numbers separated by periods (IPv4) or colons (IPv6).
●
ASNs (Autonomous System Numbers): ASNs are unique numerical identifiers used by
autonomous systems, which are networks or collections of IP networks operated by a
single organization. ASNs are crucial for routing on the Internet and help determine
how traffic is directed between networks.
●
DNS (Domain Name System) Resource Records: Various numerical values are
associated with DNS, such as the Time to Live (TTL), which specifies how long DNS
information can be cached, and DNS record types like A records (IPv4 addresses) and
AAAA records (IPv6 addresses).
●
Port Numbers: Port numbers are used in the Transport Layer of the
Internet Protocol suite. They are 16-bit numbers that help distinguish
different services or processes running on the same device or server.
For example, port 80 is commonly used for HTTP web traffic.
●
MAC Addresses (Media Access Control Addresses): These are
unique numerical identifiers assigned to network interfaces (e.g.,
Ethernet or Wi-Fi cards) to enable devices on a local network to
communicate with each other.
●
Serial Numbers and Certificates: Numerical values and codes are
associated with digital certificates used for secure communications,
such as SSL/TLS certificates for securing websites. These
certificates often have unique serial numbers.
●
Version Numbers: Software and protocols used on the Internet often
have version numbers to indicate their specific release or revision.
 Internet Service Provider
●
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company or organization that
provides access to the internet for individuals, businesses, and other
entities. ISPs offer various services and technologies that enable users
to connect to the internet, access websites, send and receive emails,
and utilize online services.
●
There are three levels of ISPs:
-Tier 1 ISP
- Tier 2 ISP
-Tier 3 ISP
●
a. Tier 1 ISP
-These ISPs are at the top of the hierarchy and they have a global reach they do not pay for any
internet traffic through their network instead lower-tier ISPs have to pay a cost for passing their
traffic from one geo-location to another which is not under the reach of that ISPs. Generally, ISPs
at the same level connect to each other and allow free traffic passes to each other. Such ISPs are
called peers. Due to this cost is saved. They build infrastructure, such as the Atlantic Internet sea
cables, to provide traffic to all other Internet service providers, not to end users.

-Some examples of tier 1 Internet providers:

Cogent Communications,
Hibernia Networks,
AT&T
b. Tier-2 ISP:
These ISPs are service provider who connect between tier 1 and tier 3 ISPs. They have regional
or country reach and they behave just like Tier-1 ISP for Tier-3 ISPs.
Examples of tier 2 ISPs:
Vodafone,
Easynet,
BT

c. Tier-3 ISP:
These ISPs are closest to the end users and helps them to connect to the internet by charging
some money. These ISPs work on purchasing model. These ISPs have to pay some cost to
Tier-2 ISPs based on traffic generated.
Examples of Tier-3 ISPs:
Comcast,
Deutsche Telekom,
Vianet
 1.4 Internet Ecosystem
●
Internet ecosystem is the term that is used to describe the organizations and communities that
guides the operation and development of technologies and infrastructure that comprises the
global Internet. It focuses on the rapid and continued development and adoption of Internet
technologies.
●
The components of Internet ecosystem are as follows:
1. Naming and Addressing Component
2. Policy Development Body
3. Education and Capacity Building Body
4. Users
5. Shared Global Services and Operations
6. Open Standards Development Body
 1.5 Internet Domain and Domain Name
System
1.5.1 Domain Name
●
A domain name is a human-readable web address that is used to identify and locate
resources on the internet. It serves as a user-friendly, alphanumeric way to access
websites and other online services.
●
Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root
domain. The first-level set of domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including
the generic top-level domains, such as .net, .com and .org, and the country code top-
level domains. Below TLD in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and the third-level
domain names which are typically open for reservation by the end user who wish to
connect local area networks (LAN) to the Internet, create other publicly accessible
Internet resources or run a website. The registration of these domain names is usually
administered by domain name registrars who then sell their services to the public.
 Structure of Domain Name
●
A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels that are conventionally
concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as [Link]. The right-most label conveys the toplevel
domain; for example, the domain name [Link], belongs to the top-level domain .com. The
hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the name; the label to the left
specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right.
●
For example: the label this specifies a node [Link] as a subdomain of the com domain, and www
is a label to create [Link], a subdomain of [Link]. This tree of labels may consist of 127
levels. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The empty label is reserved by the root node.
The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 255 characters. However, in practice, some
domain registries may have shorter limits. A hostname is a domain name that has at least one
associated IP address with it. For example, the domain names [Link] and [Link] are
also hostnames, whereas the com domain is not. However, some other top-level domains,
particularly country code top-level domains, may indeed have a specific IP address, and if so, they
are also hostnames.
 Subdomain
In a Domain Name System (DNS) hierarchy, a subdomain is a domain that is part of a larger
domain. The only domain that is also not a subdomain is the root domain. For example,
[Link] and [Link] are subdomains of the [Link] domain, which in turn is
also subdomain of the .com top level domain (TLD). A "subdomain" expresses relative
dependence, not just absolute dependence: for example, [Link] comprises a subdomain of
the .com domain, and [Link] comprises a subdomain of the domain [Link].
 1.5.2 Domain Name System
●
DNS acts as a translator between human and computers.
●
The main objective of DNS is to translate a domain IP address and vice-versa.
●
Even though there are domain names for all websites, there are also IP address for them.
●
The internet uses these IP addresses to identify the websites.
●
An IP address is numerical data incorporated with 4 parts separated by dots(.).
●
This numerical value is not easy to remember so domain name is created.
●
When we type [Link] in the web browser, DNS translates it to the web browser
language i.e. IP address and gives it to the web browser.
●
Now web browser understand that we want to access [Link].
●
So it contacts the google server and loads [Link] to the computer.
To identify an entity in an Internet, TCP/IP protocol uses IP address, which uniquely identifies
the connection of a host to the internet. However, people prefer to use names instead of
numeric address.
Hence, we need a system that can map a name to an address or an address to a name,
called DNS (Domain Name System).

DNS is a host name to IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database

implemented in a hierarchy of name servers.

To map a name into IP address, an application program calls a library procedure called
“resolver”, passing it to name as a parameter. Then, the resolver sends a UDP packet to a
local DNS server which looks up the name and returns the IP address to the resolver, then
returns to the caller.
To identify an entity in an Internet, TCP/IP protocol uses IP address, which uniquely identifies
the connection of a host to the internet. However, people prefer to use names instead of
numeric address.
Hence, we need a system that can map a name to an address or an address to a name,
called DNS (Domain Name System).

DNS is a host name to IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database

implemented in a hierarchy of name servers.

To map a name into IP address, an application program calls a library procedure called
“resolver”, passing it to name as a parameter. Then, the resolver sends a UDP packet to a
local DNS server which looks up the name and returns the IP address to the resolver, then
returns to the caller.
 Elements of DNS
There are 4 elements of DNS. They are:
1. DNS resolver: is provided by ISP. It connects the web browser of our
computer to DNS name servers.
2. Root Name server: provides the IP addresses of the TLD servers.
3. Top level Domain servers: stores the information of all domain
sharing a common domain extensions. Example: .com TLD name server
stores all the information of a website ending with .com extension.
4. Authoritative name server: stores the IP address of the requested
website.
 How a computer loads a website?
●
Type [Link] in the web browser. Since web browser needs IP address it forwards the
query to computer OS. OS forwards the query to DNS resolver. OS then contacts the DNS resolver.
DNS resolver checks its cache to see if the requested website is there or not.
●
If not DNS query is forwarded to Root name server. Root name server checks the extension of the
website [Link]. based on the extension the root name server provides the IP address
of TLD server to DNS resolver. In this case IP address of .com TLD name server is provided to the
DNS Resolver.
●
DNS server then contacts .com TLD name server which then provides the IP address of the
authoritative name server which stores the IP address of the requested website. Finally authoritative
name server provided the exact IP address to the DNS resolver.
●
DNS resolver stores the IP address of the website to its cache for future use and provides IP
address to computers OS. OS then forwards its to the web browser.
●
The web browser then contacts web server and loads the requested website.
 1.6 Internet Access Overview
●
Internet access connects individual computer terminals, computers,
mobile devices and computer network to the Internet, enabling users
to access Internet Services, such as email, digital TV and the www.
●
ISP offer internet access through various technologies that offer a wide
range of data signaling rates.
●
Internet access technologies are:
a. Hardwired Broadband Access (Dialup, ISDN, Leased Line cable,
DSL, fiber, power line Internet).
b. Wireless Broadband Access (Satellite, Mobile, WIMAX)
a. Hardwired Broadband Access

i. Dial-up
-uses the facilities of the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
-establish a connection to an ISP by dialing a telephone number on a conventional telephone
Line.
- the PSTN consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave, transmission links, cellular
Networks, communication satellites.
- dial up requires time to establish a telephone connection (up to several seconds, depending
on the location).
- slower communication (56 kbps to 110 kbps)

ii. DSL(Digital Subscriber Line)

- networking technology that provides broadband (high-speed) internet connections over
conventional telephone lines.
- it uses existing telephone lines/ connections and allows the household to use the internet and
Make telephone calls at the same time.
- it works because the DSL system separates the telephone signal into three bands of
frequencies. The lowest band allows for telephone calls, while the other band take care of
uploading and downloading online activity.
iii. Leased line
- used in office, organixation
-A leased line is a dedicated fixed-bandwidth data connection. The word ‘leased’ refers to
the connection rented by the Internet Service Provider directly to a business. The main
advantage is high symmetric speeds, meaning better connectivity and faster uploads and
downloads. A disadvantage of a leased line is that they can take a while to set up and install.

iv. Optical Fiber

-Optical fiber is the technology associated with data transmission using light pulses
travelling along with a long fiber which is usually made of plastic or glass. Metal wires are
preferred for transmission in optical fiber communication as signals travel with fewer
damages. Optical fibers are also unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fiber
optical cable uses the application of total internal reflection of light. The fibers are designed
such that they facilitate the propagation of light along with the optical fiber depending on the
requirement of power and distance of transmission. Single-mode fiber is used for long-
distance transmission, while multimode fiber is used for shorter distances. The outer
cladding of these fibers needs better protection than metal wires.
v. Power Line Internet
- It is also known as Broadband over Power Lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a conductor
that is also used for electric power transmission.

b. Wireless Broadband Access

i. Satellite
- a wireless connection that involves three satellite dishes, one at the ISP , one in space and
one attached to our property.
- satellite internet service provides fixed, portable and mobile internet access.
- data rates range from 2 Kbits/s to 1 Gbits/s downstream and from 2 Kbits/s to 10 Mbits/s
upstream.

ii. Mobile Broadband

-Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access through a portable
modem, USB wireless modem, or a tablet/smartphone or other mobile device. Some mobile
services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single cellular
connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built into laptop computers,
tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to some devices using PC cards, USB
modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or separate wireless modems can be used.
 1.7 Internet Backbone Network
●
Backbone networks are high speed networks that link an organization’s LANs and also provide
connections to other backbones, MANs, WANs and the Internet.
●
Internet Backbone refers to the principal data routes between large, strategically interconnected
networks and core networks on the internet.
●
These data routes are hosted by commercial, government, academic and other high capacity
network centers.
●
Internet Service Provider (ISPs) are example that participate internet backbone exchange of traffic.
●
A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all of the
locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by different departments of
a company that are located at different geographical locations. The pieces of the network
connections (for example: Ethernet, wireless) that bring these departments together is often
mentioned as network backbone. Network congestion is often taken into consideration while
designing backbones.
 1.7.1 Optical Backbone
●
Optical fiber is the technology associated with data transmission using light
pulses traveling along with a long fiber which is usually made of plastic or
glass. Metal wires are preferred for transmission in optical fiber
communication as signals travel with fewer damages. Optical fibers are
also unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fiber optical cable
uses the application of total internal reflection of light. The fibers are
designed such that they facilitate the propagation of light along with the
optical fiber depending on the requirement of power and distance of
transmission. Single-mode fiber is used for long-distance transmission,
while multi mode fiber is used for shorter distances. The outer cladding of
these fibers needs better protection than metal wires.
●
 Types of Optical Fiber
●
The types of optical fibers depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of propagation
of light.
●
The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:
-Step Index Fibers: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single uniform
index of refraction.
-Graded Index Fibers: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the radial distance from
the fiber axis increases.
●
The classification based on the materials used is as follows:
- Plastic Optical Fibers: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the transmission
of light.
- Glass Fibers: It consists of extremely fine glass fibers.
●
The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:
- Single-Mode Fibers: These fibers are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
- Multi-mode Fibers: These fibers are used for short-distance transmission of signals.
The mode of propagation and refractive index of the core is used to form four combination types
of optic fibers as follows:

a. Step index-single mode fibers

b. Graded index-Single mode fibers
c. Step index-Multimode fibers
d. Graded index-Multimode fibers
The mode of propagation and refractive index of the core is used to form four combination types
of optic fibers as follows:

a. Step index-single mode fibers

b. Graded index-Single mode fibers
c. Step index-Multimode fibers
d. Graded index-Multimode fibers
 How Does an Optical Fiber Work?
●
The optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection. Light rays can be used to transmit a
huge amount of data, but there is a problem here – the light rays travel in straight lines. So unless we
have a long straight wire without any bends at all, harnessing this advantage will be very tedious.
Instead, the optical cables are designed such that they bend all the light rays inwards (using TIR). Light
rays travel continuously, bouncing off the optical fiber walls and transmitting end to end data. Although
light signals degrade over progressing distances, depending on the purity of the material used, the loss
is much less than using metal cables. A Fiber Optic Relay System consists of the following components:
●
The Transmitter – It produces the light signals and encodes them to fit to transmit.
●
The Optical Fiber – The medium for transmitting the light pulse (signal).
●
The Optical Receiver – It receives the transmitted light pulse (signal) and decodes them to be fit to use.
●
The Optical Re-generator – Necessary for long-distance data transmission.
Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication

●
Economical and cost-effective
●
Thin and non-flammable
●
Less power consumption
●
Less signal degradation
●
Flexible and lightweight
 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communication

●
Joining fiber is difficult and expensive.
●
Fiber is not as mechanically robust as copper
wire.
●
High investment cost.
 1.7.2 Marine Cable System
●
A marine communication cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to
carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean.
●
The first submarine communications cables, laid in the 1850s, carried telegraphy traffic.
Subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then data communications traffic.
●
Modern cables use optical fiber technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone,
Internet and private data traffic.
●
Modern cables are typically about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter and weigh around 2.5 tons per
mile (1.4 tones per km)
for the deep -sea sections which comprise the majority of the run, although larger and heavier
cables are used for shallow -water sections near shore.
●
A marine cable is designed to protect its information carrying parts from water, pressure,
waves, currents, and other natural forces that affect the seabed and overlying water. Most of
the forces change with depth. Temperature becomes colder, pressure increases and wave
effects lessen, but strong current action can occur at any depth.
Layers:
1. Polyethylene
2. Mylar tape
3. Stranded steel wires
4. Aluminum water barrier
5. Polycarbonate
6. Copper or aluminum tube
7. Petroleum jelly
8. Optical fibers
 1.7.3 Teleports
●
A telecommunications port or, more commonly, teleport is a satellite ground station with
multiple parabolic antennas (i.e., an antenna farm) that functions as a hub connecting a
satellite or geocentric orbital network with a terrestrial telecommunications network e.g.
Internet.
●
Teleports may provide various broadcasting services among other telecommunications
functions, such as uploading computer programs or issuing commands over an uplink
to a satellite.
●
Satellite teleports are permanent satellite uplink facilities located throughout the world
which are used for maintaining constant communication with the orbiting satellites (i.e.
providing connectivity between the ground and the space segment). The teleport
infrastructure is the critical link that facilitates seamless (all-in-one) transfer of
information to and from the end user’s computer network.
 1.7.4 Satellite Communication
●
Satellite communication is transporting information from one
place to another using a communication satellite in orbit around
the Earth. A communication satellite is an artificial satellite that
transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a channel
between the transmitter and the receiver at different Earth
locations.
●
Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications
use satellite communications. Believe it or not, more than 2000
artificial satellites are hurtling around in space above your heads.
●
 Need for Satellite Communication
●
We know that there are different ways to
communicate, and the propagation of these waves
can occur in different ways. Ground wave propagation
and skywave propagation are the two ways
communication takes place for a certain distance. The
maximum distance covered by them is 1500 km,
which was overcome by the introduction of satellite
communication.
 How Satellite Communications
●
Work?
The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us bounce signals such as radio, internet
data, and television from one side of the earth to another. Three stages are involved, which explain the working of
satellite communications. These are:
Uplink: The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is known as uplink.
Transponders
Downlink: the transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station through a channel is called as downlink.
●
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast
on the other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the ground station on the earth. This process
is known as uplink.

●
The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters. These
transponders boost the incoming signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing signals are not altered.
Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.

●
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the receiver on the earth. It is
important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.
 Advantages of satellite communication:

 Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems.

 Each and every corner of the earth can be covered.
 Transmission cost is independent of coverage area.
 More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilities.

Disadvantages of satellite communication:

 Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.

 Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial systems.
 Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite system.
 There can be congestion of frequencies.
Applications of satellite communication:

 Radio broadcasting and voice communications

 TV broadcasting such as Direct to Home (DTH)
 Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS applications,
Internet surfing, etc.
 Military applications and navigations
 Remote sensing applications
 Weather condition monitoring & forecasting
 1.7.5 Terrestrial Links
●
Terrestrial links are the communications line that travels on, near or
below ground. Contrast with satellite link, it is a landbased link for
transmission.
●
Usually, a terrestrial link relies on broadcasting tower(s) (in TV case) to
emit their channels info to end users who receive them via antennas
mounted on roof of on TV set, this broadcasting requires line of site
between transmitter and receiver, thus the distance between the tower
and antenna is kind of limited, the range can be extended via adding
multiple towers in different locations, in data link, usually cables
connect the transmitter link to end user.