RESEARCH METHODS
Chapter 1: Research and the Problem for Investigation
COMPREHENSIVE STUDY GUIDE
I. THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Definition: Research means searching for a theory, testing theory, or solving a problem. A problem
must exist, be identified, and require a solution beyond ordinary means.
Kerlinger (1973): a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Key Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Systematic: Follows steps — problem identification, relating to theories, data collection,
analysis, interpretation, drawing conclusions, integrating into knowledge.
• Controlled: Every step is planned; problem defined thoroughly, variables identified, instruments
carefully selected, conclusions drawn only from data.
• Empirical: Data collected confirms or refutes the hypothesis.
• Critical: Open to critical analysis by a panel of judges.
II. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Sources of a Problem
• Your courses/classwork — problems arise naturally from subjects you take or teach
• School difficulties — underachievers, lack of creativity, behavior problems
• Journals, books, library abstracts — recommendations in prior theses
• Theory — generalizations/principles subject to investigation
• Professional lectures, seminars, mini-researches
McGuigan (1978) — Situations that manifest a problem:
1. Absence of information resulting in a gap in knowledge
2. Contradictory results
3. A fact exists and you intend to make your study explain it
Characteristics of a Good Problem
4. Of great interest to you — Helps surmount difficulties; usually within area of specialization.
5. Useful to concerned people in a particular field — Must have practical value or contribution.
6. Possesses novelty — Not overstudied; needs further exploration.
7. Invites more complex designing — Allows introduction of more variables for richer findings.
8. Can be completed in the allotted time — Ideally 1–2 years; data gathering should take at
most one semester.
9. Does not carry ethical or moral impediments — Should not embarrass or harm respondents.
Sharpening Skills for Discovering a Problem
10. Reading literature critically in your field
11. Attending professional lectures
12. Being close observant of situations and happenings
13. Thinking out research possibilities from content course topics
14. Attending research colloquia or seminars
15. Conducting mini-researches and noting findings closely
16. Compiling researches with emphasis on content and methodology
17. Visiting various libraries for researchable topics
18. Subscribing to journals in your field and in research
19. Building up a library of materials in your field
III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Limiting and Defining the Problem
20. Define major terms/concepts. Read literature to find variables associated with it.
21. Read further literature — survey what researchers have done; identify instruments and
methodologies.
22. Get attracted to available instruments. Consider adopting the definition used by the instrument's
author.
23. Shape specific questions after completing literature review; identify respondents and methods.
Writing the Title
Functions: (1) Draws summary content of the investigation, (2) Serves as frame of reference, (3)
Enables researcher to claim title as his own, (4) Helps others refer to the work.
Guidelines:
• Include all main concepts/variables and their relationship
• Include the target population for specificity
• Baker & Schutz (1972): Max 20 substantive words; drop phrases like "A Study of", "An
Investigation of", "A Comparison of"
• Indicate relationship among variables (difference, effect, or association)
Writing Specific Questions
Questions must be written in quantifiable terms. Broad questions must be broken down into smaller,
specific ones. Quantification and measurement give direction to the investigation.
IV. THE HYPOTHESIS
Definition
• Gay (1976): A tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or events which have
occurred or will occur.
• McGuigan (1978): A testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more
variables.
A hypothesis is the most specific statement of a problem, formulated after a thorough review of
literature.
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
24. Reasonable — States the relationship between variables in definite terms.
25. Testable — Stated in well-defined operational form; verifiable/measurable.
26. Follows findings of previous studies — Known as the research hypothesis; based on prior
literature.
Types of Hypotheses
27. Null Hypothesis (Ho) — States "no existence" of effect, interaction, relationship, or difference.
Recommended for avoiding statistical errors. Non-directional; uses two-tailed tests.
28. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) — Operational statement of the research hypothesis. Based on
theory (deductive hypothesis per Ary et al., 1972). Directional; uses one-tailed tests.
29. Inductive Hypothesis (Ary) — Based on observations of behavior.
Functions of the Hypothesis
30. Introduces the researcher's thinking — Presents predictions at the start of the study.
31. Structures the next stages/procedures — Directs how variables are measured, sampling
designed, and data organized.
32. Provides format for data presentation, analysis, and interpretation — Organizes the
chapter on findings.
V. ASSUMPTIONS
Definition (Gay, 1976): Any important fact presumed to be true but not actually verified. Unlike the
hypothesis, it does NOT need testing or confirmation.
33. That the interviewee answered the interview questions accurately
34. That the respondents rated some situations truthfully
35. That the attitudes of a group of respondents are stable
36. That perceptions can be quantified and therefore be measured
37. That the subjects of the study all belong to the low socio-economic status group
VI. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
• Scope: Defines where and when the study was conducted and who the subjects were. Sets the
delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the study.
• Limitation: A phase or aspect of the investigation which may affect the result adversely but
over which the researcher has no control. Must be stated honestly — a clear and honest
acceptance brings credence to the study.
VII. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Define important concepts for clear communication. Two levels:
38. Conceptual/Constitutive Definition — Academic or universal meaning; what dictionaries give;
abstract and formal.
39. Operational/Functional Definition — Defines how the concept is measured in the
investigation. Two types:
• Measured (Kerlinger, 1973): States the instrument used (e.g., "Creativity refers to scores in the
Torrance Test of Creative Thinking — Verbal Test")
• Experimental: Spells out details of how a variable is manipulated
VIII. THE VARIABLE
Definition
Kerlinger (1973): Variables are the constructs or properties being investigated. A variable is a
characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties. If there is only one
characteristic observed in participants, it is a constant, not a variable.
Examples:
• If all subjects are Grade 5 students → grade is a CONSTANT, not a variable
• If all subjects are boys → sex is a CONSTANT, not a variable
• If experimenting on two methods → method is a VARIABLE
• If working with creative and less creative children → creativity is a VARIABLE
Dependent vs. Independent Variable
At the beginning of a study, ask:
• Which characteristic do you intend to be your outcome/objective? → This is the
Criterion/Dependent Variable
• What characteristics or conditions will make the outcome vary? → This is the Independent
Variable
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
The CAUSE; the basis for grouping The RESULT/EFFECT; what is measured
after grouping at the end of the study
Also called: variate, covariate Also called: criterion variable; object of the
investigation
Manipulated in experimental research Observed/measured at the end of the study
Note: A variable that is dependent in one study may be independent in another.
Types of Independent Variables
40. Non-manipulable (Assigned/Organismic/Classificatory/Attribute Variable) — Cannot be
changed; pre-existing characteristics of participants. Examples: sex, mental ability, socio-
economic status, brain damage, aptitude, race, age. (Gay, 1976; Ary et al., 1972)
41. Manipulable (Active Variable) — Can be directly manipulated by the researcher in
experimental research. Examples: reinforcement, method, use of instructional materials, use of
feedback.
Key Rule: In experimental research, there is always a manipulable variable. In non-experimental
research, the independent variable has presumably been manipulated before the study began
(Kerlinger, 1973).
Variable Terminology in the Philippine Setting
Researchers use terms interchangeably. "Dependent/independent variables" are most popularly used.
Some use criterion variable for dependent and variate for independent, but these are typically reserved
for experimental studies only.
QUICK REVIEW: KEY TERMS AT A GLANCE
TERM MEANING
Research Systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions
Hypothesis Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or
more variables
Null Hypothesis States "no existence" of effect/relationship/difference; non-
directional; two-tailed tests
Alternative Hypothesis Operational statement of research hypothesis; directional; one-
tailed tests
Inductive Hypothesis Based on observations of behavior
Assumption Important fact presumed true but not verified; needs no testing
Scope Defines where, when, and who — sets the boundaries of the
study
Limitation Aspect affecting results adversely but outside researcher's
control
Conceptual Definition Dictionary/academic meaning; abstract and universal
Operational Definition Defines how a concept is measured or manipulated in the study
Variable A characteristic with two or more mutually exclusive values or
properties
Constant A characteristic with only one value in the study — NOT a
variable
Dependent Variable The outcome/result; what is measured at the end of the study
(criterion variable)
Independent Variable The cause/grouping basis; what is manipulated or pre-existing
(variate)
Active/Manipulable Can be directly manipulated by the researcher (e.g., method,
Variable reinforcement)
Assigned/Organismic Cannot be manipulated; pre-existing attribute (e.g., sex, age, IQ)
Variable