X-RAYS
Syllabus
• 23.8 Define x-rays
• 23.9 Describe modern Coolidge tube method for the production of
x-rays with quality and quantity
• 23.10 Illustrate different properties of x-rays along with their
applications
• Solve numerical problems .
The nature and production of X-rays
• X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
• They belong to the short-wavelength, high-frequency end of the electromagnetic
spectrum, beyond ultraviolet radiation (Figure).
• They have wavelengths in the range about 10−2 nm to 10 nm
• X-rays are very high-frequency electromagnetic waves, produced when
high-energy electrons lose energy as they collide with atoms
• X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons are rapidly decelerated.
• As the electrons slow down, their kinetic energy is transformed to photons of
electromagnetic radiation.
• W. C. Roentgen (Röntgen) was experimenting with high-voltage discharge tubes when he
discovered X-rays.
• Electrons from the cathode were accelerated across the tube towards the anode.
• The evacuated tube meant that the electrons could reach high speeds, because they were
not impeded by collisions with air molecules.
• Roentgen noticed that a fluorescent screen placed a few metres from the tube produced light
when the tube was operating.
• The fluorescent glow persisted even when Roentgen shielded his tube with thick black paper.
• He concluded that invisible, penetrating rays were being produced by the tube. He named
these X-rays meaning an unknown quantity.
• He soon found that X-rays penetrated through some materials better than through others,
and within a few weeks he presented the first X-ray photograph (of his wife’s hand).
• Within a month of the discovery, X-rays were being used by doctors to examine patients with
fractures or gunshot wounds.
• At that time, scientists were unaware of the dangers of ionising radiation, and many of the
early patients suffered from high X-ray doses.
• Modern techniques have made the medical use of X-rays much safer.
• The production of X-rays today is usually done in a tube (Fig.) similar to Roentgen’s, using
voltages of typically 30 kV to 150 kV.
• Figure shows the principles of the modern X-ray tube(Coolidge tube). The tube itself is
evacuated, and contains two electrodes:
• Cathode – the heated filament acts as the cathode (negative) from which electrons are
emitted.
• Anode – the rotating anode (positive) is made of a hard metal such as tungsten. (The anode
metal is often referred to as the ‘target metal’.)
• In a modern X-ray tube(Coolidge tube) , the cathode is heated by an electric
current through a filament.
• The cathode then emits electrons by thermionic emission.
• Some of the free electrons gain an amount of thermal energy sufficient to
overcome the attractive electrical force bonding them to the positive ions of
the metal crystal lattice and they can escape from the metal surface.
• The electrons are accelerated towards the anode by a potential difference of
around 150 kV. When the electrons reach the target, which is mounted on
the anode, they collide with the target atoms.
• When the electrons strike the anode at high speed, they lose some of their
kinetic energy in the form of X-ray photons, which emerge in all directions.
• As the electrons slow down, they emit a continuous spectrum of X-rays,
known as bremsstrahlung or ‘braking’ radiation.
• Some of the high-speed electrons will collide with electrons in the target
atoms.
• If they have sufficient energy, they will knock atomic electrons out of
their orbits and ionise the atoms.
• As a result, characteristic X-rays are emitted when other electrons in the
target atoms drop from higher energy levels to fill the vacancy (Figure ).
• The wavelengths emitted depend on the spacing of the energy levels in the
target atoms. This means that a line spectrum ,characteristic of the target
material, is superimposed on the continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum (Figure).
• In the Coolidge tube, the intensity and frequency(hardness) of X-rays can
be easily controlled.
• (1) The intensity of the X-ray beam is the total energy emitted at all
wavelengths per second through unit area.
• For a particular anode voltage, the X-ray intensity is controlled by the
number of electrons striking the target every second, since more
electrons leads to more collisions, which means that more X-rays are
produced.
• Therefore, the intensity of the X-ray beam depends on the tube current,
which can be controlled by varying the current to the cathode filament.
•(2) An X-ray may be thought of as ‘hard’ or ‘soft’. Soft X-rays have
lower energies and hence longer wavelengths than hard X-rays.
•Soft X-rays are less penetrating (they are more easily absorbed)
and so they contribute more to the patient’s exposure to
hazardous radiation.
•It is often better to use hard X-rays, which pass through the body
more easily.
•The frequency (hardness) of X-rays emitted depends on the voltage
between the cathode and the anode (target).
•
•
•In practice, less than 1% of the energy in the electron beam is
transferred to X-ray radiation.
•Most of the energy is transferred to internal energy in the target,
raising its temperature.
•The target has to be made of a metal with high thermal
conductivity, high specific heat capacity and high melting point.
•Tungsten meets these criteria well and is often used as the target
in diagnostic X-ray tubes.
•Tungsten has a high proton number, so a tungsten nucleus has a
large mass and a high positive charge.
•This increases the probability that collisions with the high-energy
electrons will lead to X-ray emission.
•The tungsten target is mounted on the anode, which is able to
rotate.
•This means that the electron beam strikes different areas of
the target and reduces local heating problems.
•Some X-ray tubes have water circulating through the anode to
remove this excess heat.
Properties of X-rays
•
Uses of X-rays
• Due to their unique properties, X-rays have a wide range of applications:
❖ Medical Imaging (Radiography):
The most common use is in diagnostic imaging to view bones and organs. For example, X-rays are
used to detect fractures, dental cavities, and tumors. A chest X-ray can show the state of the
lungs and heart.
❖ Radiation Therapy:
High-energy X-rays are used to destroy cancerous cells by damaging their DNA. This is a common
treatment for many types of cancer.
❖ Industrial Inspection:
X-rays are used to inspect the internal structure of components to check for cracks, flaws, or
other defects without causing damage. This is a crucial part of quality control in manufacturing.
❖ Airport Security:
Baggage scanners at airports use X-rays to see the contents of luggage and identify dangerous
items.
❖ Art and Archaeology:
X-rays can be used to examine the layers beneath a painting to see previous versions or to study
the contents of ancient artifacts without opening them.
KEY IDEAS
•
Now It’s your turn!
• 1. Explain the shape of a typical X-ray spectrum from an X-ray tube.
❖ An X-ray spectrum consists of a continuous spectrum of bremsstrahlung
radiation, produced by electrons being decelerated in the target material
and giving a full range of photon energies above a minimum.
❖ On this there is superimposed a line spectrum, corresponding to electrons
in excited atoms of the target material dropping down to lower energy
states.
• 2. X-rays are produced by an X-ray tube with anode voltage 120kV.
• a. What is the maximum energy of an X-ray photon produced?
• Maximum energy = 120keV
• = 120 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19
• = 1.92 × 10−14J
•
• 3. a. What controls the intensity of an X-ray beam?
• The X-ray tube current
• b. An X-ray tube has a current of 50mA and potential difference of 140kV
between its anode and cathode. The X-ray photons are produced from the
tungsten target with an efficiency of 0.7%. What is the power of the X-ray
beam?
• Power consumption of the tube = I × V = 50 × 10−3 × 140 × 103 = 7000W =
7kW.
• The efficiency of conversion of energy into X-ray photons is 0.7%, so the
power of the X-ray beam is 7000 × 0.7/100
• = 49W.
• 4. Why does the target material need to have high values of
• a. thermal conductivity
• As much as 99% of the energy of the incident electrons will be converted to
internal energy in the target. The target needs to be able to conduct this heat
away.
• b. specific heat capacity
• A large specific heat capacity limits the temperature rise.
• c. melting point?
• So much heat is produced that a material of lower melting point could melt.