Research: Meaning, Nature & Types

What is Research?

 It involves re-search → to search again, examine carefully, and probe deeply.

 A systematic gathering of data and information, and its analysis for the advancement of
knowledge in any subject.
 Research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
 D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences Research define
research as "The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the
construction of theory or in the practice of an art."

Meaning of Research

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a
new and creative way to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could
include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative
outcomes (Western Sydney University).

Research is an activity that leads us to finding new facts, information, assisting us in verifying the
available knowledge and in making us question things that are difficult to understand as per
existing data.

Characteristics of good research

Characteristics of research determine whether the research is free of biases, prejudices, and
subjective errors or not.

 Controlled
 Rigorous
 Empirical
 Systematic
 Reliability
 Validity
 Employs hypothesis
 Analytical & Accuracy
 Credibility
Types of Research

Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research

 As the term suggests, a research activity taken up to look into some aspects of a problem or
an issue for the first time is termed as basic or pure.
 It involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at present or in
the future.
 The knowledge produced through pure research is sought to add to the existing body of
research methods. Pure research is theoretical but has a universal nature.
 It is more focused on creating scientific knowledge and predictions for further studies.

Applied research

 It is done based on pure or fundamental research to solve specific, practical questions; for
policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be
exploratory but is usually descriptive. The purpose of doing such research is to find
solutions to an immediate issue, solve a particular problem, develop new technology and
look into future advancements, etc. This involves forecasting and assumes that the variables
will not change.

Descriptive Research

 This attempts to explain a situation, problem, or phenomenon.

 It is used to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a
particular research question or problem. This type of research makes an attempt to collect
any information that can be expressed in quantifiable terms.
 Descriptive research is used to observe and describe a research subject or problem without
influencing or manipulating the variables in any way.

Explanatory research

 The primary purpose of this research is to explain why events occur, to build, elaborate,
extend or test a theory. It is more concerned with showcasing, explaining and presenting
what we already have.

Exploratory research
  This research is conducted to find a solution for a problem that has not been studied more
clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the
final research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data-
collection method and selection of subjects.

Correlational Research

 This is a type of non-experimental research method, in which a researcher measures two

variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship between them, with no
influence from any extraneous variable. This is undertaken to discover or establish the
existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

Conceptual research

 This research is associated with some theoretical idea(s) or presupposition and is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to get a better understanding
of an existing concept in practice.

Empirical research

 This type of research draws together the data based on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions that are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is also
known as experimental research, as it is essential to get facts first-hand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.

Quantitative research

 It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It applies to phenomena that can be

expressed in terms.

Qualitative research

 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, i.e., phenomena relating to or

involving quality or kind of quantity.

Structured approach

 The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.

  Here, everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the
questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined.
 It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue, or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation, e.g., how many people have a particular problem?

Unstructured approach

 The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.

 This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate
to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it.
 The main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.

Scientific Research

What is Scientific Research?

 Science aims at analysis, description, explanation and understanding of various problems.

 Scientific Research is a “systematic and critical investigation into the natural phenomena to
describe, explain and finally to understand the relations among them”.
 It is scientific because it is orderly and undertaken. Several scientific methods are used in
scientific research.

Purpose of Research

 To find out what is known, what is not and what we can develop

 To discover new facts about a known phenomenon

 To find answers to problems partially solved by existing methods

 To find out the truth that is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

 Empirical- based on reasoning, not on speculation (for quantitative study)

 Accuracy- describing what really exists

 Objectivity – free from all biases

  Systematisation- collecting data in an organised manner

 Verifiable evidence- factual observations which can be checked

 Precision- providing exact numbers or measurements

 Reliability and Verifiability- to ensure consistency

Steps in Scientific Research

 Identify the Research Problem

 Literature Review
 Formulating a Hypothesis
 Research Design
 Data Collection
 Data Analysis
 Hypothesis Testing
 Generalisations and interpretation

Hypothesis

What is a hypothesis?

 Consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or Subject to
verification, and ‘Thesis’ means a statement about the solution of a problem.
 Merriam-Webster defined it as ‘a tentative assumption made to draw out and test its logical
and empirical consequences.
 Paul J Lavrakas: A research hypothesis is a specified, clear, and testable proposition or
predictive statement about the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on a
particular property of a population.
 A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
 A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction.
 Hypothesis must include three components: (a) the variables; (b) the population; and (c) the
relationship between the variables.
 While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of research is to
determine whether this guess is right or wrong
 Conceptual in nature.
 A verbal statement in a declarative form.
  Has the empirical referent.
 It is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge, and
Conducive to further enquiry.
 Can be tested, verifiable, or falsifiable.
 It is not a moral or ethical question.
 Is neither too specific nor too general.
 Is a prediction of consequences.
 Is considered valuable even if proven false.

Hypothesis, Assumptions and Presumptions

 Assumption means taking things for granted so that the situation is simplified for logical
procedure.
 Postulates are the working beliefs of most scientific activity. A postulate is a statement
assumed to be true without the need for proof of any kind.
 A hypothesis is different from both of these. It is the presumptive statement of a proposition
that the investigator seeks to prove. It is a condensed generalisation. This generalisation
requires knowledge of principles of things or essential characteristics that pertain to an
entire class of phenomena.

Function of a Hypothesis:

 Five main functions of hypothesis in the research process are suggested by Mc. Ashan:
 It is a temporary solution to a problem concerning some truth, which enables an
investigator to start his/her research work.
 It offers a basis for establishing the specifics of what to study for and may provide
possible solutions to the problem.
 Each hypothesis may lead to the formulation of another hypothesis.
 A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of a final hypothesis.
 It provides the investigator with a definite statement that may be objectively tested
and accepted or rejected, and leads to interpreting results and drawing conclusions
that are related to the original purpose.

Feature of good Hypothesis

 It is never formulated in the form of a question.

 Should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong.
  Should be specific and precise.
 Should not be contradictory.
 Should specify variables between which the relationship is to be established.
 Should describe one issue only. A hypothesis can be formulated in either a descriptive or a
relational form.
 Guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for verification.

Types of Hypotheses

 Simple Hypothesis: This predicts the relationship between a single independent variable
and a single dependent variable.
 Complex Hypothesis: This predicts the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.
 Directional Hypothesis: This may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a
particular outcome. They specify the expected direction of the relationship between
variables, i.e. the researcher predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also its
nature.
 Non-directional Hypothesis: This form of hypothesis is used in studies where there is
insufficient past research on which to base a prediction. Do not stipulate the direction of the
relationship.
 Associative Hypothesis: Associative hypotheses propose relationships between variables;
when one variable changes, the other changes. Do not indicate cause and effect.
 Causal Hypothesis: Causal hypotheses propose a cause-and-effect interaction between two
or more variables. The independent variable is manipulated to cause an effect on the
dependent variable. The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by
the independent variable.
 Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses: Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductive
reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations. Deductive hypotheses
are formed through deductive reasoning from the implications of theory.
 Null Hypothesis: This is a hypothesis that proposes no relationship or difference between
two variables. This is the conventional approach to making a prediction. It involves a
statement that says there is no relationship between two groups that the researcher compares
on a certain variable. The hypothesis may also state that there is no significant difference
when different groups are compared with respect to a particular variable.
  It is denoted as Ho. The rejection of the null hypothesis indicates that the differences
have statistical significance, and the acceptance of the null hypothesis indicates that
the differences are due to chance.
 Alternate or Research Hypothesis: This hypothesis proposes a relationship between two
or more variables, symbolised as H1. For example, if a researcher were interested in
examining the relationship between music and emotion, s/he may believe that there is a
relationship between music and emotion. Then we may have:
 H1 (the research/alternate hypothesis): Music at a fast tempo is rated by participants
as being happier than music at a slow tempo.
 H0 (the null hypothesis): Music at a fast tempo and at a slow tempo is rated the
same in happiness by participants.
 Statistical Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about statistical
populations that one seeks to support or refute. The null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis together are called the statistical hypothesis.

Sampling

What is Sampling

 In research, the well-specified and identifiable group is known as a population or universe,

and the selected number of persons or objects is known as a sample.
 Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the sampling
population) as the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of
information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group.

Types of Sampling

(A) Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

Explanation: The researcher selects units purely by chance so that each member of the population
has an equal probability of being included. No bias or human judgment is involved. Usually done
using a lottery method, a random table, or computer randomisation.

Example: From a list of 1,000 college students, 100 names are selected using a random number
generator.

2. Systematic Sampling
Explanation: Units are selected at regular intervals after choosing a random starting point. The
interval (k) is calculated by dividing the total population by the sample size.

Example: If there are 2,000 households and 200 are needed, every 10th house is selected after a
random start.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

Explanation: The population is divided into homogeneous groups (called strata) such as gender,
caste, class, or age, and random sampling is done within each group to ensure proper
representation.

Example: In a university with 60% girls and 40% boys, the sample also keeps the same proportion
while selecting randomly from both groups.

4. Cluster Sampling

Explanation: Instead of selecting individuals, the researcher divides the population into naturally
occurring groups (clusters) like villages, schools, or wards, and randomly selects entire clusters.

Example: Out of 200 villages in a district, 10 villages are randomly selected and all households in
them are surveyed.

5. Multistage Sampling

Explanation: Sampling is carried out in multiple steps — from larger units to smaller units. It
reduces cost and is useful in large-scale social surveys.

Example: India → Haryana → Yamuna Nagar → Villages → Households → Individuals selected

step-by-step.

6. Area Sampling

Explanation: A special form of cluster sampling where clusters are defined geographically (maps,
blocks, wards, sectors). Mostly used in urban surveys.

Example: Selecting 5 wards in a city and studying all families living in those wards.

(B) Non-Probability Sampling

1. Convenience (Accidental) Sampling

Explanation: The researcher selects respondents who are easily available and willing. Fast and
cheap but less reliable.

Example: Surveying people present in a park or students sitting in a classroom.

2. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling

Explanation: The researcher deliberately selects people who have specific knowledge or experience
relevant to the research topic.

Example: Interviewing only widows to study widowhood problems or only priests to study rituals.

3. Quota Sampling

Explanation: The researcher fixes a number (quota) for each category and then selects respondents
conveniently until the quota is filled.

Example: Taking 50 rural and 50 urban respondents for a lifestyle survey.

4. Snowball Sampling

Explanation: Existing participants identify new participants; used for hidden or hard-to-reach
populations.

Example: Drug users, migrants, or sex workers introduce the researcher to others in the same
group.