SOLUTIONS: QUICK REVISION

NOTES
Class 12 Chemistry (MP Board / CBSE)

1. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more non-reacting substances [cita-
tion:10]. It consists of a solvent (major component) and a solute (minor component).
Based on the physical state of the solute and solvent, there are nine types, but the
most important are liquid solutions:

S. No. Solute Solvent Example

1 Solid Liquid Salt in water (Saline)
2 Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
3 Gas Liquid Oxygen in water (Soda water)

Key Point: Based on the amount of solute, solutions can be:

• Dilute: Small quantity of solute.

• Concentrated: Large quantity of solute.

• Saturated: Contains max. amount of solute at a given temp.

• Unsaturated: Can dissolve more solute at a given temp.

• Super-saturated: Contains more solute than required for saturation (unstable).

2. EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION
Key Formulas for Concentration

1. Mass Percentage (w/w): Mass of component per 100 g of solution [citation:10].

Mass of solute
Mass % = × 100
Mass of solution
2. Mole Fraction (x): Ratio of moles of one component to total moles [citation:10].
nA nB
xA = ; xB =
nA + nB nA + n B
Also, xA + xB = 1

3. Molarity (M): Number of moles of solute per liter of solution [citation:10]. Depends
on temperature.
Moles of solute
M=
Volume of solution (in L)

1
4. Molality (m): Number of moles of solute per kg of solvent [citation:10]. Indepen-
dent of temperature.
Moles of solute
m=
Mass of solvent (in kg)

5. Normality (N): Number of gram equivalents of solute per liter of solution.

Gram equivalents of solute

N=
Volume of solution (in L)

3. SOLUBILITY
3.1 Factors Affecting Solubility of a Gas in Liquid
• Nature of gas and liquid: Depends on intermolecular forces.

• Pressure (Henry’s Law): At constant T, the mass of a gas dissolved per unit
volume of solvent is proportional to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium with the
solvent [citation:6][citation:10].

P = KH · x
Where:

• P = Partial pressure of the gas

• KH = Henry’s Law constant (depends on nature of gas and T)

• x = Mole fraction of gas in solution

Note: Higher KH value means lower solubility of the gas. KH increases with increase
in temperature [citation:6].

• Temperature: Dissolution of gas is exothermic (∆H < 0). According to Le-

Chatelier’s principle, increasing temperature decreases solubility [citation:6].

4. VAPOUR PRESSURE AND RAOULT’S LAW

4.1 Raoult’s Law
For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component is directly
proportional to its mole fraction [citation:6].

pA = p◦A · xA
pB = p◦B · xB

The total vapour pressure is:

PTotal = pA + pB = p◦A xA + p◦B (1 − xA )

2
4.2 Raoult’s Law as a Special Case (Non-volatile Solute)
For a solution containing a non-volatile solute, the vapour pressure of the solution is only
due to the solvent. The relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal to the mole
fraction of the solute [citation:6].

p◦A − pA
= xB
p◦A

This is used to calculate molar mass (MB ) of the solute:

p◦A − pA wB /MB
◦
=
pA wA /MA

5. IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

5.1 Ideal Solutions
A solution which obeys Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration [citation:6][citation:7].
• ∆Hmix = 0 (No heat change)
• ∆Vmix = 0 (No volume change)
• pA = p◦A xA and pB = p◦B xB
• Example: Benzene + Toluene, n-Hexane + n-Heptane [citation:7].

5.2 Non-Ideal Solutions

Solutions that do not obey Raoult’s law [citation:7]. They show deviations.

Property Positive Deviation Negative Deviation

Interaction (A-B) Weaker than A-A and B-B Stronger than A-A and B-B
Vapour Pressure Higher than expected (PA > Lower than expected (PA <
PA◦ XA ) PA◦ XA )
∆Hmix Positive (Endothermic) Negative (Exothermic)
∆Vmix Positive (Volume increases) Negative (Volume de-
creases)
Examples Ethanol + Water [cita- Acetone + Chloroform [ci-
tion:7], Acetone + CS2 tation:7], Chloroform + Di-
ethyl ether

5.3 Azeotropes
Liquid mixtures that boil at a constant temperature without change in composition [ci-
tation:6].
• Minimum Boiling Azeotropes: Formed by solutions showing positive deviation
(e.g., 95.4% ethanol + 4.6% water).
• Maximum Boiling Azeotropes: Formed by solutions showing negative deviation
(e.g., 68% HNO3 + 32% water).

3
6. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Properties that depend only on the number of solute particles, not their nature.

6.1 Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

(As discussed in 4.2)

6.2 Elevation in Boiling Point (∆Tb )

The boiling point of a solution is higher than that of the pure solvent.

∆Tb = Kb · m
1000 · Kb · wB
∆Tb =
MB · wA

Where:

• Kb = Molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant [citation:6].

• m = Molality of the solution.

• MB = Molar mass of solute.

6.3 Depression in Freezing Point (∆Tf )

The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

∆Tf = Kf · m
1000 · Kf · wB
∆Tf =
MB · wA

Where Kf = Molal depression constant or Cryoscopic constant [citation:6].

6.4 Osmotic Pressure (π)

The excess pressure that must be applied to the solution side to prevent the passage of
solvent into it through a semipermeable membrane [citation:6].

van’t Hoff Equation:

πV = nRT
Or
π = CRT

Where C is the molar concentration.

Isotonic Solutions: Two solutions having the same osmotic pressure are called
isotonic solutions [citation:6].

4
7. ABNORMAL MOLAR MASSES & VAN’T HOFF
FACTOR
Experimental molar masses are sometimes higher or lower than expected due to associ-
ation or dissociation of solute particles.

van’t Hoff Factor (i):

Observed Colligative Property Normal Molar Mass

i= =
Normal Colligative Property Observed Molar Mass

• For Dissociation: i > 1 (e.g., NaCl, KCl). Particles break into ions.

• For Association: i < 1 (e.g., Benzoic acid in benzene). Particles dimerize.

Modified Colligative Properties:

• ∆Tb = i · Kb · m

• ∆Tf = i · Kf · m

• π = i · CRT

FORMULA SHEET - SOLUTIONS

Concentration: Colligative Props:

• M = n/V (L) • ∆Tb = Kb m

• m = n/wA (kg) • ∆Tf = Kf m

• xA = nA /(nA + nB ) • π = CRT
Raoult’s Law: van’t Hoff:
• pA = p◦A xA • πV = inRT
p◦ −p
• p◦
= wB /MB
wA /MA • i = 1 + (y − 1)α

9. SOLVED NUMERICALS (For Practice)

Example 1: Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in a solution containing 30% by
mass in CCl4 [citation:10].

Solution: 30% benzene means 30g benzene + 70g CCl4 . Molar mass (C6 H6 ) = 78
g/mol, Molar mass (CCl4 ) = 154 g/mol. nB = 30/78 = 0.385, nCCl4 = 70/154 = 0.455.
0.385
xB = 0.385+0.455 = 0.385
0.84
= 0.458.

Example 2: The boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99.63°C. How much sucrose
should be added to 500g of water so that it boils at 100°C? (Kb for water = 0.52 K
kg/mol) [citation:10].

5
 Solution: ∆Tb = 100 − 99.63 = 0.37K. m = ∆T Kb
b
= 0.37
0.52
= 0.712 mol/kg. Moles
of sucrose = m × mass of solvent (kg) = 0.712 × 0.5 = 0.356 mol. Mass of sucrose =
0.356 × 342 (Molar mass) = 121.7 g.

10. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR MP BOARD

EXAMS
Based on previous year patterns [citation:2][citation:6]:

1. State and explain Raoult’s law. How is it used to determine molar mass? [citation:6]

2. Distinguish between Ideal and Non-ideal solutions with examples. [citation:6]

3. What is an azeotropic mixture? Give an example. [citation:6]

4. Derive the van’t Hoff equation for osmotic pressure. [citation:6]

5. Explain the factors affecting solubility of gases in liquids (Henry’s Law). [citation:6]

6. Define molal elevation constant (Kb ). [citation:6]

7. Calculate the mass percentage, mole fraction, or molarity from given data (as seen
in section 9).

8. What is the van’t Hoff factor? Explain its significance in abnormal molar masses.
[citation:6]

These notes cover the complete MP Board Class 12 ”Solutions” chapter for quick
revision. Always refer to NCERT for in-depth theory and numerical practice [citation:9].