UNIT -01

INTRODUCTION OF MICROPROCESSOR.
1. Introduction
2. Historical evolution of INTEL series Microprocessor
3. Bus organization of a microprocessor
4. Microcontroller and its applications
5. Microcomputer
Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture
6. Concept of fetch, decode and execution

Introduction
The microprocessor is nothing but the CPU and it is an essential component
of the computer. It is a silicon chip that comprises millions of transistors and
other electronic components that process millions of instructions per second.
Or,
A Microprocessor is a versatile chip, that is combined with memory and
special purpose chips and preprogrammed by a software. It accepts digital
data as i/p and processes it according to the instructions stored in the memory

Evolution of micro processor.

Processor Year [Link] Initial clock Address Data bus Addressable

Transistor speed bus memory

4004 1971 2.300 108KHZ 10 bit 4bit 64 bytes

8008 1972 3500 200KHZ 14 bit 8bit 16 KB
8080 1974 6000 2MHZ 16 bit 8bit 64KB
8085 1976 6500 5MHZ 16 bit 8bit 64 KB
8086 1978 29000 5MHZ 20 bit 16bit 1MB
8088 1979 29000 5MHZ 20 bit 8bit 1MB
80286 1982 1.34000 8MHZ 24 bit 16bit 16MB

80386 1985 2.75000 16MHZ 32bit 32bit 4 GB

80486 1989 1.2M 25MHZ 32bit 32bit 4 GB

Pentium(i) 1993 3.1M 60MHZ 32bit 32/64bit 4 GB

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Pentium(II) 1997 8.8M 233MHZ 36bit 64bit 64 GB
Pentium(III) 1999 9.5M 650MHZ 36bit 64bit 64 GB

Pentium IV (2000)
Clock: up to 3.8 GHz
NetBurst architecture.

Intel Core Series (2006–Present)

Core Duo / Core 2 Duo (2006)

 High efficiency
 Multi-core mainstream CPUs

Core i3 / i5 / i7 (2008–Present)

 Turbo Boost
 Hyper-Threading
 Integrated graphics (HD, UHD).

Core i9 (2017–Present)

 High-end gaming, workstation processors

 Up to 24 cores (recent generations).

Microcomputer
1. Von- Neumann architecture

Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in [Link]
computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Memory
Unit, Registers and Inputs/[Link] Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program
computer concept, where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This
design is still used in most computers produced today.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the electronic circuit responsible for executing the instructions
of a computer program.

It is sometimes referred to as the microprocessor or processor.

The CPU contains the ALU, CU and a variety of registers.

Registers

Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be stored in a register before it can
be processed.

MAR Memory Address Register Holds the memory location of data that needs to be accessed

MDR Memory Data Register Holds data that is being transferred to or from memory

AC Accumulator Where intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored

PC Program Counter Contains the address of the next instruction to be executed

CIR Current Instruction Register Contains the current instruction during processing

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU is capable for performing arithmetic and logical operation.
Arithmetic operation:
Sum (+), difference (-), multiple (*), division (/)
Logical operation
(AND, OR, NOT)

Control Unit (CU)

The control unit controls the operation of the computer’s ALU, memory and input/output devices,
telling them how to respond to the program instructions it has just read and interpreted from the
memory unit.

The control unit also provides the timing and control signals required by other computer components.

Buses

Buses are the means by which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting
all major internal components to the CPU and memory.

Carries the addresses of data (but not the data) between the processor and
Address Bus
memory

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 Data Bus Carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/output devices

Carries control signals/commands from the CPU (and status signals from other
Control Bus
devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer

Main memory:
Memory stores information such as instructions and data in binary format (0 and 1). It
provides this information to the microprocessor whenever it is needed.
Usually, there is a memory “sub-system” in a microprocessor-based system. This sub-system
includes:
1. The registers inside the microprocessor.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Used to store information that does not change.
3. Random Access Memory (RAM) (also known as Read/Write Memory).
 Used to store information supplied by the user. Such as programs and data.

2. Harvard Architecture
Harvard architecture is a type of computer architecture that separates its memory into two parts so
data and instructions are stored separately. The architecture also has separate buses for data
transfers and instruction fetches. This allows the CPU to fetch data and instructions at the same
time.

The first Harvard computer (1947) was introduced and wasn’t as modern
as the later Von Neumann Architecture. It separated memory for instructions and data and had
separate buses for instruction fetches and data transfer. The Memory cell sizes for instructions and
data are different. A more complex Control unit is required to handle two buses. Both instruction
fetches and data transfer can take place simultaneously. Programs can’t write themselves and
memory or `ganisation is not in the hands of the programmer.

Today, processors using Harvard architecture use a modified form so they can achieve a greater
performance.

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it uses two separate buses for the transfer of data and instructions and two separate
memories for storage of data and instructions.

Difference between Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture

Point of
Harvard Architecture Von Neumann Architecture
Comparison

In Von-Neumann architecture,
In Harvard architecture, the CPU there is no separate data and
is connected with both the data program memory. Instead, a single
memory (RAM) and program
memory connection is given to the
memory (ROM), separately. CPU.

Arrangeme
nt

It requires more hardware since In contrast to the Harvard

Hardware
it will be requiring separate data architecture, this requires less
requiremen
and address bus for each hardware since only a common
ts
memory. memory needs to be reached.
Space
Von-Neumann Architecture
requiremen This requires more space.
requires less space.
ts
Speed of execution is faster
Speed of execution is slower since
Speed of because the processor fetches
it cannot fetch the data and
execution data and instructions
instructions at the same time.
simultaneously .
Controlling becomes complex Controlling becomes simpler since
Controlling since data and instructions are either data or instructions are to
to be fetched simultaneously. be fetched at a time.

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Organization of micro processor based system

I/O

ALU Register
SYSTEM BUS
Array

MEMORY

Arithmetic logical operation:

Every micro processor has arithmetic operation such as add, subtract, multiply and division. it also
perform logical operation as will such as AND, [Link], SHIFT LEFT, SHIFT RIGHT etc.
Memory:
 Memory is the location where information is kept while not in current use.
 Memory is a collection of storage devices. Usually, each storage device holds one bit. Also, in
most kinds of memory, these storage devices are grouped into groups of 8. These 8 storage
locations can only be accessed together. So, one can only read or write in terms of bytes to
and from memory.
 Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold. It is measured in Kilos,
Megas and lately Gigas

Register Array:
Micro processor has various register like B, C, D, E, H, L, ETC. it is used to stored data temporary
during execution of program.
B, C, D, E, H & L (8 bit registers)

 Can be used singly

 Or can be used as 16 bit register pairs – BC, DE, and HL
 H & L can be used as a data pointer (holds memory address)

Input /output unit:

Input unit

 It comes from what is called “input devices”.

 These are devices that bring data into the system from the outside world.
 These represent devices such as a keyboard, a mouse, switches, and the like.

Output unit
1. The results must be presented on an output device.
2. This can be the monitor, a paper from the printer, a simple LED or many other forms

Control unit:
By providing timing and control overall operation of the system.

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System bus:
Wire connection between memory, input /output and micro processor.

Type of system bus:

Address bus (16 bit)
Unidirectional
Identifying peripheral or memory location

Data bus (8 bit)

Bidirectional
Transferred data

Control bus (8 bit)

Synchronization signal
Timing signal
Control signal

Microprocessor and microcontroller

 Micro computer - A computer with micro processor as its CPU include memory, I/O
etc.
 Micro processor- Silicon chip which include ALU register circuit and control circuits.
 Micro controller- Silicon chip which include micro processor memory and input
/output in a single package.

Microprocessors Microcontrollers
1 It is only a general purpose computer It is a microcomputer itself
CPU
2 Memory, I/O ports, timers, interrupts All are integrated inside the microcontroller
are not available inside the chip chip
3 This must have many additional digital Can function as a microcomputer without any

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 components to perform its operation additional components.
4 Systems become bulkier and expensive. Make the system simple, economic and
compact
5 Not capable for handling Boolean Handling Boolean functions
functions
6 Higher accessing time required Low accessing time
7 Very few pins are programmable Most of the pins are programmable
8 Very few number of bit handling Many bit handling instructions
instructions
9 Widely Used in modern PC and laptops widely in small control systems
E.g. INTEL 8086,INTEL Pentium series INTEL8051,89960,PIC16F877

Applications of Microcontrollers

Home Appliances

 Washing machines
 Microwave ovens
 Refrigerators
 Air conditioners
 Smart TVs
 Remote controls

Consumer Electronics

 Mobile phones
 Digital cameras
 Smartwatches
 Gaming controllers

Automotive Applications

 Engine control systems (ECU)

 Automatic wipers
 Parking sensors
 Electric vehicle systems

Industrial Applications

 Robotics
 Process controllers
 Temperature and pressure controllers
 Automation systems

Medical Devices

 Blood pressure monitor

 ECG machines
 Digital thermometers

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IoT (Internet of Things)

 Smart home automation

 Smart agriculture
 Smart lighting
 Security alarm systems

Other Applications

 Drones
 3D printers
 Sensors and data loggers
 Traffic light controllers

Advantages of Microcontrollers
 Microcontrollers act as a microcomputer without any digital parts.
 As the higher integration inside microcontroller reduces cost and size of the system.
 Usage of a microcontroller is simple, easy to troubleshoot and system maintaining.
 Most of the pins are programmable by the user for performing different functions.
 Easily interface additional RAM, ROM,I/O ports.
 Low time required for performing operations.

Disadvantages of Microcontrollers
 Microcontrollers have got more complex architecture than that of microprocessors.
 Only perform a limited number of executions simultaneously.
 Mostly used in micro-equipments.
 Cannot interface high power devices directly.

Advantages of Microprocessor

1. High Processing Speed

Microprocessors can perform millions to billions of instructions per second (MIPS/GHz).

This makes data processing very fast.

2. Versatile and Programmable

A microprocessor can perform different tasks just by changing the software/program.

No need to change the hardware.

3. Small Size and Compact Design

Microprocessors are built using VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration),

so they are small, lightweight, and easy to fit in devices.

4. Low Power Consumption

Modern microprocessors use very little power due to advanced chip technology (nanometer
design).

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5. Reliable and Accurate

Microprocessors do not suffer from mechanical wear and tear.

They are consistent and provide accurate results.

6. Cost-Effective

Mass production and VLSI technology make microprocessors relatively inexpensive.

7. Easy to Upgrade

Microprocessor-based systems can be upgraded by updating:

 Software
 Replacing the processor with a faster one

8. Handles Complex Calculations Easily

Microprocessors can perform:

 Logical operations
 Arithmetic operations
 Floating point calculations
 Multitasking

9. Wide Application Range

Used in:

 Computers and laptops

 Mobiles
 Automation systems
 Robotics
 Industrial machinery
 Automobile control systems

10. Supports Multiple I/O Devices

Microprocessors can connect to:

 Memory (RAM/ROM)
 Keyboards
 Displays
 Storage devices

Concept of fetch, decode and execution.

A microprocessor follows three basic steps to run any instruction from a program.
These steps are:

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1. Fetch

 The processor fetches (reads) the instruction from memory (RAM or ROM).
 The address of the next instruction is stored in the Program Counter (PC).
 The fetched instruction is then placed into the Instruction Register (IR).

In simple words:
� Fetch means taking the instruction from memory.

2. Decode

 The fetched instruction is analyzed/interpreted by the Control Unit.

 The processor identifies:
o What operation to perform (ADD, MOVE, JUMP, etc.)
o Which registers or memory locations are needed

In simple words:
� Decode means understanding the instruction.

3. Execute

 The processor performs the actual operation:

o Arithmetic operation
o Data transfer
o Logic operation
o Memory access
o Jump/branching
 The result of the operation is stored in registers or memory.

In simple words:
� Execute means performing the instruction.

Flow Summary (Easy to Remember)

1. Fetch → Get instruction

2. Decode → Understand it
3. Execute → Perform it

After execution, the next instruction is fetched, and the cycle continues.

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