Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

Module 2
1. Define Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus and rigidity modulus. Derive the relation
between Y, ƞ and 𝜎. (June/July 2023; 09 Marks)
OR
What are Young’s modulus, Rigidity modulus and Poisson’s ratio? Derive the relation
between them. (November/December 2023; 07 Marks)
OR
What is Poisson’s ratio? Derive the relation between bulk modulus (K)n Young’s
modulus (Y) and Poisson’s ratio (𝜎). What are the limiting values of Poisson’s ratio?
(December-2023/January-2024; 09 Marks)
OR
Define Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus and rigidity modulus. Derive relation between
Y, ƞ & 𝜎. (Moel Question paper Set-1; 10 Marks)
OR
Define Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus, Rigidity of modulus & Poisson’s ratio. Discuss
the limiting values of Poisson’s ratio. (Moel Question paper Set-2; 10 Marks)

Answer:
Young’s Modulus (Y):
Young’s Modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal (linear) stress to longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit of the material.
Y = Longitudinal stress /Longitudinal strain
𝐹⁄ 𝐹.𝐿
𝑌 = Δ𝐿 𝐴 = ∆𝐿.𝐴
⁄𝐿

The S.I unit of Young’s Modulus is N/m2

Bulk Modulus (K):
The ratio of volume stress to the volume strain of the body with in the elastic limit is called
Bulk modulus.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
dp Vdp
K= =
dv dv
V
S.I unit of Bulk modulus is N/m2
Rigidity Modulus (n):
The ratio of (tangential stress or) shearing stress to the shearing strain of the body with in the
elastic limit is called rigidity modulus.
Rigidity modulus (n) = Shearing stress/ Shearing strain
n = (F A)   Nm-2

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

Poisson’s Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain of the body with in the elastic
Lateral strain (  )
limit. Poisson’s ratio (  ) =
Longitudinal strain (  )

Change in dimension
Lateral strain (  ) =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
hange in length
Longitudinal strain (  ) = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑑1⁄ 𝑑1 .𝐿
𝑑
Then, Poisson’s ratio (𝜎) = =
𝐿1⁄ 𝑑𝐿1
𝐿
Relation between Rigidity modulus (ƞ), Youngs modulus (Y) and Poisson’s ratio (𝜎)
Consider a cube of side length L. The tangential stress S
is applied on a face BC of the cube. As a consequence of
applied stress the cube gets distorted to B1C1DA form
original BCDA. The diagonal BD contracts and the
diagonal AC expand though the same magnitude. Let
draw a CE perpendicular line on the new diagonal C1A.
The tangential stress S is equivalent to a corresponding
stress along the diagonal BD and a tensile stress along the
diagonal AC. Let ‘  ’ represents the longitudinal strain per unit stress and ‘  ’ represents the
lateral strain per unit stress.
By considering the triangle CAC1 from the figure, we can observe that
EC 1
Strain = = S ( +  ) − − − − − (1)
AC
Also, from triangle CC1E
(
EC 1 = CC 1 cos CC 1 E )
L
EC 1 = − − − − − (2)
2
Then from the triangle ACE

AC = L2 + L2 = 2 L − − − − − (3)
Substitute equation (2) and (3) in (1)
L
S ( +  ) = 2 = L 2 L − − − − − (4)
2L 2L

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

L
For small  , we can consider 
L

Thus, equation (4) can be written as, S ( +  ) =
2
S 1
 = − − − − − (5)
 2( +  )
S
But, = n = rigidity modulus

Then equation (5) can be written as
1
n= − − − − − (6)
2( +  )
Divide RHS of both numerator and denominator of equation (6) with ‘  ’
1
n= − − − − − (7 )
2(1 +   )
1 𝛽
We know that, = 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 =
𝛼 𝛼

Y
n= ----------- (8) This is the relation between Y , n and 
2(1 +  )

Limiting value of Poisson’s ratio (  ):

Consider the relation between Y, n and σ and Y, K and σ
That is Y = 2n(1 +  ) and Y = 3K (1 − 2 )

From these two relations we can write as 2n(1 +  ) = 3K (1 − 2 )

If Poisson’s ratio (  ) is positive value, then the left side of the equation will be positive. But
for right side of the above equation bill be positive only when σ value takes the value less than
1 . That means 2 will become more than 1 due to that (1− 2 ) becomes negative. This
2
implies  can takes the value lesser than 0.5 only on positive side.
On the other side, if  is given negative values, then for any value of  the right side of the
equation will become positive which implies that, left side should also be positive. This is
possible only if  does not take the value above -1 on left side.
This implies the  value lies between -1 and +0.5. However negative value of  means
elongation of the body accompanied by a lateral expansion which is not observed in practice,
the limiting value usually taken between 0 to +0.5.

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

2. Define bending moment. Derive the expression for bending moment in terms of
moment of inertia. (June/July 2023; 10 Marks)
OR
Discuss Neutral surface and derive the expression for bending moment in terms of
moment of inertia and hence arrive at the expression for Bending moment for rectangular
and circular cross sections. (November/December 2023; 08 Marks)
OR
Derive the expression for bending moment in terms of moment of inertia and hence arrive
at the expression for bending moment for a beam for circular and rectangular cross
section. (Moel Question paper Set-1; 09 Marks)
OR
Explain the term bending moment. Show the bending moment of a thin uniform bar of
𝒀𝒃𝒅𝟑
rectangular cross section is . (Moel Question paper Set-1; 10 Marks)
𝟏𝟐𝑹
Answer:
Bending moment: The moment of the applied couple subjected to which the beam undergoes
bending longitudinally is called bending moment.
Neutral surface or neutral plane:
Neutral surface is that layer of a uniform beam which does not undergo any change in its
dimensions when the beam is subjected to bending within its elastic limit.
Relation for bending moment of a beam:
Consider a long uniform beam, whose one end is fixed to rigid surface. The beam is considered
to be made up of a number of parallel layers like AB,
CD, EF, etc. If now a load is attached to the beam at
free end, the beam bends. The layers like AB which is
above the neutral surface will elongate to A1B1 and
the one below neutral surface like EF will be
contrasted to E1F1. Where, CD is the neutral surface
which does not change its length.
The shape of different layer is considered as a
concentric circle of varying radii.
Let R be radius of the circle to which the neutral
surface forms a part.
Then, CD = R
Let  is the common angle subtended by the layers at the common centre ‘O’ of the circles.
Now, the layer AB has been elongated to A1B1
Therefore, change in length= A1B1- AB
But AB = CD = R

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

If the successive layers are separated by a distance ‘r’ then A1 B1 = (R + r )

Then, change in length = (R + r ) − R = r

Original length = R
r r
linearstrain = = − − − − − (1)
R R
But, Young’s modulus (Y)=Longitudinal stress / Linear strain
⇒longitudinal stress= Y X Linear strain
r
= Y   − − − − − ( 2)
R
F
Stress =   − − − − − (3)
a
Where ‘F’ is the force acting on the beam and ‘a’ is the area of the layer AB
From equation (2) and (3)
F r
= Y 
a R
Yar
F=
R
Therefore, moment of the force about the neutral axis= F X (its distance from neutral axis)
Yar 2
= F r =
R
Yar 2
Apply moment of force acting on the entire beam = 
R
Y
=
R
 ar 2 − − − − − (4)

The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is given by  Mr where  M is the
2

mass of the body. Similarly,  ar 2

is called the geometric moment of inertia I g .
Y
Therefore, Bending moment = I g --------- (5)
R
Expression for bending moment of rectangular and circular cross sections are
𝑌 𝑏𝑑3
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚) = 𝑅 ( 12 )where b and d are breadth and thickness

of the beam respectively.

𝑌 𝜋
Also, 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚) = 𝑅 × 4 𝜌4 where  - radius of the beam.

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

3. Explain the nature of elasticity with the help of stress-strain diagram. (June/July
2023; 06 Marks)
OR
Discuss the stress-strain diagram. Explain the I-section girder and its engineering
applications. (November/December 2023; 09 Marks)
OR
State and explain Hook’s law. With neat diagram, explain the stress-strain curve for
elastic materials. (December-2023/January-2024; 08 Marks)
OR
With neat diagram explain the stress-strain curve for elastic materials. (Moel Question
paper Set-1; 06 Marks)
Answer:
Hooke’s Law:
Irrespective of the type of deformation of a body under the action of external force, “Hooke
found that stress is always proportional to strain but only when deformation is small”.
Stress  Strain ⇒ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀 × Strain
where M = proportionality constant called as modulus of elasticity.
Therefore, 𝑀 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠⁄Strain
Stress-Strain Curve
The stress vs strain curve for metallic wire or a rod
is as shown in figure. In this curve OA is the portion
of linearity where stress is directly proportional to
strain. In this region only Hooke’s law is valid.
Even though the body continues to exhibit perfect
elastic property up to the point B. That means the
curve will be retraced if the applied force is
removed at any point even between A and B. The
point A and B are known as proportional limit and
the elastic limit respectively. Further, for the
deforming force above point B can produce change
in either size or shape or both of the body. Then point B can also be called as “yield point’.
After the point B and E, the body fails to regain its original length if the applied force removed
but traverses the dashed line as shown in figure. Therefore, the material is said to be “permanent
set”. Such a deformation is called “plastic deformation”.
At the point E, the deformation becomes large enough to pull the molecules for apart so that
the binding force breaks and after that the body will become two parts. The point E is called as
“fracture point’.
Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

4. Explain the various types of beams and mention their engineering applications.
(June/July 2023; 06 Marks)
OR
What is bending moment? Discuss different type of beams and mention their engineering
application. (07 Marks)
OR
Discuss the different type of beams and mention their engineering applications. (Moel
Question paper Set-2; 06 Marks)
Answer:
Bending moment:
The moment of the applied couple subjected to which the beam undergoes bending
longitudinally is called bending moment.
Y
Bending moment = I g where Ig is geometric moment of inertia
R
Types of beams and their engineering applications:
There are mainly four types of beans
1. Simple beam:
A simple beam is a bar resting upon supports at its ends and is used most commonly in
realistic life.
2. Continuous beam:
A continuous beam is a bar resting upon more than two supports.
3. Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is a beam whose one end is fixed and
the other end is free.
4. Fixed beam:
A beam fixed at its both ends is called a fixed beam.
Applications:
a. Used in the fabrication of trolley ways.
b. In the chassis/frame as truck beds.
c. In the elevators.
d. In the construction of platform and bridges.
e. As a supporting structure for small beams in buildings and bridges.

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

5. Explain differential elastic moduli and mention the relation between them.
(December-2023/January-2024; 07 Marks)
OR
Explain different elastic moduli and Mention the Relation between them. (Moel Question
paper Set-1; 07 Marks)
Answer:
Types of Elastic Modulus and its Relation
Young’s Modulus (Y):
Young’s Modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal (linear) stress to longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit.
Y = Longitudinal stress /Longitudinal strain
F
Y= A
L
L
S.I unit of Y is N/m2 Dimensions are [L-1 M1 T-2]
Bulk Modulus (K):
The ration of volume stress to the volume strain of the body with in the elastic limit is called
Bulk modulus.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
dp Vdp
K= =
dv dv
V
S.I unit of Y is N/m2
Rigidity Modulus (n):
The ratio of tangential stress or shearing stress to the shearing strain.
Rigidity modulus (n) = Shearing stress/ Shearing strain
n = (F A)   Nm-2

The relation between Young’s Modulus (Y), Bulk Modulus (K) and Rigidity Modulus (n)
9𝑛𝐾
is 𝑌=
𝑛+3𝐾

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

6. What is Fatigue failure? Discuss the factor affecting on fatigue. (November/December

2023; 07 Marks)
OR
Discuss fatigue failures. (Moel Question paper Set-2; 05 Marks)
Answer:
Fatigue failure: The surface of a material begins to crack or fracture, causing the part to
weaken due to cyclic load is known as fatigue failure. Typically, the first stage of fatigue failure
is crack initiation and it occurs once applied stress exceeds tensile strength. The next stage that
occurs is crack growth.
Factors affecting fatigue
➢ Effect of stress concentration.
Stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser) is a location in an object
where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations
occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component
that cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes,
grooves, notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also occur from accidental damage
such as nicks and scratches.
➢ The influence of size factor:
Due to the inhomogeneity of the material structure and the existence of internal defects, the
increase of the size will increase the failure probability of the material, thus reducing the
fatigue limit of the material.
➢ Influence of surface processing state: There are always uneven machining marks on the
machined surface, which are equivalent to tiny gaps, causing stress concentration on the
material surface, thus reducing the fatigue strength of the material.
➢ The impact of loading experience: The overload damage means that the fatigue limit of
the material will decrease after the material runs for a certain number of cycles under the
load higher than the fatigue limit.
➢ Influence of chemical composition: The internal factors include the composition,
microstructure, purity and residual stress of the material.
➢ Effect of heat treatment on Microstructure: Although the same static strength can be
obtained for materials of the same composition due to different heat treatments, the fatigue
strength can vary in a considerable range due to different microstructures.
➢ Influence of inclusions: The inclusion itself or the hole produced by it is equivalent to a
tiny notch, which will produce stress concentration and strain concentration under the
action of alternating load, and become the crack source of fatigue fracture, which has

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Applied Physics for ME Stream Subject Code: BPHYM202

adverse effect on the fatigue performance of materials. The influence of inclusions on

fatigue strength depends not only on the type, nature, shape, size, quantity and distribution
of inclusions, but also on the strength level of materials and the level and state of applied
stress.
7. Explain the I-section girder and its engineering applications. (November/December
2023; 09 Marks)
Answer:
I -Section girder and their Engineering Applications
I section beam it is suitable for resisting flexural stresses.
As more area is away from neutral axis compared to
rectangular or circular section beams, its moment of
inertia (MOI) increases as Ar2
As moment of inertia increases, moment resisting
capacity also increases which makes I section better as compared to other cross section.
This is better option for designer to save material.
Applications:
➢ A plate girder is a steel beam that is widely used in bridge construction. Girder is required
to carry heavy loads on relatively long spans
➢ It is a built-up I-beam section, used to carry heavy loads which cannot be carried
economically by rolled I-sections. It is made by welding the steel plates in I-beam shape.
➢ Primarily used in bridges, plate girder is used when we need deeper sections having
higher stiffness to carry heavy loads.
➢ I-section beams are especially important in civil constructions as they substitute for
numerous support structures which obviously help in saving both time and money.

Dr. Vasanthakumar M S,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.