BASIC PRIMARY SYSTEMS COMP
The figure above shows the sub systems which constitutes a computer system. A computer
system may contain all some of these sub system that is-
VDU- Visual Display Unit
Keyboard
Printer
Bulk storage
Microcomputer (C.P.U, Memory, I/o ports
1) V.D.U Visual Display Unit
It is known as the monitor or the screen. It is the most obvious part of the computer system and
provides the man to machine communication. It provides a mean of establishing a dialogue with
the computer system by entering data whereas the computer system displays the appropriate
messages on the visual display unit.
2) THE KEYBOARD
It can be a simple as numerical keypad containing keys as a calculator or it can be as complex as
the alphanumerical and typewriters keyboad.
3)PRINTER
They provide a hardcopy of the information displayed on the monitor
4)STORAGE SYSTEMS
Magnetic disks, optical disks, flash disks are the best computer peripherals for large storage
capacity with faster access and retrieval.
The Microcomputer Units and The Interaction Between Its Blocks.
The memory gives the data to be manipulated by the o.k. as well as the program that directs that
manipulation. A program is a group of logically related instructions. Exulted to solve the
problem.
The C.P.U reads each instruction from the memory in a logically determined sequence and uses
it to intiate processing actions. The cpu can rapidly access any data stored in memory. Also it can
address one or more input ports added to receive data from external equipment and inputs data
contained in them in to the computer.
The computer also requires one or more output ports that permits the cpu to communicate the
results (information) to the attached equipment eg printer, monitor etc and other peripherals in
the network.
The cpu unifies the system by controlling the functions performed by other components through
the control unit (C.P.U)
Hardware alone does not make a computer system. Before any computer can be put to work it
must be given a set of instructions known as a program. It is the program that states the
procedure that the computer is to follow in solving the problem that at hand. By changing the
program, the hardware can perform any different task/function.
BOOTING PROCES
When a computer is first switched on it executes a program found in the computers ROM Chip
(BIOS – basic in put / output system). This ROM provides the following functions:
(i) Initializing the system using large scale
intergration (LSI) chips used in the system
such as 8255 peripheral input/output chip and
8253 timer chip which is necessary to set them
for later use.
(ii) The computer then reads and puts this
information into the RAM(Random Access
memory where it is readily available to the
computer.
(iii) The power on self test (POST) also on
diagnostic tests up to 14 items among them –
checks the C.P.U, ROM, RAM, VDU card
Keyboard and disk drive systems. Errors
detected during this phase of operation may
result in an error code being displayed on the
monitor.
The error code can be in various forms
- visual messages or
- code.
This code is of great help to the servicing technician. Normal execution of this part of the ROM
diagnostic program results to a no error signal of a single beep and an attempt to load an
operating system from the disk drive
(iv) at this point the LED – on the diskette drive should come on at this
point. If there is a diskette in the floppy drive with the proper
operating system; the operating system is loaded into the memory. If
the diskette in the floppy drive does not have the o/s files, an error
message such as non-system disk or disk or indicates that there is a
boot failure and the computer will stop.
If a hard disk drive is present the computer first attempts to load the o/s from drive as discussed
above it then gives up and access the hard disk. If the system files arre found the computer loads
the o/s and the computer is ready to continue showing the normal DOS prompt. If you are using
DOS operating systems or windows user interface – if the system is using windows o/s or any
other o/s
If the hard disk doesn’t have the o/s in the proper place the error code will show as previously
described e.g. boot failure, non-system disk e.t.c
MOTHERBOARD/ SYSTEM BOARD
IT IS THE PRIMARY printed circuit board in PC. All the basic circuitry and components
necessary for the running the PC are either contained in it or attached to it.l it contains
i) system bus
ii) processor and co-processor sockets
iii) memory slots
iv) serial and parallel ports
expansion slots and peripheral controller
MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS
a) Micro processor:-
The underlying function of a computer is to execute the instructions forming part of a program
and to process the associated data which are performed by central processing unit.
In a PC, most of the functions are performed by a single chip known as microprocessor. A
microprocessor consists of arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) which performs all the computation
and program executions and the control unit which executions and the control unit which
harmonizes the operations of the whole system
b) floating Point Unit (F.P.U)- / Co-processor
The co-processor (math processor) helps the processor perform some of the difficult tasks. It is
thought as an assistant processor. It is effectively wired in parallel with the microprocessor and
takes over some of the more complex tasks thus freeing up the processors time. It becomes
active when instructions are processed relating to complex mathematics such as those in
spreadsheets applications CAD (computer aided design) and CAM (computer aided
manufacturing) applications
memory
It is a generally to store the programs and instructions to be processed by the microprocessor or
data is being created or being used.
The amount and type of memory in a system is dictated by the complexity of the program and
number of instructions together with the amount of data to be processed.
There are two basic terms used in reference to memory;
RAM AND ROM
a) RAM – Random Access Memory
It is the general term used describe read/write memory devices. It is used for temporary storage
of data. This memory is volatile (incase of a power failure everything in this memory is lost) –
CMOS RAM is a special type of RAM used for specific function that is to store systems
configurations.
b) ROM – Read only memory
as the name implies, this memory contents cannot be altered but only read. This memory is
burned into a chip o9nly once in other words programs or information stored in this memory is
written in it once only unless you are using the modern type of ROM i.e. PROM, EPROM
This is done usually by the manufacturer to store data or information that will not change e.g. the
BIOS.
4) The BIOS – Basic Input Output System.
This is a program that starts the computer system. An operating system such as DOS or
Windows does not communicate directly with the hardware. And as a result there is need to be a
method of control until the point at which the operating systems takes over. When initially7
powering up, the processor knows nothing about the system even access a disk drive. The BIOS
program controls the system during this initialization process in preparation for the operating
system to be used. One more ROM chips which contains BIOS are mounted on the system
Board. The main function of the BIOS are:
i) to test the system using a power on self test program (POST) when the computer is switched
on.
ii) Acts as a software interface providing access to all hardware components of the system.
iii) Acts as a bootstrap loader which initiates a search for the operating system from the disk
drives, loads the O/S into the memory and finally transfers control to the operating system.
5 EXPANSION SLOTS.
The PC provides the user with great flexibility by making the power, data, address, and control
bus connections available on a number of expansion slots connectors. These connectors permits
the use of adapter cards allowing the system to be configured to a variety of different monitors,
drives and other peripheral devices. Each expansion slot provides:
i) Access for data (data bus)
ii) Address signal path (address bus)
ii) control signal path (control bus)
iii) DC supply (Direct current) to power adapter cards and in some cases the additional
devices e.g. mouse.
6. SYSTEM CLOCK/ CLOCK GENERATOR
It is an electronic circuit build into a chip that provides regular timing signals for synchronizing
and timing purposes. The clock generator is used as the system clock in PC synchronizing the
entire system through the microprocessor and produces ready and reset signals.
2. key board controller
this is the interface between the key board itself and the microprocessor, it has two basic
functions:
i) Transmit and receive data from the keyboard
ii) Interrupts microprocessor when data is ready for transfer.
8. INTERGRATED SUPPORT CHIP (IC)
The function of this varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. A typical example of integrated
support chip is the 80C206 IPC(Integrated peripheral controller) which offers single chip
integration and incorporates 2DMA Controllers, 2 interrupt controllers, 1 time counter (system
clock) and 1 real time clock with other interfaces added for good synchronization.
PIC – programmable interrupt controller
IRQ – Interrupt Request line
DMA – Direct Memory Access.
1. BUS CONTROLLER
The bus controller has the task of controlling the flow of data, addresses and control signals
across the buses.
2. DMA CONTROLLER – Direct Memory Access
It is a process that enables transfer of data at high sped without the control of a microprocessor.
It enables a device such as a floppy or a hard disk drive to communicate directly with the system
main memory without passing through the microprocessor.
DMA controller takes control of the system bus while data transfer takes place. Each device
connected to the DMA system has identification. (direct memory access)
3. PROGRAMMABLE INTERRUPT CONTROLLER (PIC)
It continually monitors devices within the system and sends an interrupt signal in any device that
requires special/specific attention e.g. pressing a key on a keyboard and hardware interrupt signal
generated by the device and managed by the PIC causes the processor to stop its current action
ad responds to the device.
Once acknowledged the processor then reads the data bus and takes the appropriate action.
Requests from devices are evaluated and prioritized by the PIC with a higher priority given to the
keyboard and much lower priority given to other devices such as disk drive controllers.
4. REAL TIME CLOCK (RTC)
The RTC interface provides a in build clock that maintains the time of the day, days of the week
and stores data in a 64 KB RAM used for system configuration ad it is accessed by the system
BIOS during the system’s start up (booting)
THE MICROPROCESSOR
The microprocessor performs most of the systems calculation and processing functions. The
following explanation will give you the basic understanding of the operation of the
microprocessors. Much of the operation of the microprocessors. Much of the complexity of the
circuitry has been committed to keep the explanation simple but it must be remembered that
there devices are very sophisticated and their operation should not be taken rightly.
Operations involved in the microprocessor can be represented in seven basic functions. These
are;
i) Arithmetic and logic unit
ii) Registers
iii) Control and timing (CU)
iv) Clock – (system)
v) Bus Interface Unit (bus controller)
vi) Floating Point Unit (co-processor)
vii) Internal cache
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit ALU)
This one handles decision making processes. It handles arithmetic operations and logic “AND”
Instructions are decoded from the control unit and either carried out directly or used to execute
codes to modify data in registers.
2. Registers
These are areas for temporary storage of data address codes and operating instructions.
“Registers within the microprocessor can be thought as a number of arrears for temporary
storage for address codes and operating instructions. When current data is stored on a register
that operates faster than the memory, the CPU is not slowed down.
The registers also plays a significant role in increasing the performance of a modern P.C. The
greater the number of bits stored in the register, the more the information can be processed in
every microprocessor clock cycle.
Modern 64 bit registers have the potential to improve microprocessor performance 8 times
compared to a 8 bit register microprocessor.
Some registers are used for general purpose operations but others may be dedicated to particular
functions e.g. specially for data storage o for remembering the current steps in an instruction.
3. CONTROL AND TIMING SYSTEM CLOCK
This monitors devices within the system continuously. It provides timing signals for
synchronization and timing of devices and operations with the computer system.
4. BUS INTERFACE UNIT (BUS CONTROLLER)
Bus interface unit controls the flow of data, address and control signals across the system bus.
5. CLOCK (Real Time)
It provides an in build clock that maintains time of day, day of the week and that of the year. It
continues to keep time even if the system is off as it has a CMOS battery which takes over when
the mains power is switched off.
6. FLOATING POINT UNIT (F.P. U) Math processor.
It helps the processor (main) to perform some difficult tasks. It is thought of as an assistant
processor to the main processor so as to free processor’s time.
7. INTERNAL CACHE
This is essential to efficient operation of a modern microprocessor. Very high speed SRAM
internal to the processor chip allows frequently used data and instructions to be stored in the chip
thus reducing the access to the external bus.
In earlier systems the internal cache was used for different functions, but in modern chips
separate dedicated is used for data and for instructions. This dedicated cache is referred to
primary or first level cache to distinguish it form general purpose cache which is known as
secondary / second level cache.
MICROPROCESSOR PACKAGING
Modern microprocessor packages are compact and square. Contacts are placed around four
sides either along the edge or underneath several styles of packaging are available with different
connecting arrangements dep0ending on whether the chip is mounted on a socket or soldered
directly on the surface of the motherboard using surface mount technology.
A popular package is the pin grid array (PGA). It has inner and outer square solid pins on its
underside and it is designed to inset into special constructed sockets. Size of the socket varies
depending on the number of pins to be accommodated.
The latest design of PGA is the staggered pin grid array in which some of the pins are offset and
their alignment staggered to increase the density.
If not handled carefully, pins can be damaged hence some chip manufacturers have developed
pin less packages such as the leadless chip carrier (L.C.C) and Plastic Quote Flat Pak (PQFP)
The leadless chip carrier resembles a small ceramic tile with the button edge striped with gold
plate contact parts.
The LCC is designed to be used in sockets whereas another design plastic leadless chip carrier
(P.L.C.C) can also be mounted directly on to the circuit board using surface mount technology/
technology.
The plastic leadless chip carrier is compact, low cost and designed to be soldered against the
surface of the circuit board.
The latest Pentium microprocessors are available in a package called TAPE CARRIE
PACKAGE (T.C.P)
MICROPROCESSOR DEVELOPMENT/
Microprocessor is crucial in determining the performance of modern PC and throughout its
development, manufacturers have worked towards development in sped and addressing
capabilities.
The steps taken in microprocessors design during the last ten years of the last century are better
described as leaps in technology. The unfortunate amateur of even the experienced professional
can have difficulties in keeping up with the development and technical terms introduced to
describe these new circuits and functions within a microprocessor types.
Some of the basic terms introduced to describe these chips from 80x86 up to the Pentium
processors include:
i) Real Address mode
ii) Protected mode
iii) Virtual 8086 mode
iv) System management mode (SMM)
OPERATING MODES
I. Real Address Mode
It is very much of 8086 processors. It provides an operating environment similar to that of
original 8086 microprocessor with all of the operational limitations.
Operation to microprocessor is limited to 20 address line, allowing access to IMB of physical
memory in 64KB Segments.
2. Protected Mode
It was introduced with the 80286. it was designed to overcome some of the 8086 limitations.
Using 24 address lines up to 16 MB on physical memory can be accesses and segments be
protected from each other, thus enabling tasks to new simultaneously.
3. Virtual Real Mode / Virtual 8086
this operating mode simulated several 8086 microprocessors built into a single microprocessor.
This operating mode increases physical memory accessible to 4 GB whereby memory accessible
was not limited to any size (not segmented). This means that you can run virtually any size of
program and several programs can be executed at the same time because each program is loaded
into its won microprocessor.
4. SYSTEM MANAGEMENT MODE ( SMM)
It is not a true operating mode. it relates primarily to the modern microprocessor. it is meant to
reduce the power consumption and was developed to be used with the portable computers
(laptops, palmtops etc)
NB:_ In order to maintain backward compatibility, most modern microprocessors offer all the 3
modes with SMM provided as a standard feature on systems that are designed for reduced power
consumption
PIPELINE
Areas of a chip that are used to process data and instructions are increasily being reformed to as
execution unit. As execution unit with the ability to process more tha one unit per clock cycle is
called pipeline. Pipeline executed instructions in several stages. Typical stages in a modern
processor include:-
Stages For Executing Instructions
1. Pre-Fetch - Which describes the process of fetching instruction from memory.
2. Decode – it is the stage of converting the code into a sequence of operations. Ready for
execution.
3. Execution – is the stage in which the necessary action (processing) are carried out.
4. Write Back Stage: - This is when the memory awaiting display in output devices. Several
instructions can be processed at the same time but at different stages and pass along the pipeline
through the chip.
Currently the processing of two instructions per processing clock cycle is common in processors
such as 80486 and Pentium. As a result of decision making process in the software programs,
problems can arise in pipeline due to branching.
A pipeline can be loaded with instructions assuming a particular direction for a program to
follow. If events redirects the program along a different branch to contents of the pipeline must
be discarded resulting in wasted time.
NB. This problem is solved by branch predicts logic.
BRANCH PREDICTION LOGIC
It is a technology adapted in modern microprocessor in which the processr predicts the most
likely branch to be taken as program is filling the pipeline. The purpose of branch prediction
logic is to keep the pipeline full as much of the time as possible. This process of branch quashes
benefits overall performance of the computer system.
SUPERSCALAR ARCHITECTURE
This is used with reference to modern chip design. It is used basically to describe a
microprocessor that contain more than one execution unit. A typical example is that a Pentium
using two execution units in one chip.
The principle of super scalar technology is not new. It has been in use since 1964 in main frame
computers.
BURST MODE
In simple terms, blocks of data to be transferred are sent with one burst with the minimum of
control signals. The destination of the first byte of data is specified, then the block of data is
moved one byte after another without the intervention from the microprocessor this means that
the microprocessor can be engaged in other activities while transfer takes place.
Burst technique has contributed significantly to improved performance of modern system
devices.
PIPELINE BUST MODE.
This is transferring of more than one block of data at the same time. It is used to describe a
device such as cache that uses pipeline technology with burst mode operation to transfer date
cache uses pipeline technology
TYPES OF MICROPOCESOR
1. 80286 MOCROPROCESSOR
It was a major step in processor design. The many improvements that made it move superior
than the earlier processors include;
i)
ii) 16 bit internal register
iii) 24 address lines
iv) Protected mode.
v) Internal circuitry that enabled faster operating speed.
Design restrictions imposed to the 80286 were to make use of software available for earlier XT
system, which involved the use of 8-bit data bus and 20 address lines.
The new 80286 not only needed to be backward compatible (to be compatible with earlier 8 bit
with only 20 address lines) but also could be able to address greater memory capacity provided
through additional 4 address lines.
Intel’s answe to the problem was to provide 80286 with two different operating modes i.e the
real and the protected modes.
NB: real mode simulated the operation of the ezrlier microprocessos with the same limitations.
Protected mode allowed the processor to access all 24 address lines and make full use of 16MB
memory capacity its multitasking capability onwce switched to protected mode, the only return
to real mode was to reset the processor with the result of loss of data. The additional memory
accessed in protected mode still operated in 64 KB segments.
NOTE
This limitation of an otherwise very successful microprocessor remained until te introduction of
80386.
2. 80386 MICROPROCESSOR
It was designed with full consideration of the growing PC market. It was a true 32 bnit (per
clock cycle) at a time and accessing a full 32 address lines. Which increased the possible
memory capacity to a staggering 4 GB
More speed, greater capacity ad improved versatility were the success of 80286. the final
limitation originally improved by the 80286 was in the way in which memory was organized.
With the 80386 segments were no longer restricted to 64 KB but could be virtually any size
resulting in a new mode of operation clled virtual microprocessor which allow memory to
partitioned into sections and microprocessors to simulate several 8086 processors at the same
time. To maintain the backward compatibility the 80386 is provided with the real operating
modes i.e real, virtual, and protected modes.
80386 FAMILY
a) 80386 DX : It was the first version in the 80386 family with all the characteristics
described above
b) 80386 SX: A cost effective compromise. The 80386 SX has the same mode and
internally with 16 data lines. This limitation producers a bottleneck in the flow of data
and is responsible for reduction in the overall speed.
c) 80386 SL: This was operational of a full 32 bit DX device designed specifically to meet
the use of small computer e.g. notebook computer.
3. 86486 MICROPROCESSOR
It had a fitted software compatibility with 80386, the same 3 operating modes and the same
32 bit data and address buses. Improvement in the 80486 are derived from a complete re-
design of the internal structure of the chip allowing faster internal computing sped when
running at the same clock speed as the earlier microprocessors. The 80486 is available in SX
and DX versions with the option of clock multiplying.
80486 FAMILY
a) 80486 DX2 – This one has a clock doubling which means that this processor runs twice
the speed of the system bus
b) 80486 SL – It is a version of the 80486 adopted specifically for small computers.
c) 80486 overdrive – it is basically a 486 DX chip with internal clock multiplying facility
but designed specifically for upgrading system originally for standard SX and DX
version.
4. PENTIUM
It’s architecture comprises of all the features of Intel 486 family with significant additions
contributing to high performance.
This additional features include
i) Super scalar architecture – 2 execution
ii) 64 bit data bus
iii) 8 KB separate data and instruction cche
iv) brand prediction logic.
v) Pipelined F.P.U
vi) Voltage reduction technology, less than 3.3 volts.
5. CLONES
Although Intel are the main processor manufacturers, there are other manufacturers of
microprocessors called clone manufacturers. Manufacturers such as NextGen, IBM,
CYRIXAMD may produced direct equivalent or in some cases processors designed to improve
on the original.