PHY3203/PHY3204: Acoustics

Chapter Two: Pressure Wave Theory & Plane Waves

Mr. Herbert Mujungu

Department of Physics

February 27, 2026

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Chapter Two Roadmap

1 From Newton’s 2nd Law to the Equation of Motion

2 Adiabatic gas law ⇒ pressure–volume relation
3 Continuity equation (conservation of mass)
4 Combine them to obtain the pressure wave equation
5 General solution and steady-state harmonic form
6 Plane progressive waves, tubes, and specific acoustic impedance
7 Preview: spherical waves and geometrical spreading

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Chapter Objectives (Merged)

After this chapter you should be able to:

1 Derive the pressure wave equation from first principles.
2 Explain the physical meaning of:
Equation of motion (Newton’s Law for a fluid element)
Adiabatic gas law (rapid compression/rarefaction)
Continuity equation (mass conservation)
3 Obtain the general solution of the wave equation.
4 Express waves in steady-state harmonic (phasor) form.
5 Analyze plane progressive waves and define characteristic impedance.
6 Describe standing waves in a rigidly closed tube and obtain impedance trends.

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Microscopic Picture of Sound Propagation (Air Element)

Sound is a small disturbance in pressure and particle motion.

Consider a tiny air element (control volume): pressure may differ on opposite faces.
Pressure difference produces a net force ⇒ particle acceleration.

If p(x + ∆x) > p(x),

p(x, t) air element p(x + ∆x,
nett)force is toward lower pressure.

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Model: A Small Air “Box” (3D Picture)

We analyze sound using a very small control volume of air:

Side lengths: ∆x, ∆y , ∆z
Volume: V = ∆x ∆y ∆z
Sound pressure varies with position: p = p(x, t)

∆y

Pressure differences on faces

∆z create net force ⇒ acceleration.

∆x

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Pressure Gradient & Net Force (1D Sketch)

Suppose pressure increases with x so ∂p/∂x > 0.

Right face has higher pressure than left face.
Net force acts toward lower pressure (negative x direction).

air box

p(x) p(x + ∆x)

x
net force ←

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Step 1: Equation of Motion (Vector Form)

Net pressure force on the small volume is approximately:

f⃗ = −(∇p) V

Newton’s 2nd law: f⃗ = m d⃗

v
dt with m = ρ0 V gives

d⃗v d⃗v
−(∇p) V = ρ0 V ⇒ ρ0 = −∇p
dt dt

Meaning
A spatial pressure gradient accelerates fluid particles.

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1D Form of the Motion Equation

Along the x direction only:

∂u ∂p
ρ0 =−
∂t ∂x

u(x, t): particle velocity due to the wave (m/s)

p(x, t): acoustic pressure (Pa)
ρ0 : equilibrium density (kg/m3 )

Physical Meaning
Pressure gradient ⇒ acceleration. If pressure rises to the right, particles accelerate to the left.

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Equation of Motion: Visual Snapshot

p(x, t) snapshot

x
du
∂p/∂x > 0 ⇒ dt
<0

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Why Adiabatic? (Reason)

Sound is a rapid compression/expansion:

Little time for heat to flow during one cycle.
Compression raises temperature; expansion lowers temperature.
Hence each cycle is approximately adiabatic.
For an ideal gas under adiabatic change:

PV γ = constant (γ ≈ 1.4 for air)

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Adiabatic Law: Differential & Linear Form

Start with
PV γ = constant
Differentiate:
dP dV
d(PV γ ) = 0 ⇒ +γ =0
P V
Thus (for small changes around P0 , V0 ):

dV
dP = −γP0
V0
Let p be the incremental pressure and τ the incremental volume:

τ
p = −γP0
V0

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Linearization with Time Derivatives (Useful Form)

Let P = P0 + p and V = V0 + τ with |p| ≪ P0 , |τ | ≪ V0 . Then a common working form is

dp P0 dτ
= −γ
dt V0 dt

Meaning
Pressure increase is proportional to the rate of fractional compression.

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Bulk Modulus Interpretation

Define adiabatic bulk modulus:

B = γP0
Then:  
τ ∂p ∂ τ
p = −B and = −B
V0 ∂t ∂t V0

Key Insight
Large B (stiff medium) ⇒ large pressure change for the same compression.

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Continuity: Geometry of Volume Change

Let ξ(x, t) be particle displacement. Opposite faces move differently:

τ ≈ [ξ(x + ∆x, t) − ξ(x, t)] ∆y ∆z

air slice
ξ(x, t) ξ(x + ∆x, t)

Different displacements create

a volume change (compression/expansion).

x
∆x

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Continuity Equation (Derivation)

Approximate
∂ξ τ ∂ξ
τ≈ ∆x ∆y ∆z ⇒ ≈
∂x V0 ∂x
Take time derivative and use u = ∂ξ/∂t:
   
∂ τ ∂ ∂ξ ∂u
= =
∂t V0 ∂x ∂t ∂x

Hence the 1D continuity relation:

 
∂ τ ∂u
=
∂t V0 ∂x

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Combine Gas Law + Continuity (Pressure–Velocity Link)

From adiabatic relation:  

∂p ∂ τ
= −γP0
∂t ∂t V0
Using continuity:  
∂ τ ∂u
=
∂t V0 ∂x
Therefore:
∂p ∂u
= −γP0
∂t ∂x

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Insert Equation of Motion & Derive the Wave Equation

Differentiate in time:
∂2p
 
∂ ∂u
= −γP0
∂t 2 ∂x ∂t
From equation of motion:
∂u ∂p ∂u 1 ∂p
ρ0 =− ⇒ =−
∂t ∂x ∂t ρ0 ∂x
Substitute:
∂2p 1 ∂2p
2
= γP0
∂t ρ0 ∂x 2
Rearrange:
∂2p 1 ∂2p γP0
2
= 2 2 c2 =
∂x c ∂t ρ0

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Interpretation of Wave Speed

s
γP0
c=
ρ0

Numerator γP0 measures stiffness (how hard it is to compress).

Denominator ρ0 measures inertia (mass per volume).

Meaning
Sound travels faster in stiffer media and slower in denser media (all else equal).

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3D Pressure Wave Equation (Extension)

In three dimensions:
1 ∂2p
∇2 p =
c 2 ∂t 2
where ∇2 = ∂xx + ∂yy + ∂zz .
z

plane-wave slice

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General Solution (1D)

For
∂2p 1 ∂2p
2
= 2 2
∂x c ∂t
the general solution is
 x  x
p(x, t) = f1 t − + f2 t +
c c

x


f1 t − c : wave traveling in +x
x


f2 t + c : wave traveling in −x

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Traveling-Wave Picture

t = t0

t = t0 + ∆t

moves right

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Steady-State Harmonic Form

In steady state, assume sinusoidal time dependence:

p(x, t) = Re p̃(x)e jωt



A plane-wave phasor solution:

ω
p̃(x) = Ae −jkx + Be +jkx , k=
c

Ae −jkx : travels in +x direction

Be +jkx : travels in −x direction

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Harmonic Solution (Plane Progressive Wave)

A right-going harmonic wave can be written:

n o
p(x, t) = Re Ae j(ωt−kx)

Use motion equation ρ0 ∂u/∂t = −∂p/∂x to obtain:

 
A j(ωt−kx)
u(x, t) = Re e
ρ0 c

p̃
ũ =
ρ0 c

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Characteristic (Specific) Acoustic Impedance

Specific acoustic impedance at a point:

p̃
Zs =
ũ
For a freely traveling plane wave:
Z0 = ρ0 c

Important
In a progressive plane wave, p̃ and ũ are in phase, so Z0 is purely resistive.

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Characteristic Impedance: Phasor Picture

Im

Progressive plane wave:

p̃ and ũ in phase
⇒ Z0 = ρ0 c (real).

p̃
Re
ũ

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Rigidly Closed Tube: Setup

A tube of length l is closed at one end by a rigid wall.

Rigid boundary condition: u = 0 at the wall.

Reflections produce standing waves.
source end rigid end

x
l

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Boundary Condition at the Rigid End

At the rigid wall (take it at x = l):

u(l, t) = 0 ⇒ ũ(l) = 0

The wall cannot move, so particle velocity must be zero there.

This enforces a reflected wave of equal magnitude such that the sum gives u(l) = 0.

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Standing-Wave Form (Pressure and Velocity)

A convenient standing-wave form that satisfies u(l) = 0 is:

ũ(x) ∝ sin k(l − x) , p̃(x) ∝ cos k(l − x)

At x = l: sin(0) = 0 ⇒ u = 0 (velocity node).

At x = l: cos(0) = 1 ⇒ |p| maximum (pressure antinode).

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Rigid Wall Standing Wave: Snapshot Diagram

For a rigid wall, a typical standing pressure snapshot:

p(x, t) ∝ cos(k(l − x)) cos(ωt)

p rigid wall
t=0

x
pressure nodes occur every λ/2

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Resonance Condition (Modes in a Closed-Closed Tube)

For a tube closed at both ends, velocity nodes occur at both ends, giving:
nλ
l= (n = 1, 2, 3, . . . )
2

Fundamental: n = 1 ⇒ λ1 = 2l
Harmonics: n = 2, 3, . . .

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Mode Shape (Velocity) — Simple TikZ Sketch

velocity node velocity node

n = 1 (fundamental)

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Specific Acoustic Impedance in a Tube

Specific acoustic impedance:

p̃(x)
Zs (x) =
ũ(x)
For standing-wave forms:

Zs (x) ∝ −j ρ0 c cot k(l − x)

Purely reactive (imaginary): energy is stored and returned (no net transport).
Magnitude can become very large near velocity nodes.

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Reactance Variation Along a Rigidly Closed Tube
6
Xs →
(reactive
+∞ part)
4

2
x (along the tube)
λ λ 3λ 2λ
2 2
−2

−4
→ −∞
−6

Caption: The reactive part of the tube’s specific acoustic impedance varies approximately as Xs ∝ − cot(kx). At positions
where sin(kx) = 0 (every λ/2), the reactance tends to ±∞ (vertical asymptotes). Between successive half-wavelengths
the sign of Xs alternates, indicating alternating compliant (spring-like) and inertive (mass-like) behaviour.
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Low-Frequency Approximation (Interpretation)

If k(l − x) is small:
1 θ
cot θ ≈ − (θ ≪ 1)
θ 3
So a short air volume behaves like an acoustic compliance (spring-like storage).

Meaning
At low frequencies, air mainly stores potential energy (compression), like a spring.

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Freely Traveling Spherical Wave (Concept)

A point source radiates energy over expanding spheres:

1
p(r , t) ∼ cos(ωt − kr )
r

source Area grows as 4πr 2

r so amplitude decreases ∼ 1/r .

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Chapter Two Summary (Merged)

Newton’s law ⇒ equation of motion:

∂u ∂p
ρ0 =−
∂t ∂x
Adiabatic law + continuity ⇒ wave equation:

∂2p 1 ∂2p γP0

2
= 2 2, c2 =
∂x c ∂t ρ0

General solution: p = f1 (t − x/c) + f2 (t + x/c)

Progressive plane wave: Z0 = ρ0 c (purely resistive)
Rigid tube end ⇒ standing waves and position-dependent Zs (x)

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Quick Practice

3
1 If ρ0 = 1.2 kg/m and c = 343 m/s, compute Z0 .
2 In a rigidly closed tube, where do velocity nodes occur?
3 Explain why sound in air is closer to adiabatic than isothermal.
4 A point source doubles its distance from you. What happens to pressure amplitude (approx.)?

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Tips

Always begin by stating the small-signal assumptions:

p = P0 + p ′ (x, t), ρ = ρ0 + ρ′ (x, t), |p ′ | ≪ P0 , |ρ′ | ≪ ρ0 .

For harmonic waves, clearly state substitutions:

∂ ∂
→ jω, → −jk for e j(ωt−kx) .
∂t ∂x

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Q1(a)(i): Propagation of Sound

(a)(i) With a clear labelled illustration, explain how sound propagates through a medium.
Wave propagation (c)

Compression Rarefaction Compression Rarefaction

Particles oscillate locally (longitudinal motion)

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Q1(a)(i): Solutions

To score full marks, include these points:

1 Local oscillation: particles move back and forth about equilibrium (no net mass flow).
2 Pressure variation: compressions and rarefactions mean

p(x, t) = P0 + p ′ (x, t) and ρ(x, t) = ρ0 + ρ′ (x, t).

3 Cause of motion: pressure gradient produces force on a small air element ⇒ acceleration.
4 Energy transport: disturbance travels with speed
s
B
c= (elasticity + inertia).
ρ0

Key sentence
Sound propagates because the medium has bulk modulus (restoring force) and density (inertia).

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Q1(b)(i): From Displacement to Pressure

(b)(i) The displacement is S(x, t) = a cos(kx − ωt) in a medium of bulk modulus B. Derive the pressure
fluctuation p ′ (x, t).

Expected idea
Pressure fluctuation is proportional to strain (fractional compression):
∂S ∂S
strain ≈ ⇒ p ′ ∝ −B .
∂x ∂x

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Q1(b)(i): Solution Plan
1 Strain (1D): for a longitudinal wave, the fractional change in length/volume is approximately
∂S
ϵ= .
∂x
2 Bulk modulus definition:  
∆P ∆V
B = −V ⇒ p ′ = −B .
∆V V
For 1D motion, ∆V /V ≈ ϵ = ∂S/∂x.
3 Substitute S(x, t) = a cos(kx − ωt):
∂S
= −ka sin(kx − ωt).
∂x
4 Hence
∂S
p ′ = −B = Bka sin(kx − ωt).
∂x

Note on signs
Some texts write p ′ = +B ∂S/∂x depending on how compression is defined. State your convention and keep it
consistent.
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Q1(b)(ii): Max Displacement from Max Pressure

(b)(ii) Max pressure variation pmax = 30 Pa. Find max displacement amplitude a in air: ρ0 = 1.22 kg m−3 ,
f = 1 kHz, c = 330 m s−1 .

Useful Chapter Two relations (plane progressive wave)

Z0 = ρ0 c, pmax = Z0 umax , umax = ωa, ω = 2πf .

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Q1(b)(ii): Worked Solution (Units Shown)

pmax 30
umax = = ≈ 7.46 × 10−2 m s−1
ρ0 c (1.22)(330)
ω = 2πf = 2π(1000) ≈ 6.283 × 103 rad s−1
umax 7.46 × 10−2
a= ≈ ≈ 1.19 × 10−5 m
ω 6.283 × 103
a ≈ 1.2 × 10−5 m = 12 µm

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Q1(c)(i): Why Adiabatic in Air?

(c)(i) Explain why sound wave motion in air is assumed to be adiabatic.

Complete one-mark statement

Sound compressions and rarefactions occur very quickly, so there is insufficient time for heat to flow between
compressed and rarefied regions. Therefore, the process is approximately adiabatic:

PV γ = constant.

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Q2(a): Derive EOM and Continuity

(a)(i) Derive the equation of motion. (a)(ii) Derive the equation of continuity.

Targets
∂u ∂p ′ ∂ρ′ ∂u
ρ0 =− , + ρ0 = 0.
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x

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Q2(a): Solutions / Solution Plan (Clear Steps)
Equation of motion (Newton’s 2nd law):
1 Choose an air element of volume V = A∆x.
2 Pressure forces: p(x)A on left and p(x + ∆x)A on right.
3 Net force:
∂p ′ ∂p ′
Fx = p(x)A − p(x + ∆x)A ≈ − A∆x = − V.
∂x ∂x
4 Mass m = ρ0 V , acceleration ∂u/∂t.
5 Conclude:
∂u ∂p ′
ρ0 =− .
∂t ∂x
Continuity:
1 Start from 1D continuity:
∂ρ ∂(ρu)
+ = 0.
∂t ∂x
2 Linearize with ρ = ρ0 + ρ′ and neglect products ρ′ u:
∂ρ′ ∂u
+ ρ0 = 0.
∂t ∂x
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Q2(b): Adiabatic Law to Wave Equation

(b) Show that PV γ = constant leads to

1 ∂P γ ∂τ
=−
P0 ∂t V0 ∂t
and hence derive the pressure wave equation.

Final destination
∂ 2 p′ 1 ∂ 2 p′ γP0
2
= 2 , c2 = .
∂x c ∂t 2 ρ0

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Q2(b): Solution Plan
1 Start with PV γ = C . Differentiate:

d(PV γ ) = 0 ⇒ V γ dP + γPV γ−1 dV = 0.

2 Divide by PV γ :
dP dV
+γ = 0.
P V
3 For small oscillations about (P0 , V0 ) and V = V0 − τ :
τ ∂p ′ γP0 ∂τ
p ′ = −γP0 ⇒ =− .
V0 ∂t V0 ∂t
4 Relate volume strain to displacement:
τ ∂ξ ∂ξ
≈ , u= .
V0 ∂x ∂t
5 Combine with:
∂u ∂p ′ ∂ρ′ ∂u
ρ0 =− and + ρ0 =0
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
′
to eliminate u (and ρ ) and obtain the wave equation.
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Q11(a): General Solution of the 1D Wave Equation

(a) Derive the general solution  x  x

p(x, t) = f1 t − + f2 t +
c c
and explain the meaning of the two terms.

Meaning
f1 : wave travelling in +x direction; f2 : wave travelling in −x direction.

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Q11(a):

1 Start with
∂2p 1 ∂2p
2
= 2 2.
∂x c ∂t
2 Factorize the operator:   
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂
− + p = 0.
∂x c ∂t ∂x c ∂t
3 Hence either factor acting on p gives a first-order PDE. Integrating yields:
 x  x
p = f1 t − + f2 t + .
c c

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Q7(c): Derive Zs = p/u for a Plane Progressive Wave

(c) Derive Zs = p/u for a freely travelling plane progressive wave and show Zs = ρ0 c.

Targets (phasor form)

p̂
p ′ = p̂e j(ωt−kx) , u = ûe j(ωt−kx) , = ρ0 c .
û

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Q7(c): Solution Plan (Phasor Substitution Shown)

1 Start from the equation of motion:

∂u ∂p ′
ρ0 =− .
∂t ∂x
2 For e j(ωt−kx) :
∂ ∂
→ jω, → −jk.
∂t ∂x
So:
ρ0 (jω)û = −(−jk)p̂ = jk p̂.
3 Therefore:
p̂ ω
= ρ0 .
û k
4 Since c = ω/k:
p̂
Zs = = ρ0 c.
û

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Q8: Rigidly Closed Tube (Structured)

In a rigidly closed tube (piston at x = 0, rigid wall at x = l):

sin k(l − x)
u(x) = u0 .
sin(kl)

(a) State boundary conditions. (b) Derive specific acoustic impedance Zs at l ′ = l − x. (c) For l ′ < λ/20, show
′
1
Zs ≈ jωC a
, where Ca = ρ l c 2 . (d) Locate first three pressure/velocity nodes for given f , l. (e) Sketch pattern for
0
n = 2.

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Q8: Tube Diagram

Rigid wall: u(l) = 0 (velocity node)

Pressure is maximum (pressure antinode) at rigid wall.
piston x = 0 rigid wall x = l

x
length l

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Q8(a,b): Solutions

(a) Boundary conditions

At rigid wall (x = l): particle velocity must be zero:

u(l) = 0.

At piston (x = 0): velocity equals imposed piston velocity amplitude:

u(0) = u0 .

(b) Specific acoustic impedance at distance l ′ = l − x from the wall

p(l ′ )
Zs (l ′ ) = = −jρ0 c cot kl ′ .


u(l ′ )

(Derivation route: write incident + reflected plane waves, apply u = 0 at rigid termination, then take ratio p/u.)

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Q8(c): Small-Length Approximation (Explain the Physics)

Given:
Zs (l ′ ) = −jρ0 c cot kl ′ .

If l ′ < λ/20, then kl ′ = 2π ′

λ
l ≪ 1, hence
1
cot kl ′ ≈ ′ .


kl
So:
1 ρ0 c 2
   
1  c 
Zs ≈ −jρ0 c = −jρ 0 c = .
kl ′ ωl ′ jω l′
Define acoustic compliance:
l′ 1
Ca = ⇒ Zs ≈ .
ρ0 c 2 jωCa

Physical meaning
For very short air columns, the tube behaves like a spring (compliance) that stores potential energy.

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Q12(a): Spherical Progressive Wave Impedance

(a) For a spherical free-progressive wave, write p(r , t) and ur (r , t) and derive:

jkr
Zs = ρ0 c .
1 + jkr

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Q12(a): Solution Plan (Show the Missing Step Everyone Forgets)

1 Use spherical spreading (phasor):

p̂ j(ωt−kr )
p(r , t) = e .
r
2 Apply radial equation of motion:
∂ur ∂p
ρ0 =− .
∂t ∂r
1
e −jkr :


3 Key step: differentiate the product r
 
∂ 1 −jkr 1 −jkr 1
e =− e − jk e −jkr .
∂r r r2 r

4 Substitute ∂/∂t → jω, isolate p̂/ûr and simplify to obtain:

p̂ jkr
= ρ0 c .
ûr 1 + jkr

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 p2
Q15(b): Derive ⟨I ⟩ = ρ0 c

p2
(b) Derive I = for plane progressive waves.
ρ0 c

Core identities
p̂
I (t) = p ′ (t) u(t), Z0 = = ρ0 c.
û

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Q15(b): Solution Plan (RMS vs Peak Made Clear)

1 Instantaneous intensity:
I (t) = p ′ (t) u(t).
2 For a progressive plane wave, p ′ and u are in phase and

p ′ (t)
u(t) = .
ρ0 c

3 Hence:
[p ′ (t)]2
I (t) = .
ρ0 c
4 Time-average over one cycle gives:
2
prms
⟨I ⟩ = .
ρ0 c
√
If you use peak amplitude p̂, then prms = p̂/ 2.

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Q20(a,b): Full First-Principles Derivation (Chapter Two Master)

(a) Derive continuity and equation of motion using a small box of air. (b) Combine with adiabatic law to obtain
the full pressure wave equation (show every differentiation step).

Exam note
Write the derivation in a strict logical order (definitions → laws → elimination → wave equation).

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Q20(a,b): Perfect Answer Structure (Step-by-Step)
Write in this order (and box each final equation):
1 Define perturbations:
p = P0 + p ′ , ρ = ρ0 + ρ′ , |p ′ | ≪ P0 , |ρ′ | ≪ ρ0 .
2 Equation of motion (Newton):
∂u ∂p ′
ρ0 =− .
∂t ∂x
3 Continuity (linearized):
∂ρ′ ∂u
+ ρ0 =0 .
∂t ∂x
4 Adiabatic state equation:
γP0
p ′ = c 2 ρ′ , c2 = .
ρ0
5 Differentiate continuity w.r.t. t, substitute EOM, then eliminate ρ′ using p ′ = c 2 ρ′ .
6 Arrive at the pressure wave equation:
∂ 2 p′ 1 ∂ 2 p′
2
= 2 .
∂x c ∂t 2
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Quick Drill (Revision Check)

Try without notes:

1 From PV γ = constant, show c 2 = γP0 /ρ0 .
2 For p ′ = p̂e j(ωt−kx) , derive u = p̂e j(ωt−kx) /(ρ0 c).
3 For rigid termination, prove Zs (l ′ ) = −jρ0 c cot(kl ′ ).
4 For spherical waves, explain why p ∝ 1/r and I ∝ 1/r 2 .

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