UNIT -01 3

Chapter

Physical Variables and Transducers

Physical variables and their types

Physical variables are the variables to be measured in an instrumentation system, which make
its first contact with primary sensing elements. It is the information for the measurement
system in the form of a physical phenomenon or an electrical signal.

Types of physical variables

i. Process variables
Temperature, pressure and flow rate are the process variables which are widely
employed in process and production plants.

ii. Electrical variables

Current voltage resistance, inductance, capacitance, frequency, phase angle, power are
the electrical variables.

iii. Mechanical variables

Spring (Force to displacement), monometer (pressure to displacement), thermocouple
(temperature to electric current), Hydrometer (specific gravity to displacement),
Turbines (Linear to angular velocity) etc. are the mechanical variables.

iv. Bio-physical variables

Here, the information is taken from living beings ECG (Electro Cardio Graph) for
heart, EEG (Electro Encephilo Graph for Brain), EMG (Electro Mio Graph for
muscular), excitation, restoring potential are the bio-physical variables.

Transducer

It is a device which converts non-electrical quantity into an electrical form in order to use
electrical methods and techniques for measurement, manipulation or control.

Basic Requirement of Transducer

The main function of the transducer is to respond only for the measurement under specified
limit for which it is designed.

a. Ruggedness
It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangement should be
provided for the overload protection.
b. Linearity
It’s input- output characteristics should be linear.
c. Repeatability

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

1
 It should reproduce same output signals when the input signal is applied again and
again under fixed environment condition.
d. High quality output signals
The ratio of Signal to Noise (SNR) should be high and the amplitude of the output
signal should be up to detectable level.
e. High Reliability and Stability (minimum error)
We should get minimum error in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations
and other various changes in surrounding.
f. Good Dynamic Response
Its output should be faithful to input when taken as a function of time.

Selection of Transducers

a. Range
The range of the transducer should be large enough to cover up all the expected
magnitude of quantity under measurement.
b. Sensitivity
Transducer should be given a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in
order to yield meaningful data.
c. Electrical output characteristics
The electrical characteristics such as output impedance, frequency response should be
compatible with the recording devices.
d. Physical Environment
The transducer select should be able to withstand the environmental conditions to
which it is likely to be exposed.
e. Error
The error inherent in the operation of the transducer itself or those errors caused by
environmental condition of the measurement should be small enough or controllable
enough that they allow meaningful data to be taken.

Classification of transducers

1. On the basis of transduction form used

The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive,
inductive, capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the input quantity into
resistance, inductance or capacitance respectively. They can be classified as piezo-electric,
thermoelectric, magneto restrictive, electrokinetic and optical.

2. As primary and secondary transducers

There are two stages of transduction; firstly the pressure is converted into a displacement
by Bourdon tube, then the displacement is converted into an analogous voltage by LVDT.
The Bourdon tube is called primary transducer while LVDT is called a secondary
transducer.

3. As passive and active transducers

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec
2
 Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary power
source. They are also known as externally powered transducers. Example: resistive
(Potentiometer, Strain gauge), inductive (LVDT) and capacitive (variable capacitance
pressure gauge, Dielectric gauge) transducers
Active transducers are those which don’t require an auxiliary power source to produce their
output, so called as self-generating type as they develop their own voltage or current
output. Examples: thermocouple, photovoltaic cells and piezoelectric crystals.

4. As analog and digital transducers

Analog transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous
function of time. Example: strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple, thermistor.

Digital transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output which is in the form
of pulses (0 and 1).

5. As transducers and inverse transducers

Transducer is a device which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical
quantity. Example: piezoelectric crystals (voltage to displacement)

Input characteristics of the transducers

1. Type of input and operating Range

The type of input which can be any physical quantity is generally determined in advance.
The useful operating range of the transducer may be decisive in selection of a transducer
for a particular application. The upper limit is decided by the transducer capabilities while
the lower limit of range is normally determined by the transducers error or by the
unavoidable noise originating in the transducer

2. Loading Effect
Ideally, transducers should be have no loading effect on the quantity being measured. In
practice, it is impossible and hence steps may be taken to reduce the loading effects to
negligible proportions.

Output Characteristics of Transducer

The three conditions in the output characteristics which should be considered are

i. Type of electrical output

The output quantities (voltage, current, impedance or time function of these
amplitudes) may or may not be acceptable to the latter stages of the instrumentation
system. They may have to be manipulated so as to make them drive the subsequent
stages of instrumentation system.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

3
 ii. Output impedance
The output impedance of a transducer determines to the extent the subsequent
stages of instrumentation is loaded. Ideally, the value of output impedance should
be zero if no loading effects are there on the subsequent stages. It also determines
the amount of power that can be transferred to the succeeding stages of the
instrumentation system for a given output signal of instrumentation system for a
given output signal level.

iii. Useful Output Range

The output range of a transducer is limited at the lower end by noise signals and the
upper limit is set by the maximum useful input level.

Error of transducers

The errors in transducer occur because they don’t follow the input-output relationship in many
situations. The error can be split into three components which are

i) Scale error
ii) Dynamic error
iii) Error on account of noise and drift

i) Scale error
It is of four different types
a. Zero error:
Here, the output deviates from the correct value by a constant factor over the
entire range of the transducer.

Fig. Transducer zero error

b. Sensitivity error
It occurs when the observed output deviates from the correct value by a constant
value. Suppose, the correct output is qO, the output would be kqO over the entire
range of the transducer, where k is constant.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

4
 Fig. Transducer sensitivity error

c. Non-conformity
Here, the experimentally obtained transfer function deviates from the theoretical
transfer function for almost every input .

Fig. Transducer non-conformity

d. Hysteresis
The output of transducer not only depends upon the input quantity but also upon
the input quantity previously applied to it. Therefore, a different output is
obtained when same value of input quantity is applied depending upon whether
it is increasing or decreasing. For decreasing values a greater output is obtained
than with increasing value for the same value of the input quantity.

Fig. Transducer hysteresis

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

5
 ii) Dynamic Error
It occurs only when the input quantity is varying with time. It can be made small by
having a small time constant. It reduces as the time after application of the input
increases.
iii) Error due to noise and Drift
Noise is a signal of random amplitude and random frequency while drift is a slow
change with time. The magnitude of the noise and drift is normally independent of
the magnitude of the input signal.

Strain Gauges

The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated stress in experimental
stress analysis. If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on
account of the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. Also, there is a change
in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called
piezoresistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezoresistive
gauges.

Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has the dimensions: length = L,
area =A, diameter = D before being strained. The material of the wire has a resistivity ρ.

L
∴ , Resistance of unstrained gauge is given by R= ρ
A

Let a tensile stress S be applied to the wire. This produces a positive strain causing the length
to increase and area to decrease. Thus, when the wire is strained, there are changes in its
dimensions. Let ΔL = change in length, ΔA = change in area, ΔD = change in diameter and ΔR
= change in resistance. In order to find how ΔR depends upon the material physical quantities,
the expression for R is differentiated [Link] stress S i.e
𝑑𝑅 ρ 𝜕𝐿 ρ𝐿 𝜕𝐴 𝐿 𝜕ρ
= - + 𝐴 𝜕𝑠 …………….(1)
𝑑𝑆 𝐴 𝜕𝑆 𝐴2 𝜕𝑆

L
Dividing equation (1) by resistance R= ρ , we get
A
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝜕𝐿 1 𝜕𝐴 1 𝜕ρ
= - + 𝛿 𝜕𝑠 …………….(2)
𝑅 𝑑𝑆 𝐿 𝜕𝑆 𝐴 𝜕𝑆

It is evident from equation (2) that the per unit change in resistance is due to (i) per unit change
in length = ΔL/L, (ii) per unit change in area = ΔA/A and (iii) per unit change in resistivity =
Δρ/ρ
Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec
6
 𝜋 𝜕𝐴 2𝜋 𝜕𝐷
Now, Area (A) = 4 D2 ∴ = D
𝜕𝑆 4 𝜕𝑆

1 𝜕𝐴 1 2𝜋 𝜕𝐷 2 𝜕𝐷
So, 𝐴 𝜕𝑆 = 𝜋 *4D = 𝐷 𝜕𝑆
( D2 ) 𝜕𝑆
4

And equation (2) becomes

1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝜕𝐿 2 𝜕𝐷 1 𝜕ρ
= - 𝐷 𝜕𝑆 + ρ 𝜕𝑠 …………(3)
𝑅 𝑑𝑆 𝐿 𝜕𝑆

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Also, Poission’s ratio (γ) = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
−𝜕𝐷/𝐷
= 𝜕𝐿/𝐿

𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐿
− = γ∗ 𝑆o equation (3) becomes
𝐷 𝐿
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝜕𝐿 2 𝜕𝐿 1 𝜕ρ
= 𝐿 𝜕𝑠 + γ 𝐿 𝜕𝑆 + ρ 𝜕𝑆 ……….(4)
𝑅 𝑑𝑆

For small variations, the equation (4) can be written as

∆𝑅 ∆𝐿 Δ𝐿 Δρ
= + 2γ + ………….(5) ..
𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 ρ
The Gauge Factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit
change in length i.e.
∆𝑅/𝑅
Gauge factor (Gf) = ∆𝐿/𝐿
𝛥𝑅 ∆𝐿
or, = Gf = G f ∗∈...........(6)
𝑅 𝐿
Solving equation (5) and (6) we get
∆𝑅 Δρ
Gf* ∈ = = ∈ +2γ𝜖 + ………………..(7)
𝑅 ρ
If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected i.e.
piezoresistive effect is negligible, the gauge factor is
Gf = 1+2γ …………………………….(8)
Poison's ratio for most metals lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.35 and the gauge factor
would be on the order of 1.5 to 1.7 .
Hooke’s law gives the relationship between stress and strain for a linear stress- strain
curve in terms of the modulus of elasticity of the material under tension. Hooke’s law is
written as
𝑆
Strain, ϵ = 𝐸
∆𝐿
Where, ϵ = = strain (no units)
𝐿
S= stress (kg/cm2) and
E = Young’s modulus/modulus of elasticity of material(kg/cm2)
Applications of strain Gauges
i. Experimental stress analysis of machines and structure.
ii. Construction of force, torque, pressure, flow and acceleration transducers.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

7
 Example 1

A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor(sensitivity of a strain gauge) of 2 is

fastened to a steel member subjected to a stress of 1050 kg/cm3. The modulus of
elasticity of a steel is approximately 2.1*106 kg/cm2. Calculate the change in resistance,
∆R of the strain gauge element due to the applied stress. Comment upon the result.

Solution:

Hooke’s law yields,

𝑆 ∆𝐿 1050
ϵ=𝐸= = 2.1∗106 = 5*10-4
𝐿

∆𝑅/𝑅
Again, the sensitivity of the strain gauge(gauge factor) is Gf= ∆𝐿/𝐿

∆𝑅
=Gf *ϵ = 2*5*10-4 = 10-3 = 0.1%
𝑅

∴ the change in resistance is only 0.1%.

The result shows that the relatively high stress results in a resistance change of only
0.1% , a very small change indeed. Lower stress produces still lower changes in
resistance which may not be perceptible at all. To overcome this difficulty, the gauge
factor of strain gauge should be high which produce large changes in resistance when
strained.

Example 2

A compressive force is applied to a structural member. The strain is 5 micro-strain.

Two separate strain gauge are attached to the structural member, one is nickel wire strain
gauge having a gauge factor of -12.1 and other is nichrome wire strain gauge having factor of
2. Calculate the value of resistance of the gauges after they are strained. The resistance of
strain gauges before being strained is 120 Ω.

Solution:

According to our convention, the tensile strain is taken as positive while the compressive strain
is taken as negative.

∴ strain, ϵ = -5*10-6 (1 micro strain = 1μm/m)

∆𝑅/𝑅 ∆𝑅
Now, Gf = = = Gf *ϵ
∈ 𝑅

∴ Change in value of resistance of nickel wire strain gauge is ∆𝑅 = 𝐺𝑓 ∈∗ 𝑅

= -12.1 × (-5×10-6) ×120

= 7.26×10-3 Ω

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

8
 =7.26 mΩ

i.e. there is an increase of 7.26 mΩ in the value of resistance.

For nichrome, the change in the value of resistance is ∆𝑅 = 𝐺𝑓 ∈∗ 𝑅

= 2× (-5×10-6) ×120

= -1.2×10-3 = -1.2 mΩ

Thus, with compressive strain, the value of resistance gauge shows a decrease of 1.2 mΩ in the
value of resistance.

Example 3

A Strain gauge is bonded to a beam 0.1m long and has across-sectional area 4 cm2. Young’s
modulus for steel is 207 GN/m2. The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 240 Ω and a
gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is applied, the resistance of gauge changed by 0.013 Ω.
Calculate the change in length of the steel beam and the amount of force applied to the beam.

Solution:
∆𝑅/𝑅
We have, the gauge factor, Gf = ∆𝐿/𝐿

∆𝑅/𝑅 0.013/240
∴ ∆𝐿 = ×𝐿 = ×0.1 = 2.46 × 10-6m
Gf 2.2

Change in length of the steel beam is 2.46×10-6 m

Now, Hooke’s law yields

𝑆
∈= 𝐸

∆𝐿 2.46×10−6
S= ∈∗ 𝐸 = ∗𝐸 = × 2.7 × 109 = 5.092×106 N/m2
𝐿 0.1

So, the amount of force applied to the beam is,

F= SA as S = F/A

= (5.092×106) ×4×10-4

= 2.037 ×103 N

Example 4

A strain gauge having a resistance of 300 Ω and gauge factor 2.5 is connected in series with a
blast resistance of 600 Ω across 30V. Determine the change in output voltage when a stress of
140 MN/m2 is applied. The modulus of elasticity is 200 GN/m2.

Solution :
Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec
9
Hooke’s law yields

𝑆 ∆𝐿 140×106
ϵ=𝐸= = 200×109 = 7×10-4
𝐿

Again, gauge factor is,

∆𝑅/𝑅 ∆𝑅/𝑅
Gf = = or ∆R = Gf ϵ*R
∆𝐿/𝐿 ∈

∴ ∆R=2.5×7×10-4×300 = 0.525Ω

i.e there is an increase of 0.525 Ω in the value of resistance. When unstrained, the voltage
across strain gauge is
30
V1 = 300+600 * 30 = 10 Volts

When strained , the voltage across strain gauge is

300+∆𝑅 300.525
V2 = [(300+∆𝑅)+600]*30 = [300.525+600]*30

= 10.012volts

Piezoelectric Transducers

Fig. Piezoelectric Transducer

A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of
crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of mechanical force. The
potential is produced by the displacement of charges and the effect is reversible.

Common piezo-electric materials include Rochelle salts, quartz, Lithium sulphate. A piezo-
electric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical signals may be thought as
charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge
appears as voltage (Q/C) across the electrodes. The magnitude and polarity of the induced

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

10
surface charges are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force F given by
the expression,

Charge, Q = d*F Coulomb ……..(1)

where, d = charge sensitivity of the crystal, it is constant for a given crystal ; C/N

and F = applied force ; N

The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal. So

𝐴𝐸
F= ∗ ∆𝑡 Newton ……………………..(2)
𝑡

where, A = area of crystal ; m2

t = thickness of the crystal ; m and

E= Young’s modulus; N/m2

𝐹
𝐴
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑡
∈= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑡
= ∆𝑡𝐴 N/m2
𝑡

where A=wl

w= width of crystal; m

and l = length of crystal ; m

From equation (1) and (2) , we have , charge

∆𝑡
Q = dAE ( 𝑡 ) ………………….(3)

The charge at the electrodes give rise to an output voltage EO as

EO = Q/CP ………………..(4)

where, CP = ϵrϵO A/t ……………(5)

CP = capacitance between electrodes; F

A = area of crystal; m2

ϵ=ϵrϵO = permittivity of medium ; F/m

ϵr = relative permittivity

ϵO = permittivity of free space; 8.85*10-12 F/m

Solving equation (1), (4) and (5), we get

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

11
 𝑄 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝐹
EO = 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐴 = ∈𝑟∈𝑜 (𝐴)
∈𝑟∈𝑜
𝑡

But , F/A= P =pressure or stress in N/m2

𝑑
∴ EO = ∈𝑟∈𝑜 𝑡𝑝 = 𝑔𝑡𝑝

where,

g = d/ϵrϵo is the voltage sensitivity of crystal which is constant for a given crystal; Vm/N
𝐸𝑜 𝐸𝑜/𝑡
Now, g= =
𝑡𝑝 𝑃

But, Eo/t = electric field strength; V/m. hence, crystal voltage sensitivity g is defined as the
ratio of electric field intensity to pressure or stress.

Uses of piezo-electric Transducer

The use of piezo-electric transducer elements is confined primarily to dynamic measurements.

The voltage developed by application of strain is not held under static conditions. Hence, the
elements are primarily used in the measurement of such quantities as surface roughness and in
accelerometers and vibration pickups.

Example

A Barium Titanate pickup (piezo-electric crystal) has the dimensions of 5mm*5mm*1.25mm.

The force acting on it is 5N. The charge sensitivity of Barium Titanate is 150 pC/N and its
permittivity is 12.5*10-9 F/m. If the modulus of elasticity of Barium Titanate is 12*106 N/m2,
Calculate the strain, the charge and the capacitance.

Solution:

Area of plates(A) = 5*10-3*5*10-3 = 25*10-6 m2

5
Pressure(P) = F/A = 25∗106 = 0.2 ∗ 106 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑑 150∗10−12
Now, Voltage sensitivity (g) = ∈𝑟∈𝑜 = (12.5∗10−9 ) = 0.012 𝑉𝑚/𝑁

𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝑠) 𝐴 ∆𝑡
Voltage generated(Eo) = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠(𝐸) = =
𝐸 𝑡

0.2∗106
= = 0.0167
12∗106

Charge(Q) = dF = 150*10-12*5 = 750*10-12 C

𝑄 750∗10−12
and Capacitance(Cp) = 𝐸𝑜 = = 250 ∗ 10−12 𝐹
3

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

12
Merits and demerits of Piezo-electric transducers

Merits:

- They are generally small in size, light weight and very rugged in construction.
- They are active transducers as they don’t need external supply.
- They have very good frequency response and output is quite large.
- They can be operated over a wide range of temperature without appreciable temperature
induced.

Demerits:

- The output of piezo-electric transducer is affected by the temperature variation of the

crystal.
- There is a problem of leakage of charges through the surface of crystal.

Capacitance Transducers

The principle of operation of capacitive transducer is based upon the familiar equation for
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor i.e

C= ϵA/d = ϵrϵoA/d

where,

C= capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor; F

A= overlapping area of plates ; m2
D= distance between two plates; m
ϵ = ϵrϵo = permittivity of medium; F/m
ϵr= relative permittivity
ϵo = permittivity of free space; 8.85*10-12F/m
A capacitance transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which may be used
by

i) Change in overlapping area 'A'

ii) Change in distance d between the plates and
iii) Change in dielectric constant

These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force and pressure. The
capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear displacement whose
1
output impedance is high (𝑋𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐)

i) Measurement of displacement by varying the overlapping area of the plates:

For a parallel plate capacitor,

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

13
 ∈𝐴 ∈𝑙𝑤
the capacitance is C = 𝑑 = 𝑑
where,
l =length of overlapping part of plates; m
w = width of overlapping part of plates; m
ϵ = ϵrϵo = permittivity of medium; F/m
d = distance between two plates; m
𝜕𝑐 ∈𝑤
and sensitivity (S) = = 𝐹/𝑚
𝜕𝑙 𝑑
𝑤
∴S= ϵrϵo 𝑑 = constant
i.e. there is linear relationship between capacitance and displacement. But , near
l=0 due to edge effect, there is certain capacitance developed.

For cylindrical capacitor,

The capacitance is

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

14
 2𝜋∈𝑙
𝐶= 𝐷2 F
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝐷1

where , l = length of overlapping part of cylinders; m

D2 = inner diameter of outer cylindrical electrode; m
D1 = outer diameter of inner cylindrical electrode; m
Now,
𝜕𝐶 2𝜋𝜖
Sensitivity(S) = = 𝐷2 𝐹/𝑚 is constant and the relationship between
𝜕𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( ))
𝐷1
capacitance and displacement is linear.

The principle of change of capacitance with the change in overlapping area can be
employed for measurement of angular displacement.

The capacitance is maximum when two plates completely overlap each other i.e.
when θ=180° .
∈𝐴 𝜋𝜖𝑟 2
∴Cmax= =
𝑑 2𝑑
∈𝜃𝑟 2
At any angle θ, Cθ = 2𝑑
where, θ = angular displacement in radian
𝜕Cθ ∈𝑟 2
and Sensitivity (S) = = , so the sensitivity of the device is constant
∂θ 2𝑑

Therefore, the variation of capacitance with angular displacement is linear.

ii) Measurement of displacement by varying the distance between two plates

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

15
 Since , the capacitance(C) varies inversely as the distance (d) between the plates,
the response of this transducer is not linear. Thus, it is useful only for measurement
of extremely small displacement.
We have,
∈𝐴
𝐶= and
𝑑
𝜕𝐶 𝐴
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑆) = = −∈ 2
𝜕𝑑 𝑑

To increase the sensitivity or linearity

1) Area can be increased
2) Distance between the plates(d) can be decreased, but there is practical limit for
decreasing (d) i.e. when the electric field strength in the gap exceeds the
breakdown voltage of 3KV/mm

iii) Measurement of displacement by varying the dielectric constant

Initial capacitance of transducer is

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

16
 ∈𝑜 𝑤𝑙1 ∈𝑜 ∈𝑟 𝑤𝑙2
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = +
𝑑 𝑑
∈𝑜 𝑤
= (𝑙1 +∈𝑟 𝑙2 ) … … … … . . (1)
𝑑
Let the dielectric be moved through a distance of ‘x’ in the right direction. The
capacitance changes from C to C+∆C.
∈𝑜𝑤
C+∆C = [(𝑙1 − 𝑥) +∈𝑟 (𝑙2 + 𝑥)]
𝑑
∈𝑜𝑤 ∈𝑜𝑤𝑥
= (𝑙1 +∈𝑟 𝑙2 ) + (∈𝑟 − 1)
𝑑 𝑑
∈𝑜𝑤𝑥
=𝐶+ (∈𝑟 − 1) [ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)]
𝑑

∈𝑜 𝑤𝑥
Hence, ∆C = (∈𝑟 − 1) i.e. the change in Capacitance (∆c) ∝ displacement(x) and
𝑑

𝜕𝐶 ∈𝑜 𝑤(∈𝑟−1)
Sensitivity(S) = 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑑

Advantages of Capacitive Transducers:

i. They require extremely small force to operate them all and hence are very useful for
use in small system.
ii. They are extremely sensitive and have a good frequency response.
iii. They have a high input impedance and therefore the loading effects are minimum.
iv. They require small power to operate as the force requirements is very small
v.

Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers:

i. The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers must be insulated from each other.
In order to reduce the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be earthed.
ii. The capacitive transducers show non-linear behaviour on account of edge effects.
Therefore, guard rings must be used to eliminate this effect.
iii. The output impedance of capacitive transducer tends to be on high on account of
their small capacitance value. This leads to loading effects.
iv. The cable connecting the transducer to the measuring point is also a source of error
as the cable may be source of loading resulting loss of the sensitivity.

Applications of capacitive transducers

i. It can be used for measurement of both linear and angular displacement, for the
measurement of force and pressure and for measurement of humidity in gases, since
the dielectric constant of gases changes with change in humidity thereby producing
a change in capacitance.
ii. It can be used directly as pressure transducers in all those cases where dielectric
constant of a medium changes with pressure.
iii. They are commonly used in conjunction with mechanical modifiers for
measurement of volume, density, liquid level, weight etc.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

17
Inductive transducers

Inductive transducers measure the displacement

i. by variation of self-inductance
ii. by variation of mutual inductance and
iii. by production of eddy current.

i) By variation of self-inductance
The self inductance of a coil is given by
𝑁2
L= 𝑅 … … … … … (1)
Where, N= number of turns and
𝑙
R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit =
μA
Thus, equation (1) becomes
𝑁2 𝐴
L= 1 = 𝑁 2 𝜇 ( 𝑙 ) = 𝑁 2 𝜇𝐺 … … … … … . . (2)
𝜇𝐴

Where, μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil; H/m
(μ=μOμr)
G =Δ 𝑙 / 𝑙 = geometric form factor
A= area of cross-section; m2
L =length of coil; m

It is cleared from equation (2) that the variation in induction may be caused by :

a. Change in number of turns(N)

b. Change in geometric configurations (G) and
c. Change in permeability (μ)

a. Change in number of turns

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

18
 Here, the variation in induction is due to the change in the number of turns of the coil.
Such transducers are used for the measurement of linear as well as angular
displacement.

b. Change in permeability of the medium

Here, for x=0 i.e when there is no displacement
μ = 𝑙 /RA. But when there is the displacement (x),
there is a change in permeability of the medium
and hence inductance varies i.e
(𝑙−𝑥)
μx = and Lx = 𝑁 2 μx G
𝑅𝐴

c. Change in geometric configurations or reluctance of magnetic circuit.

Here, the displacement of iron piece changes the value of reluctances R2 and R4 so that
the net reluctances of magnetic circuit gets change. Thus, the inductance varies with
respect to the change of reluctance as L= N2/R

ii) By variation of mutual inductance

An inductive working on the principle of variation of mutual inductance uses
multiple coils. The mutual inductance between two coils is given as m = K√𝐿1𝐿2

Where, L1 and L2 = self-inductances of two coils

K = Co-efficient of coupling

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

19
 Thus, the mutual inductance between the coils can be varied by variation of self-
inductances or the co-efficient of coupling. However, the mutual inductance can be
converted into a self-inductance by connecting the coils in series.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

It is most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signals.

Fig. Circuit of an LVDT

LVDT consists of a single primary winding (P) and two secondary winding (S1 and S2) wound
on a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are
identically placed on either side of the primary winding which is connected to an a.c source. A
movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied
to the arm attached to the soft iron core.

Since the primary winding is excited by an a.c source, it produces an alternating magnetic field
which in turn induces alternating current voltages in the two secondary windings.

The output voltage of secondary S1 is Es1 and that of secondary S2 and is Es2. In order to
convert the outputs from S1 and `S2 into single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition as shown and thus, the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages.

∴ Differential output voltage (EO)= Es1 – Es2 ………….(1)

When the core is at its null position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal
and hence equal emfs are induced in them.

Thus at null position,

Es1=Es2 and equation (1) becomes EO = 0

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

20
Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding S1 than
with winding S2i.e Es1> Es2 So equation (1) becomes EO>0 and positive. This implies that the
output voltage is in phase with primary voltage. Again, if the core is moved to the right of the
null position, the flux linking with winding S2 becomes larger than that linking with winding
S1. Thus, Es2>Es1 and equation(1) becomes EO<0 and negative. This implies that the output
voltage is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage.

By comparing the magnitude and phase of the differential output voltage with that of the
source, the amount and direction of the movement of the core (displacement) may be
determined.

The output voltage of the LVDT is a linear function of core displacement within a limited
range of motion.

Advantages of LVDT

i. Have high range for measurement of displacement

ii. No friction and electrical isolation gives truly infinite resolution
iii. Immunity from external effects
iv. High input and high sensitivity
v. can tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations (Ruggedness)
vi. Low Hysteresis
vii. Low power consumption.

Disadvantages of LVDT

i. are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible

ii. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and
electrically by the frequency of applied voltage.
iii. Temperature affects the performance of the transducer
iv. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on a.c. signals or a
demodulator network must be used if a d.c output is required.

Applications of LVDT
Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec
21
Some of the major applications of LVDT are:

i. can be used in all applications where displacement ranging from fraction of a mm to

a few cm have to be measured.
ii. Acting as a secondary transducer, it can be used as a device to measure force,
weight and pressure etc.

iii) By production of eddy current

When a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating current, the eddy
current are induced in the conducting plate producing its own magnetic field which
acts against the magnetic field produced by the coil. This results in reduction of flux
and hence the inductance of the coil decreases. The nearer is the plate to the coil,
the higher are the eddy currents and thus higher is the reduction in the induction of
the coil. Thus, the inductance of the coil alters with variation of distance between
the plate and the coil.

Voltage and current Transducer (Hall-effect Transducer):

The working principle of a Hall Effect Transducer is that if a strip of conducting material
carries a current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field, a difference of potential is
produced between the opposite edges of the conductor.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

22
The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength of magnetic field and the
property of the conductor called hall Effect. The output voltage (EH) is

EH = KHIB/t
𝑉−𝑚
where KH = Hall Effect Coefficient ;𝐴−𝑤𝑏𝑚−2
I = current; A
B= flux density ;wb/m2
t=thickness of strip; m
Thus the voltage produced may be used for measurement of either current (I) or the magnetic
field strength (B). Hall Effect emf is very small in conductors and is difficult to measure. So,
Hall Effect is mostly pronounced in semiconductor than in conductor.

Application of Hall-Effect Transducer

i. Measurement of displacement, current and power

ii. Can be used as magnetic to Electric transducer

Measurement of Temperature

1. Thermocouple
A thermocouple is formed when two dissimilar metallic conductor are joined together
to form two junctions. The operation of thermocouple is based on Seebeck effect i.e if a
closed circuit is formed of two metal junctions keeping them at different temperature,
an electric current flows in the circuit . The magnitude of the electric current is caused
by an emf called thermo emf setup in the circuit and is proportional to the temperature
difference between two junctions (hot junction whose temperature to be measured and
cold or reference junction which is maintained at constant temperature 0°𝐶 normally).
For example, if two metals copper and iron forms thermocouple, then the current flows
from copper to iron at hot junction and iron to copper at cold junction.

Now, Induced emf is given by,

E=a(T2-T1)+b(T2-T1)2
= a(∆T)+b(∆T)2 ………………..(1)

where
T1 = temperature of cold thermocouple junction; °𝐶
T2 = temperature of hot thermocouple junction; °𝐶
and a and b are constants.
Since a>>>b, b can be neglected . So equation(1) becomes
Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec
23
 E=a(T2-T1) = a(∆T)
or, ∆T = E/a ………………..(2)

Laws of thermocouple

The emf generated depends on the temperature difference between junction (1)and junction (2)
and independent of temperature of conductor A and conductor B.

It the third element is joined in series with the conductor having a junction temperature T3 and
T4 then thermal emf will be constant if T3=T4.

Law of intermediate temperature

If two dissimilar metals produce thermoelectric emf E1 when junctions are at T1 and T2 and
emf E2when junctions are at T2 and T3, then emf generated with junction at temperature T1 and
T3 will be E= E1 + E2

Laws of intermediate metals

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

24
A third element can be added to a circuit with no effect on the net emf as long as the
extremities are at same temperature.

Types of thermocouple

Types Material used Temp(°𝐶) range Sensitivity μV/°𝐶

E Chromel / Constantan 0 -500 68
J Iron/Constantan -40-750 52
T Copper/Constantan -200-350 43
K Chromel/Alumel -200-1200 41
S Platinum+10%Rhudium/Platinum 30-1600 10

Fig. Temperature emf curves for thermocouple with reference junction at 0 °C

Thermopile

When the number of thermocouples are connected in series the sensitivity of the instrument
gets increased which is known as thermopile.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

25
Advantages of thermocouple

- Thermocouple are cheaper than the resistance thermometers

- Thermocouples follow the temperature changes with a small time lag and such are suitable
for recording comparatively rapid changes in temperature.

Disadvantages of Thermocouple

- They have lower accuracy and hence cannot be used for precision work
- To ensure long life of thermocouples in their operating environments they should be
protected in an open or closed end metal protecting tube or well
- The thermocoples are placed remote from measuring devices and hence the circuitry is very
complex and compensating leads are needed.
- Reference junction compensation is required in thermocouple.

Application of thermocouple

Thermocouple’s particular application is the measurement of surface temperature.

Note: thermocouple is an active transducer whereas thermistors and RTD are passive
transducer.

2. Thermistors (Thermally Sensitive Resistors)

Thermistors (thermal resistors) area semiconductor device that behaves as resistors with
high, usually negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. Its usual range is -100°C
to 300°𝐶. Thermistors are composed of mixtures of metallic oxide such as manganese,
nickel, Cobalt , Copper etc. Thermistors are commercially available in wide varieties of
shape and size. The following are the important characteristics of thermistors.

a. Resistance Temperature Characteristics

The mathematical expression for the relationship between the resistance of the
thermistor and absolute temperature of the thermistor is

RT = ROeβ(1/T – 1/To)

where RT = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T°K

Ro = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature 𝑇0 °K which is the
reference absolute temperature 298°K and
β = a constant depending upon the material of thermistor (typically 3500 to
4500°K)

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

26
 In the range of -100 to 400°C , the thermistor changes its resistance by factor of 107
i.e. from 105 to 10-2. In the same range, Platinum changes by the factor of 10 i.e.
from 10-7 and 10-6. Hence, it concludes that thermistor is highly sensitive device.

b. Voltage current Characteristics

The voltage drop across the thermistor increases with increase current until it
reaches the peak value beyond which the voltage drop decreases with increase in
current. This portion of curve exhibits the negative resistance characteristics of
thermistors.

c. Current Time characteristics

This indicates that there is a time delay to reach the maximum current as a function
of applied voltage.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

27
Application of Thermistors

1. Measurement of temperature
2. Control of temperature
3. Temperature compensation
4. Measurement of power at high frequencies and so on

3. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTD operates upon the fact that almost all pure metals have the property of varying
their resistance with temperature and the change in resistance is almost directly
proportional to the temperature. The range of temperature over which this transducer
valid is decided by the co-efficient of resistance, chemical composition and its crystal
structure which should not undergo permanent changes within this range.
Electrical resistance with temperature for most metallic material can be represented by
an expression
RT = Ro(1+α1T+ α 2T2 + ………. + α nTn) …………….(2)
where, Ro = Resistance at reference temperature ( usually 0° C)
α1, α 2,.............,α n are the constants called co-efficients of material being used.
T = Temperature; °C and
RT = Resistance at temperature T°C

Mostly used material is platinum, so it is also called PRTD(Platinum RTD). Platinum is

used because it has got linear characteristics and good chemical inertness.

For platinum RTD working in linear range , equation(1) becomes

RT = Ro(1+ α T) ………………………(2)
At temperature 0°C with resistance Ro and 100°C with resistance R100 , equation (2)
becomes
R100 = Ro(1+ α *100)
(R100 −𝑅0 )
∴ α = ……………..(3) thus the value of α is determined.
100𝑅0

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

28
 The change in resistance with the change in temperature can be observed by using Wheat
Stone Bridge circuit.

The performance of RTD for various metal is shown below:

Resistive Transducer (Potentiometers(POT))

It is the simplified form of passive transducer widely used. It caonverts linear or agnular
displacement into output voltage.

Let, ei and eo = input and output voltages respectively; V

xt = total length of POT; m
xi = displacement of wiper from its zero position; m and
Rp = total resistance of POT; Ω
We know,
𝑥 𝑙
𝑅𝑝 = ρ ( 𝐴𝑡) R=ρ(𝐴) …………(1) and
𝑥
𝑅𝑖 = ρ( 𝑖 ) ………………….(2)
𝐴
where, Ri = resistance due to wiper displacement (xi); Ω
From equation (1) and (2) , we get

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

29
 𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑖
=
𝑥𝑡 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑖
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑝 (𝑥 ) …………….(3)
𝑡
The output voltage under ideal condition is,
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
eo = ( 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ) * input voltage
𝑥
𝑅𝑝( 𝑖 )
𝑥𝑡
= ∗ 𝑒𝑖
𝑅𝑝
𝑥𝑖
= (𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑖
𝑡

Thus, under ideal circumstances, the output voltage varies linearly with displacement as

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑜 𝑒
and Sensitivity (S) = = = 𝑥𝑖
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥𝑖 𝑡
Thus , under ideal conditions, the sensitivity is constant and the output is faithfully
reproduced and has a linear relationship with input. The same is true of rotational motion.

Let θi = input angular displacement in degrees and θt = total travel of the wiper in degrees.
𝜃𝑖
Then, the ouput voltage is eo =(𝜃𝑡) ∗ 𝑒𝑖 which is true of single turn potentiometer only.

Loading effect

Here, Rm is the internal resistance of measuring device/output device.

𝑥
Now, 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑝 (𝑥𝑖 ) from equation (3)
𝑡
= K𝑅𝑝
𝑥𝑖
= 𝐾and 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑝 − 𝐾𝑅𝑝 = (1 − 𝐾)𝑅𝑝
𝑥𝑡
The resitance of the parallel combination of load resistance and the portion of the resistance
of the POT is
Req= Rm||Ri =Rm||KRp
The total resistance seen by the source is

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

30
 𝑅𝑚 .𝐾𝑅𝑝
RT = Req +R2 = Req +(1-K)Rp = 𝑅 + (1 − 𝐾)𝑅𝑝
𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝
𝑅𝑚 .𝐾𝑅𝑝 +(1−𝐾)(𝑅𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝 )𝑅𝑝
= 𝑅𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝

𝑅𝑚 .𝐾𝑅𝑝 +(𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑝 +−𝐾𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑝 −𝐾2 𝑅𝑝

2)
= 𝑅𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝
2 (1−𝐾)+𝑅 𝑅
𝐾𝑅𝑝 𝑝 𝑚
= + 𝐾𝑅𝑝
𝑅𝑚
The equivalent current, i is
𝑒𝑖 𝑒𝑖 (𝑅𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝 )
i= = 2 (1−𝐾)+𝑅 𝑅
𝑅𝑇 𝐾𝑅𝑝 𝑝 𝑚

The output voltage under load condition is

(𝑒𝑖 (𝑅𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝 )) 𝑅𝑚 .𝐾𝑅𝑝
Eo = i*Req = [𝐾𝑅2 (1−𝐾)+𝑅 ]
∗ (𝑅 )
𝑝 𝑚 𝑅𝑝 𝑚 +𝐾𝑅𝑝
𝑒𝑖𝐾𝑅𝑝𝑅𝑚
= 𝐾𝑅2 (1−𝐾)+𝑅𝑚𝑅𝑝
𝑝
𝑅
𝑒𝑖 𝐾( 𝑚 )
𝑅𝑝
=( 𝑅𝑚
) dividing by 𝑅𝑝2 on numerator and denominator
𝐾(1−𝐾)+( )
𝑅𝑝

Now, the ratio of output voltage to input voltage under load condition is
𝑅
𝑒0 𝐾( 𝑚 )
𝑅𝑝
= 𝑅
……………(4)
𝑒𝑖 𝐾(1−𝐾)+( 𝑚 )
𝑅𝑝

𝑒𝑜 𝐾α 𝑅𝑚
= ∴ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, α =
𝑒𝑖 𝐾(1 − 𝐾) + α 𝑅𝑝
Equation (4) can be written as
𝑒0 𝐾
= 𝑅𝑝 ……………..(5)
𝑒𝑖 𝐾(1−𝐾)( )+1
𝑅𝑚

Equation (5) shows that there exists a non-linear relationship between output voltage 𝑒0 and
𝑥 𝑒
input displacement 𝑥𝑖 since K = 𝑥 𝑖 . In case Rm = ∞, 𝑒0 = K
𝑡 𝑖

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

31
 𝑅𝑚
The ratio of decreasing means the non-linearity goes on increasing. Thus, in order to
𝑅𝑝
𝑅𝑚
keep linearity, the value of should be as large as possible.
𝑅𝑝
Again, Error = output voltage under load - output voltage under no load
𝑒𝑖 𝐾
= 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑒𝑖 𝐾
[𝐾(1−𝐾)( )+1]
𝑅𝑚
𝑒0 𝑒
Absolute error |𝜀| = |𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 − 𝑒0 | 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑒𝑖 𝑖
𝐾α
= (𝐾(1−𝐾)+α)
−𝐾
𝐾α−𝐾2 (1−𝐾)−𝐾α
=
𝐾(1−𝐾)+α
−𝐾2 (1−𝐾) 𝑅
= 𝐾(1−𝐾)+α 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 α = ( 𝑅𝑚)
𝑝

except for the two end points where K=0 i.e 𝑥𝑖 =0 and K = 1 i.e 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑡 , the error is always
negative.
The maximum error is about 12% of full scale if Rm/Rp = 1 and drops down to about 1.5%
𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚
when = 10. For the values of >10, the position of aximum error occurs in the vicinity
𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑝
𝑥𝑖
of = 0.67.
𝑥𝑡
Maximum percentage error
𝑅𝑝
% Emax = 15(𝑅 ) %
𝑚

Differential arrangement of parallel plate Capacitor

“Differential arrangement of parallel plate capacitor eliminating the non-linearity between
input and output”. Prove this statement

Solution

Here, P1 and P2 are fixed plates and M is the movable plate which is midway between the
two fixed plates having capacitance C1 of plate P1 and C2 of fixed plate P2 .Under this
condition,
d1 = d2 = d and
𝐴 𝐴
C1 = C2 = ∈ 𝑑 = ∈𝑜 ∈𝑟 𝑑
Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec
32
 An alternating current voltage ‘e’ is applied across plates P1 and P2 and the difference of
the voltages across the two capacitances is measured i.e
Voltage across C1 is
𝐶2 𝑒
e1 = (𝐶 ∗ 𝑒) = 2 and
1 +𝐶2
Voltage across C2 is
𝐶1 𝑒
e2 = 𝐶 ∗𝑒=2
1 +𝐶2
Therefore, Differential output when the movable plate is at center is ∆eo = e2-e1 = 0
Let , the movable plate be moved up due to displacement x. Then d1 = d-x and d2=d+x.
Therefore, the values C1 and C2 become different resulting in a differential voltage output.
Now,
∈𝐴 ∈𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝑑−𝑥 and C2 = 𝑑+𝑥
𝜖𝐴
𝐶2 𝑒 𝑑+𝑥
Therefore , e1 = 𝐶 = 𝜖𝐴 𝜖𝐴 ∗𝑒
1 +𝐶2 +
𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
∈𝐴𝑒(𝑑−𝑥)(𝑑+𝑥) 𝑑−𝑥
= ((∈𝐴)(𝑑+𝑥+𝑑−𝑥)(𝑑+𝑥) = ∗𝑒
2𝑑
And
𝐶1 𝑒 𝑑+𝑥
e2 = 𝐶 = ∗𝑒
1 +𝐶2 2𝑑
Hence, differential output voltage is
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥
∆eo = e2-e1 = 𝑒 − ( 2𝑑 ) 𝑒
2𝑑
𝑥
or, ∆eo = (𝑑) 𝑒
i.e the output voltage varies linearly with the displacement.
∆𝑒𝑜 𝑒
Also , Sensitivity(S) = =𝑑
𝑥

Example 1

A capacitance transducer uses two quartz diaphragms of area 750mm2 seperated by a

distance of 3.5 mm. A pressure of 900 KN/m2 when applied to the top diaphragm produces
a deflection of 0.6 mm. The capacitor has capacitance 370 pF when no pressure is applied
to the diaphragms. Find the value of capacitance after the application of pressure of 900
KN/m2

Solution:

Suppose C1 and C2 are respectively the values of capacitance before and after the
applications of pressure. Let d1 and d2 be the value of distance between the diaphragms for
the corresponding pressure conditions. Then,
C1 = ϵA/d1 and C2 = ϵA/d2
𝐶2 𝑑1 𝑑1
So, 𝐶1 = 𝑑2 ∴ 𝐶2 = 𝑑2 ∗ 𝐶1 ………………….(1)
But, d1 = 3.5mm and d2 = (3.5-0.6) = 2.9mm

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

33
 𝑑1 3.5
Hence, value of capacitance after application of pressure is C2 = ∗ 𝐶1 = 2.9 ∗ 370 =
𝑑2
446.6𝑝𝐹

Example 2

The output of LVDT is connected to a 5V voltmeter through an amplifier whose

amplification factor is 250. An output of 2mv appears across the terminals of LVDT when
the core moves through a distance of 0.5mm. Calculate the sensitivity of LVDT and that of
the whole set up. The mili-voltmeter scale has 100 divisions and the scale can be read to1/5
of the division. Calculate the resolution of the instrument in mm.

Solution:
(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒) 2∗10−3
Sensitivity of LVDT = = = 4 ∗ 10−3 𝑉/𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 0.5

Sensitivity of instrument = amplification factor * sensitivity of LVDT

= 250*4*10-3

= 1000mv/mm

1 scale division = 5/100 V = 50mv [100scale division = 5V]

Minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter is

1/5 scale division = (1/5)*50mv = 10mv

Again,

1000mv = 1mm

1mv = 1/1000 mm and

10mv = (1/1000)*10 = 0.01mm is the resolution of the instrument i.e

𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Resolution of instrument= 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

10𝑚𝑣
= = 0.01𝑚𝑚
1000 𝑚𝑣/𝑚𝑚

PMMC (Permanent magnet Moving coil) Mechanism

The basic PMMC movement is often called the d’Arsonval movement after its inventor. This
design offers the largest magnet in a given space and is used when maximum flux in the air gap
is required. It provides an instrument with very low power consumption and low current
required for full scale deflection. PMMC instrument is a linear for full-scale deflection. PMMC

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

34
instrument is a linear reading dc device as the torque(the pointer deflection) is directly
proportional to the coil current. It is unsuitable for ac measurements unless the current is
rectified before application to the coil.

DC ammeters:

1. Shunt Resistor
ImRm 𝐼𝑚𝑅𝑚
The resistance of the shunt (Rs ) = =
Ish 𝐼−𝐼𝑚
where, Im = full scale deflection current of the movement
Rm = interval resistance of the movement (coil),
I = full scale current of the ammeter including shunt and
Ish = shunt current

Example

A 1-mA meter movement with an interval resistance of 100Ω is table converted into a 0-
100mA ammeter. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required.

Solution:

IS= I - Im = 100-1 – 99mA

𝐼𝑚𝑅𝑚 1𝑚𝐴∗100Ω
RS = =( ) = 1.01Ω
𝐼𝑠 99𝑚𝐴

2. Ayrton Shunt

Example

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

35
 Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with current ranges of 1A, 5A and 10A.
A d’Arsonval movement with an internal resistance Rm = 50Ω and full-scale deflection
current of 1mA in the configuration.

Solution:

On the 1-A range

Ra+Rb+Rc are in the parallel with the 50Ω movement. Since the movement requires
1mA for full-scale deflection, the shunt will be required to pass a current of 1A-1mA =
999 mA
𝐼𝑚𝑅𝑚
So, Ra+Rb+Rc = 1*50/999 = 0.05005Ω …………………..(1) [ we have Rs= ]
𝐼𝑠

On the 5-A range

Ra+ Rb are in parallel with Rc+Rm (50Ω). In this case there will be a 1-mA current
through the movement and RC in series and 4,999 mA through Ra+Rb. So,
1∗(𝑅𝑐+50)
Ra+Rb= ………………………(2)’
4999

On the 10-A range

Ra now serves as the shunt and Rb + Rc in series with the movement. The current
through the movement again is1mA and the shunt passes the remaining 9,999 mA. So,
1∗(𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐+50)
Ra = …………………(3)
9999
Solving the equations (1),(2)and (3)
RC = 0.04004Ω, Ra= 0.005005 Ω and Rb=0.005005 Ω
This calculation indicates that for larger current, the value of the shunt resistor may
become very small.

Prepared by: Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki, Assoc. Prof., nec

36