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EnggMath 2 Complete Modules

The document is a course module for Differential Calculus (ENGGMATH 2) designed for engineering students at SLU, outlining the course learning outcomes and structure. It includes various modules covering topics such as functions, limits, derivatives, and applications of calculus, with an emphasis on problem-solving and real-world applications. The course promotes independent learning and self-discipline, encouraging students to manage their study time effectively.

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Neil ivan Tanghal

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

133 views210 pages

EnggMath 2 Complete Modules

Uploaded by

Neil ivan Tanghal

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ENGGMATH

MODULE IN
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ENGG
MATH 2
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

Electronics Engineering Department

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

2
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
The course ENGGMATH 2: Differential
Calculus prepares you, as a future
engineer, to demonstrate all the intended
learning outcomes of the four-unit course
as per the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) Memorandum Orders (CMO) for
your respective degree program. In this
course, problem solving, communication,
reasoning, and mental math are some of
the themes you will experience in each
module. You will engage in a variety of
activities that promote the connections
between symbolic math ideas and the
world around you.

At the end of the module, you should be

able to:
Solve problems involving Functions, Limits
and Continuity and analyze results
Solve problems involving the Derivative
and Differentiation
Analyze and solve problems involving
Behavior of Functions and their Graphs,
Extreme Functions and Values
Apply the acquired knowledge in
differentiation in solving elementary
Differential Calculus problems.
Analyze and solve problems involving
Parametric Equations and Motion
Apply the concept of derivatives to real
life problems especially in the field of
Engineering.

3
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

CONTENTS PAGE
Title Page …………………….. 1
.

4
Course Learning Outcomes …………………….. 2
.
Course Overview …………………….. 5
.
Course Guide …………………….. 5
.
Course Study Guide …………………….. 6
.
Course Study Schedule …………………….. 10
.
Assignment Guide …………………….. 17
.
Course References …………………….. 18
.
MODULE 1
UNIT 1: Functions …………………….. 20
.
UNIT 2: Limits …………………….. 28
.
UNIT 3: Continuity …………………….. 39
.
Assignment 1 (Unit 1) …………………….. 46
.
Assignment 2 (Unit 2) …………………….. 48
.
Assignment 3 (Unit 3) …………………….. 50
.
Module 1 Quiz …………………….. 52
.
MODULE 2
UNIT 1: The Derivative …………………….. 56
.
UNIT 2: Differentiation …………………….. 63
.
Assignment 4 (Unit 1) …………………….. 76
.
Assignment 5 (Unit 2) …………………….. 78
.
Module 2 Quiz …………………….. 80
.

5
MODULE 3
UNIT 1: Sketching Functions …………………….. 84
.
UNIT 2: Application of Derivatives …………………….. 91
.
UNIT 3: Related Rates …………………….. 98
.
Assignment 6 (Unit 1) …………………….. 106
.
Assignment 7 (Unit 2) …………………….. 108
.
Module 3 Quiz …………………….. 110
.

CONTENTS PAGE
MIDTERM EXAMINATION …………………….. 115
.
MODULE 4
UNIT 1: Trigonometric and Inverse …………………….. 117
Trigonometric Functions .
UNIT 2: Logarithmic, Exponential …………………….. 132
and Hyperbolic Functions .
Module 4 Quiz …………………….. 140
.
MODULE 5
Parametric Equations and Motion …………………….. 142
.
Module 5 Quiz …………………….. 152
.
MODULE 6
Approximation and Differentials …………………….. 155
.
Module 6 Quiz …………………….. 164
.
MODULE 7
Other Indeterminate Forms …………………….. 168
.

6
Module 7 Quiz …………………….. 177
.
MODULE 8
Differential Calculus of Functions of …………………….. 178
more than One Variable .
Module 8 Quiz …………………….. 185
.

7
“A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of
discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be
modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play
your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means,
you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of
discovery.”
G
eorge Polya (Hungarian Mathematician)

COURSE INTRODUCTION
Differential Calculus is the first course in the calculus sequence for physical science,
mathematics and engineering students. In this course, you will learn about limits, the rate of
change of a function, derivatives of algebraic and trigonometric functions, and applications
of derivatives. You probably are taking this introductory course to differential calculus
because it is required for subsequent courses you plan to take in preparation for a career in
engineering. This course will help you learn calculus and enjoy the experience in learning.
This course will enable you to apply your knowledge of mathematics, natural science,
engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.

This course, which builds on pre-calculus, is a continuation of the concepts you have studied
in previous years, as well as an introduction to new topics. Many of the skills that you have
already learned will be put to use as you solve problems and learn new skills along the way.
This course helps you develop the skills, ideas, and confidence you will need to continue
studying mathematics in the future. As a student enrolled in a distance learning course, you
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

8
have taken on a dual role - that of a student and a teacher. As a student, you are responsible
for mastering the lessons and completing the learning activities and assignments.

COURSE GUIDE
A. Module and Unit Topics

To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcome at
the end of the semester, this course designed to be delivered in 72 contact hours
was structured into eight modules. Each module contains several units with its own
topic learning outcomes and topic outline. Each unit contains activities designed
using the 5E constructivist model of learning, developed by Rodger Bybee, that
encourages students to engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate their
learning of topics covered therein. This means that at the end of each unit, each
module, and the course as a whole, you will be assessed on your progress in
attaining the course learning outcomes. Outcomes based education dictates that
only when you can clearly demonstrate the course learning outcomes by the end
of this course, can you be given a passing mark. The modules that form the building
blocks to help you attain the course learning outcomes are as follows:

MODULE 1: Functions, Limits and Continuity. In this module you will have a review
of selected topics from Pre-Calculus, most especially concepts in
functions that are vital to surviving a Calculus course. Then you will
learn the interpretation/meaning of a limit, how to evaluate limits,
the definition and evaluation of one-sided limits, evaluation of
infinite limits, evaluation of limits at infinity, continuity and the
Intermediate Value Theorem.

MODULE 2: The Derivative and Differentiation. This module will introduce

Derivatives. You will be covering the standard formulas including
product rule, quotient rule and chain rule as well as derivative of
polynomials. In this module, you will also learn how to solve
applications of derivatives in related rate problems.

MODULE 3: Behavior of Functions and their Graphs, Extreme Functions and

Approximation. In this module, we will cover many of the major
applications of derivatives. Applications included are determining
absolute and relative minimum and maximum function values,
sketching the graph of a function without using a computational aid,
determining the Linear Approximation of a function as well as a few
basic applications.

MODULE 4: Derivatives of Trigonometric, Inverse Trigonometric, Logarithmic,

Exponential, and Hyperbolic Functions. In this module, you will study

9
more formulas in differentiating other functions like trigonometric,
inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic
functions. You will learn how to use these formulas in solving other
types of worded and real-world problems.

MODULE 5: Parametric Equations and Motion. There are also a great many curves
out there that we cannot even write down as a single equation in
terms of only x and y. So, to deal with some of these problems we
introduce parametric equations. This module will teach you how to
solve parametric equation problems and motion problems.

MODULE 6: Approximation and Differentials. In this module, you will learn how to
use the derivative to compute a linear approximation to a function.
Also, in this module, you will learn Newton’s Method in approximating
solutions to an equation. There are many equations that cannot be
solved directly and with this method you will learn how you can get
approximations to the solutions to many of those equations.

MODULE 7: Other Indeterminate Forms. This module will allow you to revisit
indeterminate forms and limits and take a look at L’Hospital’s Rule.
L’Hospital’s Rule will allow you to evaluate some limits you were not
able to previously.

MODULE 8: Differential Calculus of Functions of More Than One Variable. Now that
you learned a lot of calculus formulas in one variables, you can
proceed into taking derivatives of functions of more than one
variable. In this module, you are going to learn about partial
derivatives and concentrate exclusively on only changing one of
the variables at a time, while the remaining variable(s) are held
fixed.

A study of modern electronic

devices like diodes, transistors
and integrated circuits must
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

10
begin with a study of the
materials from which those
devices are constructed.
Knowledge
of the principles of material
composition at the level of the
fundamental structure of
matter is an important
prerequisite in the field of
electronics.
COURSE STUDY GUIDE

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs,
and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and
feedback for this course, will instill in you important qualities you will need in the future as
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

11
an engineer practicing your profession. The following course guides and house rules are
designed for you to practice decorum consistent with standards expected within a
formal academic environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency,
coherence, cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors
throughout the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Learning through independent study has several

advantages over learning in the classroom. You are in charge of how you learn and
you can choose how quickly you will complete the course. You can read as many
lessons as you wish in a single session. You do not have to wait for your teacher or
classmates. From the date of your registration, you have a maximum of 2 months to
complete the course, but the pace at which you proceed is up to you. Create a study
routine and stick to it. Keep requirement deadlines and study schedules always in
mind by providing visual cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders
(electronically, online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activities
that take up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking.
Choose a time of day when you are most likely to maximize learning. Communicate
your schedule to other members of your household so they could help you keep it. It
would also help to prepare a dedicated space in your residence conducive for
learning. You are encouraged to dedicate at least ten (10) hours per week to this
course throughout the short semester.

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an academic

space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the distance learning
environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-face classroom set up.
Avoid asking questions that have already been answered in the lessons or in the
instructions previously discussed or provided. This reflects your poor focus and
uninspired preparation for this course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in
group chats, open forums, and similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid
text-speak, slang, and all caps in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other
participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.

3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making use of
the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would be

12
worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the applications
you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and your classmates,
and submit course requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom,
Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft
Office tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to take
a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically. Work on this skill
as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient means for express mail
correspondence and inform me as early as possible so we can make the necessary
arrangements ahead of time.

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning

outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you are
to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing beyond
it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of thought and
care you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very tangible measure
of how much of the competencies you have developed and fully obtained
throughout this course.

5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline modes to
ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the needed learning
materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from me or from your
classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and updated. My contact
details can be found at the latter part of this document and will be made available
and widely disseminated to enrolees of this course.

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in electronic

form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital footprint that
can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly for referenced
statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute statements by persons
other than you by using terms like according to, he said/she said, and the like.

7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your disposal,
and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be your
independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this course. The
only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to learn as much from
it as an individual. Make it count. Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the
module on your own. Your family members and friends at home will support you but
the activities must be done by you. As Louisans, we always need to demonstrate our
core values of competence, creativity, social involvement and Christian spirit.

8. USING THE LEARNING MODULES. To be able to help you build your own understanding
from experiences and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on

13
the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate). The
following icons will help you find some of the most critical ideas in the learning
modules.
This part of the unit module are activities to pique your interest and
get you personally involved in the lesson, while pre-assessing you
prior understanding.

This part of the unit module presents the main lesson through
materials that will be read, viewed or explored.

This part of the unit module contains activities that will allow you
to share what you explored. This part is where further
explanations and video recordings will be given to you.

This part of the unit module contains activities that will allow you to
use your new knowledge and continue to explore its implications.

This part of the unit module is for us to determine how much

learning and understanding has taken place.

This icon is placed next to important formulas and concepts you

have to memorize.

This icon is placed at the end of each module to allow you to

evaluate your answers to the questions on elaborate
sectionsquestions to important formulas and concepts you have
to memorize.
This icon is placed at the end of each module to remind you of
graded classworks like assignments and evaluative quizzes.

Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

● If you are a student opting for the offline mode of distance learning, you will be
tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given stages of the
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

14
course through express mail correspondence on or before the scheduled date to
me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other media
available for you.
● While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue
doing the task in the succeeding units of the module.
● If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available means.
Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.

STUDY SCHEDULE
Below are details in the conduct of this course arranged in chronological order vis-à-vis
the topic learning outcomes and activities designed for you to undergo the five stages
of the 5E constructivist learning model.

Dates TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES ACTIVITIES

MODULE 1 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
UNIT 1 Functions
June 15, TLO 1: Solve problems Engage: Diagnostic quiz on Pre-
2020 involving Functions, Limits and Calculus discussion of functions
Continuity and analyze Explore: Introduction to Calculus,
results. Functions, Value of a Function
Explain: Video 1: Demonstration of
procedures in evaluating functions
and its value
Elaborate: Practice exercises in
evaluating functions
Evaluate:
Unit formative assessment:
Assignment on Evaluating functions
UNIT 2 Limits
June 16, TLO 1: Solve problems Engage: Open Forum 1 (Listen to
2020 involving Functions, Limits and the song “Take it to the Limit” by
Continuity and analyze Eagles. What does this song mean?
results. What does the word limit mean to
you?)
Explore: Limits and Theorems
Explain: Video 2: Evaluating Limits
Elaborate: Practice exercises in
evaluating limits
Evaluate:
Unit formative assessment:
Assignment on Evaluating Limits
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

15
UNIT 3 Continuity
June 18, TLO 1: Solve problems Engage: Pre-assessment on
2020 involving Functions, Limits and continuity in graphs
Continuity and analyze Explore: Continuity and Theorems
results. Explain: Video 3: Demonstration of
assessing continuity of a function
Elaborate: Differentiation of types of
discontinuities
Evaluate:
Unit formative assessment:
Assignment on testing for function
continuity
June 20, Module 1 Evaluative Assessment
2020 Graded Quiz on Functions, Limits and Continuity
MODULE 2 THE DERIVATIVE AND DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT 1 The Derivative
June 22-23, TLO 2: Solve problems Engage: Open Forum 2 (Which
2020 involving the Derivative and Lines are tangent to the curve?
Differentiation What do you think is a tangent
line?)
Explore: Definition of Derivative as a
slope and a rate of change
Explain: Video 4: Demonstration of
procedures in evaluating the
derivative of a function
Elaborate: Practice exercises in
obtaining the derivatives of
functions
Evaluate:
Unit formative assessment:
Assignment on Evaluating
derivatives
UNIT 2 DIFFERENTIATION
June 24-25, TLO 2: Solve problems Engage: Formative assessment
2020 involving the Derivative and review quiz on definition of a
Differentiation derivative
Explore: Introduction to formulas for
derivatives of algebraic functions,
higher derivatives, and implicit
functions

16
Explain: Video 5: Demonstration of
procedures in evaluating the
derivative of a function using the
formulas
Elaborate: Problem solving
examples on derivatives
Evaluate: Unit formative
assessment: Evaluating derivatives
using formulas introduced
June 26, Module 2 Evaluative Assessment
2020 Graded Quiz on Derivatives of Algebraic functions, higher derivatives
and implicit functions
MODULE 3 BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS, EXTREME FUNCTIONS
AND VALUES AND APPROXIMATION
UNIT 1 Sketching Functions
June 27-29, TLO 3: Analyze and solve Engage: Pre-assessment on curve
2020 problems involving Behavior of tracing techniques in Pre-calculus
Functions and their Graphs, Explore: Sketching functions,
Extreme Functions and Values Maxima, minima, points of inflection
and Approximation and Explain and Elaborate: Video 6:
interpret results. Demonstration of the steps in
sketching functions
Evaluate: Unit formative
assessment: Sketching functions
UNIT 2 Worded Problem Applications in Maxima-Minima
June 30-July TLO 3: Analyze and solve Engage: Open Forum 3: Box
1, 2020 problems involving Behavior of Activity Challenge (optimization of
Functions and their Graphs, material to create an open box)
Extreme Functions and Values Explore: Readings on Maxima and
and Approximation and Minima Problems
interpret results. Explain and Elaborate: Video 7:
Demonstration of procedures in
solving maxima-minima problems
Evaluate: Unit formative
assessment: Problem solving in
optimization
UNIT 3 Related Rates
July 2-3, 2020 TLO 3: Analyze and solve Engage: Open Forum 4: Emptying
problems involving Behavior of a cylindrical can
Functions and their Graphs, Explore: Readings on related rates

17
Extreme Functions and Values Explain and Elaborate: Video 8:
and Approximation and Demonstration of the steps in
interpret results. solving related rate problems
Evaluate: Unit formative
assessment: Problem solving on
related rates
July 4, 2020 Module 3 Evaluative Assessment
Graded Quiz on Curve Tracing, Maxima-Minima and Related Rate
Problems
July 5, 2020 Module 1,2 and 3 Evaluative Assessment
Graded Midterm Examination on Module 1, Module 2 and Module 3
MODULE 4 TRIGONOMETRIC, LOGARITHMIC, EXPONENTIAL, INVERSE
TRIGONOMETIC, AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
UNIT 1 Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
July 6-7, 2020 TLO 4: Solve problems involving Engage: Pre-assessment quiz on
Trigonometric, Logarithmic, Pre-Calculus discussion of
Exponential, Inverse trigonometric identities
Trigonometric, and Hyperbolic Explore: Lecture/Readings on
Functions Formulas
Explain and Elaborate: Video 9:
Steps in solving derivatives of
trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions and
problem solving
Evaluate: Module 4 Unit 1
Evaluative Assessment (Graded
Quiz)
UNIT 2 Logarithmic, Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions
July 8-10, TLO 4: Solve problems involving Engage: Pre-assessment quiz on
2020 Trigonometric, Logarithmic, Pre-Calculus discussion of
Exponential, Inverse Logarithmic and exponential
Trigonometric, and Hyperbolic functions
Functions Explore: Lecture/Readings on
Formulas
Explain and Elaborate: Video 10:
Steps in solving derivatives of
logarithmic, exponential and
hyperbolic functions
Evaluate: Module 4 Unit 2
Evaluative Assessment (Graded Qz)

18
July 11, 2020 Module 4 Evaluative Assessment
Graded Quiz on Trigonometric, Inverse Trigonometric, Logarithmic,
Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions
MODULE 5 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND MOTION
July 13-15, TLO 5: Solve problems involving Engage: Open Forum 5: Projectile
2020 Parametric Equations and Motion equations (how do these
Motion and interpret results equations differ from previously
learned equations?)
Explore: Lecture/readings on
Parametric equations
Explain and Elaborate: Video 11:
Steps in graphing and solving
derivatives of parametric equations
Evaluate: Module 5 Evaluative
Assessment (Graded Quiz)
MODULE 6 APPROXIMATION AND DIFFERENTIALS
July 16-18, TLO 6: Solve problems involving Engage: Pre-assessment review of
2020 Approximation and Differentials approximations
Explore: Lecture/Readings on
solving problems involving
approximation and differentials
Explain and Elaborate: Video 12:
Steps in solving problems involving
approximations and differentials
Evaluate: Module 6 Evaluative
Assessment (Graded Quiz)
MODULE 7 OTHER INDETERMINATE FORMS
July 20-21, TLO7: Solve problems involving Engage: Review of Indeterminate
2020 the Indeterminate Forms forms discussed in previous module
Explore: Lecture/Readings on
solving problems involving
indeterminate forms
Explain and Elaborate: Video 13:
Steps in solving problems involving
indeterminate forms
Evaluate: Module 7 Evaluative
Assessment (Graded Assignment)
MODULE 8 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS OF MORE THAN ONE VARIABLE

19
July 22-24 , TLO8: Analyze and solve Engage: Open Forum 6: Functions
2020 problems involving Differential of more than one variable (what do
Calculus of Functions of more these functions have in common?)
than one variable Explore: Lecture/Readings on
solving derivatives of functions with
more than one variable
Explain and Elaborate: Video 14:
Steps in solving derivatives of
functions with more than one
variables
Evaluate: Module 8 Evaluative
Assessment (Graded Quiz)
Module 4,5, 6, 7 and 8 Evaluative Assessment
July 25, 2020
Graded Final Examination on Module 4,5,6,7, and 8

IV. Evaluation
The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine the
progress of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you
must:

1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions.
2. Submit all assignments and graded quizzes
3. Take the Midterm Examination.
4. Take the Final Examination

● If you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically saved discussion activities and requirements, and submit them on
time via express mail correspondence.

Formative Assessment Activities

Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are used to
monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both your learning
approach as well as my instructional approach.

• You are required to answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,

and reflection questions but your scores in activities will not be included in the
computation of your final grade.
• The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze the course
readings for better understanding while the pre-assessment quizzes and self-
assessment activities are designed as a review management tool to prepare you
for the graded quizzes and examinations.

20
• Successfully answering formative activity questions and requirements will serve as
prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may already move forward
to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answers to the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions will still be checked and will still be part of your
course completion. Hence, all pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,
and reflection questions must be answered.
• In doing your formative assessment activities, you can always ask the help of your
family and friends.
• The pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection questions are
required so you can take it anytime within the scheduled days assigned for each
unit.

Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your

acquisition of learning and performance in tests is at par with standards set at certain
milestones in this course.

Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine

whether your performance as a student is at par with standards/goals that need
to be achieved in this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded
activities will contribute to your final grade, the weights of which are presented in
the grading system described in the succeeding sections of this text. Direct
scoring can be used on straightforward requirements like short answers and
multiple choice responses, while scoring rubrics will be provided for answers that
are typically lengthy and involve a more complex level of thinking on your part.

V. Technological Tools
To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need a computer or a laptop
with the following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, and Publication
for requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone with video recording
and editing features will also be used for activities that will require you to record videos
for saving and submission.

If you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom will be provided
through your institutional account. An invitation to join the Google Classroom will be sent
to you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional email account, so make sure
to activate your institutional email account. It is equally important that you check your
SLU Student Portal account at least twice a week and turn your Gmail Notifications on in
your mobile phone and computer.

21
If you are a student offline, the delivery of instructions and requirements will be primarily
through express mail correspondence of printed modules and saved digital content on
a USB flash drive. Feedback and clarifications will be facilitated through text messaging
and voice calls; hence, you need to have regular access to a cell phone. If you need to
call, or you want to talk to me, send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do
not give my CP number to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers
that are not registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to
me.

ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

I. Output
You are expected to submit a complete solution to each problem covering each of the
units in the modules. You should also present your complete solutions to problems at the
end of the modules.

II. Rationale
Differential Calculus like any Mathematics subject is a course that requires you to do a lot
of practice. Devoting enough thought to solving the problems in the assignments will help
you understand the necessary details in solving any calculus problem. Understanding
Differential Calculus is crucial to succeeding courses like Integral Calculus and Differential
Equations. As a future engineer, keen understanding of these kinds of detail will develop
in you a solid foundation in the applications in science and engineering fields.

III. Materials
The assignment is available online in the Google Class materials and offline in the saved
electronic files in the USB flash drive and the printed learning materials. You may consult
all your reference materials and notes while solving the problem set. You will also need
clean sheets of short bond paper, pencils, ballpoint pens, and a straight edge rule to
write your solutions and draw the graphs and tables in your own handwriting. All solutions
are to be done with your own handwriting.

IV. Specific Guidelines

● Click on the link to the assignment in our Google Classroom.
● Read all the instructions carefully before starting any of your solutions.
● Write your solutions on clean sheets of bond paper in your own handwriting.
● Organize your solutions in a logical order.
● Avoid erasures.
● For the online submission of your problem set, take a photo of your solutions and
organize it in chronological order in a pdf document saved under the file name
SURNAME, First Name.

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● Submit the pdf file of your solution by uploading it to the online class.

V. Evaluation Tool
The final answers require numerical data to a specific degree of accuracy. Your
assignment will be graded on the accuracy of your answers compared to the correct
numerical values expected.
GRADING SYSTEM
MIDTERM GRADE TENTATIVE FINAL GRADE FINAL GRADE
50% Class Standing 50% Class Standing (0.5* Midterm
50% Midterm Exam 50% Midterm Exam Grade)+(0.5*TFG)

COURSE REFERENCES

Foerster, P. A. (2005). Calculus Concepts and Applications, Key Curriculum

Press, 2005: Calculus Concepts and Applications (Vol. 1).
Leithold, L., & Leithold, L. (1996). The calculus 7. New York: HarperCollins
College Pub.
Rainville, E. D., & Love, C. E. (1966). Differential and integral calculus.
MacMillan.
Stewart, J. (2009). Calculus: Concepts and contexts. Cengage Learning.

VI. Contact Information of the Facilitator

Engr. Caroline Bautista - Moncada

ENGGMATH 2 Course Facilitator

Cellphone : +63917 622 7023

SLU local extension number : Electronics Engineering, loc. 298
Institutional email address : cbmoncada@[Link]
Facebook Messenger : Caroline Bautista

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EnggMath 2: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

LEARNING MODULES

24
MODULE 1
Functions, Limits and Continuity

In this module you will have a review of selected topics from Pre-Calculus, most especially
concepts in functions that are vital to surviving a Calculus course. Then you will learn the
interpretation/meaning of a limit, how to evaluate limits, the definition and evaluation of
one-sided limits, evaluation of infinite limits, evaluation of limits at infinity, continuity and the
Intermediate Value Theorem.

Each module contains several units with its own topic learning outcomes and topic outline.
Each unit contains activities designed using the 5E constructivist model of learning,
developed by Rodger Bybee, specifically for students to understand and comprehend
science. The 5E model provides opportunities for you to engage, explore, explain, elaborate,
and evaluate topics covered in each unit.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 1: Solve problems involving Functions, Limits and Continuity and analyze
results.

Functions

This unit begins with a diagnostic test in Pre-calculus, more specifically in the
discussion of Functions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a. Determine whether a relation is a function.

b. Determine the domain of a function and the range of a function.
c. Determine whether a graph is that of a function by using a vertical line test.

25
d. Find the sum, difference, product, quotient and composition of two
functions
e. Compute functional values for a given value in the domain

Diagnostic Test

1. The graph of a function 𝑓 is given on the right.

(a) State the value of 𝑓(−1).
(b) Estimate the value of 𝑓(2).
(c) For what values of x is 𝑓(𝑥) = 2?
(d) Estimate the values x of such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
(e) State the domain and range of f(x) .

𝑓(2+ℎ)−𝑓(2)
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , evaluate the difference quotient and simplify your answer.
ℎ

3. Find the domain of the following functions:

3
2𝑥+1 √𝑥
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = (b) 𝑔(𝑥) = (c) ℎ(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥 2+𝑥−2 𝑥 2+1

4. Using the same graph of the function in Problem 1, how can you obtain the graphs
of the following without solving?
(a) 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) (b) 𝑦 = 2𝑓(𝑥) − 1 (c) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 3) + 2

5. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = {1 − 𝑥 2 2𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0

(a) Evaluate 𝑓(−2) and 𝑓(1) (b) Sketch the graph of f

6. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3, find each of the following functions.

(a) 𝑓 ° 𝑔 (b) 𝑔 ° 𝑓 (c) 𝑔 ° 𝑔°𝑔

26
The fundamental objects that we deal with in calculus are functions. This chapter prepares
the way for calculus by discussing the basic ideas concerning functions, their graphs, and
ways of transforming and combining them. We stress that a function can be represented in
different ways: by an equation, in a table, by a graph, or in words. We look at the main types
of functions that occur in calculus and describe the process of using these functions as
mathematical models of real-world phenomena.

FUNCTION - it is a rule which establishes a correspondence between two quantities

(dependent and independent variables)

● When two quantities x and y are related so that for some range of values of x, the value
of y is determined by that of x, then we say that y is a function of x.

Notation: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) Read as “y is a function of x” or “ y is

equal to f of x”
Dependent Independent
variable variable

Examples:
- The circumference of a circle is a function of the circle’s radius
- The height reached by a projectile is a function of time
- Keys in the calculator like sine, cosine and tangent are functions of the size of an
angle
- The amount of tax is a function of the size of one’s income

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

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Classification according to value:

(1) ONE/SINGLE-VALUED FUNCTION (2) MANY-VALUED FUNCTION

- For every value of x given, there - For every value of x, there corresponds
corresponds one and only one value two or more values of y
of y Ex. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 3
Ex. y = x+2, if x = 1 then y = 3 If x = 1, then y = ±2

Classification according to how the function is expressed:

(1) EXPLICIT FUNCTION (2) IMPLICIT FUNCTION

- A function is expressed in an equation - A function is expressed in terms of

of the dependent variable in terms of both the dependent and
the independent variable independent variables
- The dependent variable is solved - Notation: y = f(x,y) or F(x,y) = 0
readily in terms of the independent Ex. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 0
variable y = x sin xy
- Notation: y = f(x)
Ex. y = 3 sin x ; y2 = x2 + 1

An equation will be a function if, for any 𝑥 in the domain of the equation (the domain is all
the 𝑥′𝑠 that can be plugged into the equation), the equation will yield exactly one value
of 𝑦 when we evaluate the equation at a specific 𝑥.

Illustrative Example: Determine if each of the following are functions

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
(b) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 1

Solutions:

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
This first one is a function. Given an 𝑥, there is only one way to square it and then add
1 to the result. So, no matter what value of 𝑥 you put into the equation, there is only
one possible value of 𝑦 when we evaluate the equation at that value of 𝑥.

(b) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 1

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The only difference between this equation and the first is that we moved the
exponent off the 𝑥 and onto the 𝑦. This small change is all that is required, in this case,
to change the equation from a function to something that isn’t a function.

To see that this isn’t a function is fairly simple. Choose a value of 𝑥, say 𝑥 = 3 and
substitute this into the equation. So 𝑦 2 = 3 + 1 = 4. Now, there are two possible values
of 𝑦 that we could use here. We could use 𝑦 = 2 or = −2 . Since there are two possible
values of 𝑦 that we get from a single 𝑥 this equation isn’t a function.

VERTICAL LINE TEST

The vertical line test is a method that is used to determine whether a given relation
is a function or not. The approach is rather simple. Draw a vertical line cutting
through the graph of the relation, and then observe the points of intersection.

If a vertical line intersects the graph in all places at exactly one point, then the
relation is a function.

Illustrative Example:

⮚ These are functions

⮚ These are NOT functions

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DOMAIN AND RANGE
One of the more important ideas about functions is that of the domain and range of a
function. In simplest terms the domain of a function is the set of all values that can be
plugged into a function and have the function exist and have a real number for a
value. So, for the domain we need to avoid division by zero, square roots of negative
numbers, logarithms of zero and logarithms of negative numbers, etc. The range of a
function is simply the set of all possible values that a function can take.

The set of all admissible values of x are called the DOMAIN of the function, and the set
of all resulting values of y is called the RANGE of the function.

Illustrative Example: (a) The graph of the function 𝑓 is shown in the figure on the next
page. What are its domain and range?

Answer: We see that is defined when , so the

domain of is the closed interval . Notice that
takes on all values from -2 to 4, so the range
of is

(b) Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1, determine the domain and range.

Answer:
The expression is defined for all real numbers, so the
domain of is the set of all real numbers, which we
denote by . The graph shows that the range is also
.

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OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
Given the two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) :
a) Sum: (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
b) Difference: (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
c) Product: (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
d) Quotient: (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
e) Composition: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

Illustrative Example: Given the two functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

Find: (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) (e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) (f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
(c)(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) (g) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥)
Solutions:
Reminders: Do not forget to always
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) + (𝑥 − 1)
simplify your answers
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 + 𝑥 − 1

= 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4

(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) − (𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 − 𝑥 + 1

= 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2

(c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)

= 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 3

= 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3

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𝑥 2+2𝑥−3
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)
= =𝑥+3
𝑥−1

(e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 2(𝑥 − 1) − 3 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 − 2 − 3

= 𝑥2 − 4

(f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) − 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4

(g) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1) − 1 = 𝑥 − 2

VALUE OF A FUNCTION

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎 ) denotes the value of the function when “a” is substituted
in place of “x”.

Illustrative Example: If (𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 5 , determine 𝑓(2)

Solution: 𝑓(2) = 3(2)4 − (2)2 + 5

𝑓(2) = 49

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 1
Illustrative Example: Compute , if 𝑓(𝑥) =
ℎ 𝑥
1 1
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑥−(𝑥+ℎ) 1 −1
Solution: = 𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
= ∙ =
ℎ ℎ 𝑥(𝑥+ℎ) ℎ 𝑥(𝑥+ℎ)

Watch Video 1 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 1, you will need to practice doing

these on your own. Here are some problems.

EXERCISE PROBLEMS:
1. Which of the four relations shown in the figure represent functions and why?

32
Your answer:

2. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 11 find each of the following:

(a) 𝑓(2)
(b) 𝑓(−10)
(c) 𝑓(𝑡 − 3)
(d) 𝑓(4𝑥 − 1)
3. Given the two functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8

Find: (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) (e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)

(b) (𝑔 − 𝑓)(𝑥) (f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
(c)(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥)

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4. Find the domain and range of each of the following functions
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 3

(b) 𝑔(𝑡) = √4 − 7𝑡
5. Find the domain of the function

● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.

Do the Assignment 1 at the end of Module 1 (Summative

Evaluation #1) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

● For students who are on the online mode, detailed instructions are provided in your
GOOGLE CLASSROOM which will guide you in utilizing learning materials, performing
learning activities, accomplishing requirements, and formatting/ saving reports and
outputs for ONLINE submission.

Limits

The unit we will be examining in this module is that of Limits. This is the first of three major topics
we will be covering in this course. While we will be spending the least amount of time on
limits in comparison to the other two topics, limits are very important in the study of Calculus.
We will be seeing limits in a variety of places once we move out of this unit. In particular we
will see that limits are part of the formal definition of the other two major topics.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) Evaluate the limit of a function, including one-sided and two-sided, using
numerical and algebraic techniques and the properties of limits.

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Listen to the song “Take it to the Limit” by Eagles. Answer the following
questions (in your own words) in not less than 3 sentences for each
question.

What does this song mean to you?

What experiences can you relate to this song?

What does the word “limit” mean to you?

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

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The limit of a function, f is a tool for investigating the behavior of f(x) as x gets closer to
a particular number “a”.

Let us investigate the behavior of a function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 for values

of 𝑥 near 2. The following table gives values of 𝑓(𝑥) for values of x close to 2, but not
equal to 2.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000

1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000

1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000

1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000

1.95 3.852500 1.05 4.152500

1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100

1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025

1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001

From the table and the graph of 𝑓 (a parabola) as shown in the figure, we see that
when 𝑥 is close to 2 (on either side of 2), 𝑓(𝑥) is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we
can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) as close as we like to 4 by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 2.
We express this by saying “the limit of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 as 𝑥 approaches 2
is equal to 4.” The notation for this is

(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2) = 4

In general, we use the following notation:

Read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a

is L” and means that the functional values
of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by
choosing x sufficiently close to a (but not
equal to a)

Roughly speaking, this says that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) tend to get closer and closer to the
number L as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to the number 𝑎 (from either side of 𝑎) but 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎.
(A more precise definition will be given in the next sections.

36
How do we use this definition to help us estimate limits? We do exactly what we did in
the previous illustration. We take 𝑥’s on both sides of 𝑥 = 𝑎 that move in closer and
closer to 𝑎 and we plug these into our function. We then look to see if we can
determine what number the function values are moving in towards and use this as our
estimate.

Illustrative Example: Estimate the value of the following limit

Solution:

Notice that we did say estimate the value of the limit. Again, we are not going to
directly compute limits in this section. The point of this section is to give us a better
idea of how limits work and what they can tell us about the function.
So, with that in mind we are going to work this in pretty much the same way that we
did in the last section. We will choose values of 𝑥 that get closer and closer to 𝑥 = 2
and plug these values into the function. Doing this gives the following table of values.
Note that we made sure and picked
values of 𝑥 that were on both sides of 𝑥 =
2 and that we moved in very close to 𝑥 =
2 to make sure that any trends that we
might be seeing are in fact correct.

Also notice that we can’t actually plug in

𝑥 = 2 into the function as this would give us
a division by zero error. This is not a problem
since the limit doesn’t care what is
happening at the point in question.

From this table it appears that the function is going to 4 as 𝑥 approaches 2, so

37
RIGHT – HAND AND LEFT – HAND LIMITS
RHL : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 LHL : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀
- each x involved is greater than a - x remaining less than a
- the independent variable x approaches - curve is to the left of a
a from the right
- curve is to the right of a

By comparing the definition of limit with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see that
the following is true.

Illustrative Examples: The graph of the function is shown in the figure. Use it to state
the values (if they exist) of the following:

utions:
Solutions: From the graph, we see that the
values of 𝑔(𝑥) approach 3 as 𝑥 approaches 2
from the left, but they approach 1 as 𝑥
approaches 2 from the right. Therefore

38
(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude from the condition
above that 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist. The graph shows that

INFINITE LIMITS

1
Illustrative Example: Find 𝑥 2 if it exists

1 As becomes close to 0, also

𝑥
𝑥2 becomes close to 0, and becomes
±1 1
very large as shown on the table. In
fact, it appears from the graph of
±0.5 4 the function as shown in the Figure
±0.2 25 that the values of can be made
arbitrarily large by taking close
±0.1 100
enough to 0. Thus the values of do
±0.05 400 not approach a number, so does
not exist.
±0.01 10,000

±0.001 1,000,000

To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited in this example, we use the notation
1
=∞
𝑥2

39
The symbol ∞ is not a number, so in this example, this is read as “the limit of the function, as
x approaches zero, is infinity,” or “𝑓(𝑥) becomes infinite as 𝑥 approaches zero,” or “𝑓(𝑥)
increases without bound as 𝑥 approaches zero.”

THEOREMS ON LIMITS
THEOREM 1: The limit of the sum of two (or more) functions is equal to the sum of
their limits
[𝑢(𝑥) ± 𝑣(𝑥)] = 𝑢(𝑥) ± 𝑣(𝑥)

THEOREM 2: The limit of the product of two (or more) functions is equal to the product of
their limits
[𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)] = [𝑢(𝑥) ] [𝑣(𝑥) ]

THEOREM 3: The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits,
provided the limit of the denominator is not zero
𝑢(𝑥) [𝑢(𝑥) ]
[ ]= 𝑖𝑓 [𝑣(𝑥) ] ≠ 0
𝑣(𝑥) [𝑣(𝑥) ]
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
THEOREM 4: If 𝛼 is measured in radians, [ ∝
] = 1

THEOREM 5: The limit of a constant is the constant itself

𝑘 = 𝑘 where k is any constant

THEOREM 6: The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
[𝑘𝑢(𝑥)] = 𝑘𝑢(𝑥) where k is any constant
Illustrative Example. Use the Theorems on Limits and the graphs of the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 in
the figure to evaluate the following limits, if they exist.

Solutions:
(a) From the graphs, we see that

Therefore, we have

40
(b) We see that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. But 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist because the left and right limits are
different

So we cannot use Theorem 2 for the desired limit. But we can use Theorem 2 for
the one-sided limits

The left and right limits are not equal, so [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] does not exist

(c) The graphs show that

Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we cannot use Theorem 3. The given
limit does not exist because the denominator approaches 0 while the numerator
approaches a nonzero number.

Illustrative Example. Evaluate the limits and justify each step

Solutions:

(a)

41
(b)

NOTE: If we let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4, then 𝑓(5) = 39. In other words, we would have gotten the
correct answer in (a) by just substituting 5 for 𝑥. Similarly, direct substitution provides the
correct answer in (b). The functions in the example are polynomial and rational function,
respectively, and similar use of the Theorems on Limits proves that direct sibstitution always
works for such functions. This is known as the direct substitution property.

DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a and will be
studied in Unit 3. However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.

Watch Video 2 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 2, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.

42
1. Explain in your own words what is meant by the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 . Is it possible for this
statement to be true and yet 𝑓(2) = 3? Explain.

2. For the function 𝑓 whose graph is given, state the value

of each quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.

43
3. The graphs of 𝑓and 𝑔 are given. Use them to evaluate each limit, if it exists. If the limit
does not exist, explain why.

44
● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 2 at the end of Module 1 (Summative
Evaluation #2) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

Continuity

We noticed in Unit 2 that the limit of a function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 can often be found simply
by calculating the value of the function at 𝑎. Functions with this property are called
continuous at 𝑎. We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds
closely with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous
process is one that takes place gradually, without interruption or abrupt change.)

LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) Identify and apply the conditions for continuity.
(b) Find points of discontinuity.
(c) Solve application problems.

“CONTINUOUS” is an adjective that describes a function meeting very specific standards. It

is easiest to determine whether or not a function is continuous by looking at its graph.

45
Which of the following functions are continuous? Why do you
think they are continuous?

46
Notice that the definition implicitly requires that these
three conditions are satisfied:
exists – the function is defined, means that
there is no hole there

exists – limit exists at x=a, which means that

the function has intended height

-- the limit is equal to the function value

(the function’s value matches its intended
value)

If any one or more of the conditions is not satisfied, the

function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x=a or to
have a discontinuity at x=a

LIMIT – where the function intends to go

CONTINUITY – guarantees that the function
actually made it there

TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY

(1) MISSING-POINT DISCONTINUITY – occurs when a function contains a hole

0
● Occurs if 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, indeterminate
𝑥 2 +11𝑥+28
Illustrative Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+4
Since x=-4 represents a place where f(x) is undefined, and the 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 , you
know that there is a hole in the function at P(-4,3), a POINT
DISCONTINUITY.

(2) FINITE JUMPS / JUMP DISCONTINUITY

- It may happen that, at x=a, the function has both a
left-hand and a right-hand limit, but the two are not
equal. At such a point, the function has a finite jump.
- Typically caused by a piecewise-defined function
whose pieces do not meet.
Example. 𝑓(𝑥) = {−𝑥 + 3 , 𝑥 < 0 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≥ 0

(3) INFINITE / ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY – occurs when the equation increases

numerically without bound as x approaches a.

47
- Occurs when 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
9𝑥 2−3𝑥−2
Example. 3𝑥 2+13𝑥+4

THEOREM 7. If u(x) and v(x) are both continuous at x=a, it follows that u(x)●v(x) and u(x) +
𝑢(𝑥)
v(x) are continuous at x=a, and that if v(a) ≠ 0, is continuous at x = a.
𝑣(𝑥)

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

THEOREM 8. A polynomial is continuous for all values of x
THEOREM 9. A rational algebraic function is continuous except for those
values of x for which the denominator vanishes.

THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM – a.k.a. Existence Theorem

- The function f(x) is said to be continuous over the closed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 if f(x) is
continuous at every interior point 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 and f(x) has right-hand continuity at x=a and
left-hand continuity at x=b.
- If a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b], then for every real number d
between f(a) and f(b), there exists a c between a and b such that f(c) = d.

SQUEEZE THEOREM – sometimes called Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem,

is illustrated by the figure below.

● If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) when x is near a (except

possibly at a) and 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿 then 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿
- It says that if g(x) is squeezed between f(x) and h(x) near
a, and if f and h have the same limit L at a, then g is
forced to have the same limit L at a.

Watch Video 3 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 3,
you will need to
practice doing these on your own. Here are some problems.

Exercises:
1. The figure below shows a graph of a function 𝑓. At which numbers is 𝑓 f discontinuous?
Why?

48
2. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 3 at the end of Module 1 (Summative
Evaluation #3) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

49
Here are the answers to the Elaborate Exercises in
each of the Units for this module

UNIT 1:
1. Which of the four relations in the figure represent functions and why? A and D
The circle and S-shaped curve are NOT functions because they fail the vertical line
test: You can draw a vertical line somewhere on their graphs that touches the curve
more than once. These two curves also fail the algebraic test: A curve is a function if
for each input value (x) there is at most one output value (y). The circle and S-shaped
curve have some xs that correspond to more than one y so they are not functions.
Note that the reverse is not true: You can have a function where there are two or
more input values (xs) for a single output value (y).

2. (a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

3. (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (5𝑥 + 6) + (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8)

= 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6 + 8

= 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 14

(b) (𝑔 − 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8) − (5𝑥 + 6)

= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8 − 5𝑥 − 6 = 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2
(c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (5𝑥 + 6)(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8)
= 15𝑥 3 − 20𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 18𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 48

= 15𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 + 48
𝑓(𝑥) 5𝑥+6
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥) = =
𝑔(𝑥) 3𝑥 2−4𝑥+8
(e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 5(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8) + 6 = 15𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 46
(f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 3(5𝑥 + 6)2 − 4(5𝑥 + 6) + 8
= 3(25𝑥 2 + 60𝑥 + 36) − 20𝑥 − 24 + 8

= 75𝑥 2 + 180𝑥 + 108 − 20𝑥 − 24 + 8

= 75𝑥 2 + 160𝑥 + 92

4. (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 3

We know that this is a line and that it’s not a horizontal line (because the slope is
5 and not zero). This means that this function can take on any value and so the
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50
range is all real numbers. Using “mathematical” notation this is, Range (−∞, ∞).
This is more generally a polynomial and we know that we can plug any value into
a polynomial and so the domain in this case is also all real numbers or, Domain:
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ or (−∞, ∞).

(b) 𝑔(𝑡) = √4 − 7𝑡

This is a square root and we know that square roots are always positive or zero.
We know then that the range will be, Range: [0, ∞)

For the domain we have a little bit of work to do, but not much. We need to
make sure that we don’t take square roots of any negative numbers, so we
need to require that,

The domain is then,

5. , Okay, with this problem we need to avoid division by zero, so we

need to determine where the denominator is zero which means
solving,

So, these are the only values of x that we need to avoid and so the domain is,

UNIT 2:
1. As 𝑥 approaches 2, 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 5. [Or, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) can be made as
close to 5 as we like by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 2 (but 𝑥 ≠ 2).] Yes, the graph
could have a hole at (2,5) and be defined such that 𝑓(2) = 3.
2. (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist because the limits in part (b) and part (c) are not equal.
(e) 𝑓(3) = 3

3. (a) [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 + 0 = 2

(b) 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist since its left and right hand limits are not equal, so the given
limit does not exist.

51
UNIT 3:
1. It looks as if there is a discontinuity when 𝑎 = 1 because the graph has a break there.
The official reason that 𝑓 is discontinuous at 1 is that 𝑓(1)is not defined. The graph also
has a break when 𝑎 = 3, but the reason for the discontinuity is different. Here 𝑓(3) is
defined, but 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist (because the left and right limits are different). So
𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 3.

What about 𝑎 = 5? Here, 𝑓(5)is defined and 𝑓(𝑥) exists (because the left and right
limits are the same). But
𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(5)

So 𝑓 is discontinuous at 5.

2. (a) Notice that 𝑓(2) is not defined, so 𝑓 is discontinuous at 2.

1
(b) Here 𝑓(0) = 1 is defined but 𝑥 2 does not exist. So 𝑓 is discontinuous at 0.
(c) Here 𝑓(2) = 1 is defined and

exists. But 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(2) so 𝑓 is NOT continuous at 2.

Score: /34 Unit 1 Assignment 1

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. (2
pts each) The graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are given.
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

52
(a) State the values of 𝑓(−4)and 𝑔(3).

(b) For what values of 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)?

(c) Estimate the solution of the equation of 𝑓(𝑥) = −1.

(d) State the domain and range of 𝑓.

(e) State the domain and range of 𝑔.

2. (2 points each) Use the given graphs of 𝑓and 𝑔 to evaluate each expression or explain
why it is undefined.

(a) 𝑓(𝑔(2))

53
(b) 𝑔(𝑓(0))

(d) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(6))

(e) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(−2))

(f) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓(4))

3. (3 points each) In the functions given, f(x) = x3+2x2 ; g(x)=3x2-1

𝑓
Find 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 and state their domains (after the operation)
(a) 𝑓 + 𝑔
Result: Domain:

(b) 𝑓 − 𝑔
Result: Domain:

𝑓 Result: Domain:
(d) 𝑔

Score: /36 Unit 2 Assignment 2

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. (2 pts each) For the function whose graph is given, state

54
the value of each quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist,
explain why.

2. (10 points) Use a table of values to estimate the value of the limit of

55
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

3. (5 points each) Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate
Limit Theorem(s).
(a)

(b)

56
Score: /30 Unit 3 Assignment 3

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. (5 points) If 𝑓 is continuous on (−∞, ∞), what can you say about this graph?

2. (10 points) From the graph of 𝑔 shown, state the intervals on which 𝑔 is continuous.

3. (5 points each) Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that
the function is continuous at the given number 𝑎.
(a)

57
(b)

(c)

58
Score: /100 MODULE 1 QUIZ
TOPIC:
NAME: _________________________________ ID NO. _____________ DATE: _______________ Functions,
Limits and
Continuity
Objective: This activity is designed to assess the student’s ability to solve problems involving Functions, Limits and
Continuity and analyze results Analyze and solve problems involving the expansion of binomials and factoring of
polynomials. (TLO 1)

INSTRUCTIONS: Show COMPLETE solutions on the spaces. Write your FINAL answers on the rectangles
provided. NO ERASURES or SUPERIMPOSITIONS of any sort on the final answers.

A. UNIT 1: FUNCTIONS
𝑓(𝑥+1)
1. (5 points) For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 find 𝑓(𝑥−2)

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
2. (10 points) Compute ℎ
if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

3. (5 points)The area A of a rectangle is length L times its

width W. Express the area of the rectangle as a function
of its width if the perimeter is 2 meters.

59
4. (5 points)The sum of three numbers is S. Let x be the first
number. The second number is thrice the first, and the
third is 5 less than twice the second. Use functional notation
to represent the sum S.

B. UNIT 2: LIMITS
1. (5 points) Estimate the value of the Limit

2. (2 points each) For the function ℎ whose graph is given, state the value of each
quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.

60
3. (5 points each) Evaluate the Limit, if it exists
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

61
C. UNIT 3: CONTINUITY
1. (1 point) Write an equation that expresses the fact that a function 𝑓 is continuous at
the number 4

2. (10 points) Sketch the graph of a function that is continuous everywhere except at 𝑥 =
3 and is continuous from the left at 3.

𝑥 2−1
3. (15 points) Discuss the continuity of 𝑓(𝑥) = (that is, determine if the function is
𝑥−1
continuous or discontinuous using the definition of continuity, provide proof, and
explain where the discontinuity is).

62
MODULE 2
The Derivative and Differentiation

In this module we begin our study of differential calculus, which is concerned with how one
quantity changes in relation to another quantity. The central concept of differential calculus
is the derivative, which is an outgrowth of the velocities and slopes of tangents that we
considered in Pre-calculus and Physics. After learning how to calculate derivatives, we will
use them to solve problems involving rates of change and the approximation of functions.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 2: Solve problems involving the Derivative and Differentiation

63
Differentiation is widely applied in engineering, chemistry, physics, biology and
many other disciplines in science and technology. It is basically a concept that deals
with rate of change. Among other things, it is used to define the slopes of curves, to
calculate the velocities and accelerations of moving objects, to find the firing angle
that gives a cannon its greatest range, and to predict the times when planets will be
closest to each other or farthest apart. In this unit we begin the study of differential
calculus. The central concept of differential calculus is the derivative.

After learning how to calculate derivatives, you will use them to solve problems
involving rates of change. This unit is devoted to (a) the definition of the derivative, or
differentiation from first principles; The next unit will be (b) the rules used to find
derivatives of algebraic and trigonometric functions; (c) problems involving tangent
and normal lines.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a. Demonstrate an understanding of the ﬁrst principles of differentiation
b. Find the derivatives using the Limit function

Which of the lines in the Figure are tangent

to the curve? In your own definition, what is a tangent line? Secant line?

64
The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the
velocity of an object both involve finding the same type of limit. This special type of
limit is called a derivative and we will see that it can be interpreted as a rate of change
in any of the sciences or engineering.

The derivative of y with respect to x is the limit

of the ratio when approaches zero.

∆𝑦
What is ?
∆𝑥

⮚ Given a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) , consider a curve for that function

∆𝑦 – change in y, increment in y
∆𝑥 – change in x, increment in x

● Let the secant line slide down, such

that P2 will coincide with P1, that is, the
secant line now approaches a limit or the
∆𝑦
ratio approaches a limit.
∆𝑥

● As ∆𝑥 approaches zero, P2
approaches P1 or ∆𝑦 as well --- a limit

● The derivative of a function is

therefore,

● Steps in determining the derivative:

(1) Replace x by 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 and y by 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
Illustration:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ----- Eq. 1
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) ----- Eq. 2

65
(2) By subtraction, eliminate y between Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, thus obtaining the formula for ∆𝑦
in terms of x and ∆𝑥
Illustration:
∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) ----- Eq. 3

(3) By some suitable transformation, transform the right member of Eq. 3 into a form which
contains ∆𝑥 explicitly as a factor.

(4) Divide the entire equation by ∆𝑥

Illustration:
∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)− 𝑓(𝑥)
= ----- Eq. 4
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

(5) Determine the limit of Eq. 4 as ∆𝑥 approaches ZERO.

𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦

= = 𝑦′
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Illustrative Example: Determine the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1

Solution:
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 1
∆𝑦 = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 1 − 𝑦 but 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
∆𝑦 = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 1 − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)

∆𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥∆𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2∆𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1

∆𝑦 = 2𝑥∆𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 + 2∆𝑥
∆𝑦
= 2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 + 2
∆𝑥
∆𝑦
= 2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 + 2 = 2𝑥 + 0 + 2
∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑦′ = = 2𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥

A. THE DERIVATIVE AS A SLOPE

Recall: From Analytic Geometry, the equation of a line (slope intercept form) is 𝑦 =
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑚 is the slope of the line. Following the determination of derivatives,

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑏
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66
∆𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑏 − 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑏

∆𝑦 = 𝑚∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 = = is the slope of the tangent line at a certain or
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
particular point on the curve

Illustrative Example: Find the slope of the curve 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 2 at the point (3, −7).
To determine the slope of the tangent
line to the curve, we get the derivative
Tangent line of the curve

P(3,-7)

This is the slope of the

tangent line to the curve at
any given point

𝑑𝑦
= −2 (3) = −6
𝑑𝑥
Therefore, the slope at P(3,-7) or at 𝑥 = 3 is

B. THE DERIVATIVE AS A RATE OF CHANGE

Given a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), let us assign to x an arbitrary increment ∆𝑥 , thus causing in
∆𝑦
y a (positive or negative) change ∆𝑦. The ratio is called the average rate of change
∆𝑥
over the interval ∆𝑥 . If we let ∆𝑥 approach zero, this ratio in general approaches a
limiting value, which is defines as the rate of change of y corresponding to the given
value of x, or the instantaneous rate:

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= = rate of change of y with respect to x
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥

67
Illustrative Example: Find how fast the circumference of a circle increases
when the radius increases.
(a) The formula of the circumference of a circle is 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝐶
Thus, 𝑑𝑟 is the rate of change in the circumference when the radius changes
𝐶 + ∆𝐶 = 2𝜋 (𝑟 + ∆𝑟)
∆𝐶 = 2𝜋 (𝑟 + ∆𝑟) − 𝐶
∆𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋∆𝑟 − 2𝜋𝑟
∆𝐶 = 2𝜋∆𝑟
∆𝐶
= 2𝜋
∆𝑟
∆𝐶 𝑑𝐶
= = 2𝜋 This means that for every unit increase in the radius, there is a
∆𝑟 𝑑𝑟
change in the circumference which is 2𝜋. For instance, if the radius
is increased by 2 units, the circumference is increased by 4 𝜋

Watch Video 4 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 4, you will need to practice

1. Determine the doing these on your own. Here are some
derivatives of the problems.
following functions
(a) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 2)2

68
(b) 𝑦 = √2 − 3𝑥

2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 at the point where 𝑥 = 𝑎

69
● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 4 at the end of Module 2 (Summative
Evaluation #4) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

If it were always necessary to compute derivatives directly from the definition, as we did in
the preceding section, such computations would be tedious and the evaluation of some
limits would require ingenuity. Fortunately, several rules have been developed for finding
derivatives without having to use the definition directly. These formulas greatly simplify the
task of differentiation.

70
REVIEW: Try getting the derivative using the
steps introduced in Unit 1 to see how lengthy solutions are using these
steps for getting the derivative.
𝑦 = 5𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 5 − 15𝑥 3 − 3

DERIVATIVES OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

Let’s start with the simplest of all functions, the CONSTANT function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐. The
graph of this function is the horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑐, which has slope 0, so we must have
𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 (See the figure below). In Leibniz notation, we write this rule as follows.

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POWER FUNCTIONS

We next look at the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a positive integer. If 𝑛 = 1, the

graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, which has slope 1 (see the figure). So

To make this formula more general, we have

Illustrative Example. Differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑥 7

𝑑𝑦
= 7𝑥 6
𝑑𝑥
NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD

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When new functions are formed from old functions by
addition, subtraction, or multiplication by a constant, their
derivatives can be calculated in terms of derivatives of
the old functions. In particular, the following formula says
that the derivative of a constant times a function is the
constant times the derivative of the function.

Illustrative Example.

The next rule tells us that the derivative of a sum of functions is the sum of the derivatives. This
rule can also be extended in difference of functions.

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the Difference Rule can be combined with
the Power Rule to differentiate any polynomial, as the following examples demonstrate

Illustrative Example:

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Illustrative Example: Find the points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 4 where the tangent line is
horizontal

NOTE: Horizontal tangents occur where the derivative is ZERO.

Thus, we have

𝑑𝑦
Thus = 0 if 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 2 − 3 = 0, that is, 𝑥 = ±√3. So
𝑑𝑥
the given curve has horizontal tangents when 𝑥 =
0, √3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − √3. The corresponding points are
(0,4), (√3, −5), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−√3, −5). See the figure on the
right.

Next we need a formula for the derivative of a product of two functions.

Illustrative Example. Find 𝐹′(𝑥) if 𝐹(𝑥) = (6𝑥 3 )(7𝑥 4 )

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The Quotient Rule says that the derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the
derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all
divided by the square of the denominator.

The theorems of this unit show that any polynomial is differentiable on 𝑅 and any rational
function is differentiable on its domain. Furthermore, the Quotient Rule and the other
differentiation formulas enable us to compute the derivative of any rational function.

Illustrative Example.

NOTE: Don’t use the Quotient Rule every time you see a quotient. Sometimes it’s easier to
rewrite a quotient first to put it in a form that is simpler for the purpose of differentiation.
For instance,

although it is possible to differentiate the function using the Quotient Rule, it is much
easier to perform the division first and write the function as

before differentiating.

The Quotient Rule can be used to extend the Power Rule to the case where the exponent
is a negative integer.

Illustrative Examples:

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The differentiation rules enable us to find tangent lines without having to resort to the
definition of a derivative. They also enable us to find normal lines. The normal line to a curve
C at point P is the line through that is perpendicular to the tangent line at P.

Illustrative Example: Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve
at the point (1, ½).

Solution: According to the Quotient Rule, we have

So the slope of the tangent line at (1, ½) is

We use the point-slope form to write an

equation of the tangent line at (1, ½):

The slope of the normal line at (1, ½) is the

negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent
line -1/4, namely 4, so an equation is

76
The curve and its tangent and normal lines are graphed in the figure above.

THE GENERAL POWER FORMULA

If 𝑢 is a function of x, the power rule may be modified such that

Illustrative Example. Differentiate 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 4)2

𝑑𝑢
Solution: In this case, 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 4 𝑛=3 and =3
𝑑𝑥
Therefore,
𝑦 ′ = 2(3𝑥 + 4)2−1 (3) = 6(3𝑥 + 4) 𝑜𝑟 18𝑥 + 24

THE CHAIN RULE

The chain rule tells us how to find the derivative of a composite function. Brush up on your
knowledge of composite functions, and learn how to apply the chain rule correctly.

Illustrative Example. Differentiate ℎ(𝑥) = (5 − 6𝑥)5. Notice that ℎ is a composite function

Because h is composite, we can differentiate it using the chain rule:

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HIGHER DERIVATIVES

The derivative of y with respect to x is itself a function of x, and may in turn be

differentiated.

Notation:
𝑑𝑦
𝑦′ = ---- first derivative of y
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 ----- second derivative of y (rate of change of
𝑦 ′′ = (𝑦 ′ ) = ( )= 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the slope of the graph)
𝑑3𝑦
𝑦 ′′′
= ----- third derivative of y
𝑑𝑦 3
Illustrative Example. Find the second derivative of 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)2
Solution: 𝑦 ′ = 2(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1)
𝑦" = 2[(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(2) + (2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1)] = 2[6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3]
𝑦" = 6[2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1]

78
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

To this point we’ve done quite a few derivatives, but they have all been derivatives
of functions of the form y = f(x). Unfortunately, not all the functions that we’re going
to look at will fall into this form.

Let’s take a look at an example of a function like this.

There are actually two solution methods for this problem.

Solution 1 : This is the simple way of doing the problem. Just solve for y to get the
function in the form that we’re used to dealing with and then differentiate.

So, that’s easy enough to do. However, there are some functions for which this
can’t be done. That’s where the second solution technique comes into play.

Solution 2 : In this case we’re going to leave the function in the form that we were
given and work with it in that form. However, let’s recall from the first part of this
solution that if we could solve for y then we will get y as a function of x. In other words,
if we could solve for y (as we could in this case but won’t always be able to do) we
get y=y(x). Let’s rewrite the equation to note this.

Be careful here and note that when we write y(x) we don’t mean y times x. What we
are noting here is that y is some (probably unknown) function of x. This is important to
recall when doing this solution technique. The next step in this solution is to
differentiate both sides with respect to x as follows,

The right side is easy. It’s just the derivative of a constant. The left side is also easy, but
we’ve got to recognize that we’ve actually got a product here, the x and the y(x).
So, to do the derivative of the left side we’ll need to do the product rule. Doing this
gives,

Now, recall that we have the following notational way of writing the derivative.

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Using this we get the following,

Note that we dropped the (x) on the y as it was only there to remind us that the y was
a function of x and now that we’ve taken the derivative it’s no longer really needed.
We just wanted it in the equation to recognize the product rule when we took the
derivative.

So, let’s now recall just what were we after. We were after the derivative, y′, and
notice that there is now a y′ in the equation. So, to get the derivative all that we need
to do is solve the equation for y′.

There it is. Using the second solution technique this is our answer. This is not what we
got from the first solution however. Or at least it doesn’t look like the same derivative
that we got from the first solution. Recall however, that we really do know what y is
in terms of x and if we plug that in we will get,

which is what we got from the first solution. Regardless of the solution technique
used we should get the same derivative.

The process that we used in the second solution to the previous example is
called implicit differentiation and that is the subject of this section. In the previous
example we were able to just solve for y and avoid implicit differentiation. However,
in the remainder of the examples in this section we either won’t be able to solve
for y or, as we’ll see in one of the examples below, the answer will not be in a form
that we can deal with.
Illustrative Example. Find y’ for

Prior to starting this problem, we stated that we had to do

implicit differentiation here because we couldn’t just
solve for y and yet that’s what we just did. So, why can’t
we use “normal” differentiation here? The problem is the
“±”. With this in the “solution” for y we see that y is in fact
two different functions. Which should we use? Should we
use both? We only want a single function for the

80
derivative and at best we have two functions here. So, in
this example we really are going to need to do implicit
differentiation so we can avoid this.

1. Differentiate the
Watch Video 5 for more examples and explanations following functions:

(a)𝑓(𝑥) = 186.5

2
(b) 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 − 3 𝑡

After watching Video 5, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.

2
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 5

𝑥 2+4𝑥+3
(e) 𝑦 =
√𝑥

81
1. Find the vertex of the parabola 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 by means of the derivative

● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 5 at the end of Module 2 (Summative
Evaluation #5) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

82
Here are the answers to the Elaborate Exercises in
each of the Units for this module

ANSWERS TO UNIT 1

1. (a) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 2)2 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 4
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = [𝑥 + ∆𝑥]4 − 4[𝑥 + ∆𝑥]2 + 4

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 3 + ∆𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥∆𝑥 − 4∆𝑥 2 + 4

∆𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 3 + ∆𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥∆𝑥 − 4∆𝑥 2 + 4 − 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 − 4

∆𝑦 = 4𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 3 + ∆𝑥 4 − 8𝑥∆𝑥 − 4∆𝑥 2

∆𝑦
= 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 − 4∆𝑥
∆𝑥
∆𝑦
= 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 − 4∆𝑥
∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 3 − 8𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(b) 𝑦 = √2 − 3𝑥
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = √2 − 3(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

∆𝑦 = √2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 − √2 − 3𝑥

√2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 + √2 − 3𝑥
∆𝑦 = √2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 − √2 − 3𝑥 ∗
√2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 + √2 − 3𝑥
2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 − 2 + 3𝑥
∆𝑦 =
√2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 + √2 − 3𝑥
3∆𝑥
∆𝑦 =
√2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 + √2 − 3𝑥
∆𝑦 3
=
∆𝑥 √2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 + √2 − 3𝑥
∆𝑦 3
=
∆𝑥 2√2 − 3𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
=
𝑑𝑥 2√2 − 3𝑥
2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 at the point where 𝑥 = 𝑎

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𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 3 + 4(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 − 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)3

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥∆𝑥 + 4∆𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 − 6𝑥∆𝑥 2 − ∆𝑥 3

∆𝑦 = 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥∆𝑥 + 4∆𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 − 6𝑥∆𝑥 2 − ∆𝑥 3 − 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3

∆𝑦 = 8𝑥∆𝑥 + 4∆𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 − 6𝑥∆𝑥 2 − ∆𝑥 3

∆𝑦
= 8𝑥 + 4∆𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥 2
∆𝑥
∆𝑦
= 8𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 = 𝑦 ′ → 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
∆𝑥
Slope at = 𝑎 ,
𝑦 ′ = 8𝑎 − 6𝑎 2

ANSWERS TO UNIT 2
1. (a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

2. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
𝑦 ′ = 8𝑥 − 4 = 0
1
𝑥=
2
1 2 1
So, 𝑦 = 4 (2) − 4 (2) + 3 = 2
1
Therefore: Vertex (h,k) = (2 , 2)
Score: /30 Unit 1 Assignment 4

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NAME: _________________________________ ID NO. _____________ DATE: _______________

1. (10 pts each) Find the derivative of the following functions using the long method
(limits)
1
(a) 𝑥 = 2 𝑡 4 − 5𝑡 − 3

(b) 𝑦 =𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

85
1
2. (10 points) Find the slope of the curve 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 + 1 at the point (− 3 , 0) . Draw the graph of
the curve.

86
Score: /35
Unit 2 Assignment 5

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. (5 points each) Differentiate each of the following functions:

87
(10 points) Find the equation of the tangent line to

88
Score: /80 MODULE 2 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

TOPIC: The Derivative and Differentiation

Objective: This activity is designed to assess the student’s ability to solve problems involving the Derivative and
Differentiation (TLO 2)

INSTRUCTIONS: Show COMPLETE solutions on the spaces. Write your FINAL answers on the rectangles
provided. NO ERASURES or SUPERIMPOSITIONS of any sort on the final answers.

I. (5 pts each) Find the derivatives of the given functions.

89
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

90
II. (10 pts)

91
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92
MODULE 3
BEHAVIOR OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS,
EXTREME FUNCTIONS AND VALUES AND
APPROXIMATION

The translation between formulas and graphs and the interpretation of graphs themselves
are important parts of this course. Graphs often reveal mathematical results simply and
clearly, but graphs do this with “trends” or “shapes,” not just points. Calculus helps you set
the scales, which usually are not so obvious in real applications. Calculus finds formulas for
geometric features of interest. Calculus finds the qualitatively interesting range to plot and
once this is found, the computer can make a quantitatively accurate picture. We begin the
chapter with a look at graphing without knowledge of shape. Then we look at applications
of derivatives in related rate problems and maxima-minima problems.
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93
By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 3: Analyze and solve problems involving Behavior of Functions and their
Graphs, Extreme Functions and Values and Approximation and interpret results.

Plotting points alone is usually a bad way to sketch graphs because that information
alone requires many points to construct a shape and a leap of faith that we have
connected the points correctly. If we have only numerical data, that is all we can do.
Later in this chapter, we will learn to use calculus to tell us shape information, such as
where the graph is increasing or decreasing, so that only a few points are required to
give qualitatively accurate graphs. This first section is about what goes wrong without
this information.

Even with the computer, which will plot 1,000 points if you ask it to, we often can use
calculus to decide what range of values contains the important information. Poor
choice of scales can come up in innocent or simple-minded ways or as a result of
large differences in the size of scientific constants

LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a. Find intervals of increase and decrease and local extreme values of elementary
algebraic functions.
b. Find intervals of concavity and points of inflection of elementary algebraic
functions.
c. Classify local extreme values using the first and second derivative tests.
d. Sketch the graph of algebraic functions by putting together all the
information obtained using derivatives and limits.
e. Find absolute extreme values of a function f. Solve optimizations problems.

Which of the following is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 + 𝑥?

94
Graphs are primarily good for qualitative information rather than quantitative
accuracy. Graphs readily show where quantities are increasing or decreasing but only
give rough approximations to amounts, rates of increase, and so on.

95
The first steps in this discussion are steps in curve tracing in Analytic Geometry. The last
two steps are crucial steps from Calculus.

STEPS IN CURVE TRACING

1. INTERCEPTS. Determine the intercepts.
a.) x-intercept: set y=0, then solve for x
b.) y-intercept: set x=0, then solve for y
2. SYMMETRY. Test for symmetry
The curve is symmetric with respect to a coordinate axis if, for every point
on the curve, there is a corresponding point on the opposite side of the axis.
A curve is symmetric with respect to origin if for every point on the curve, there
is a corresponding image point directly opposite and at equal distance from
the origin.
a.) Symmetric with respect to x-axis: true when the equation is
unchanged if we set y to - y
b.) Symmetric with respect to y-axis: true when the equation is
unchanged if we set x to - x
c.) Symmetric with respect to origin: if both (a) and (b) are satisfied
3. REGIONS/SCOPE. Determine the regions occupied by the curve.
To find out whether the curve lies above or below the x-axis in certain
areas of the plane, solve for y (or y 2) in the equation and note the changes
of sign of the right hand member. Call these areas/ regions and they will be
bounded by light vertical lines through the intersections of the curve with the
x- axis.
4. ASYMPTOTES. Determine if there are asymptotes.
A straight line is said to be an asymptote of a curve if the curve approaches
such a line more and more closely but never really touches it except as a
limiting position at infinity.
Kinds of asymptotes: a) vertical, b) horizontal, c) oblique, d) curvilinear
a.) VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE. For rational expressions, equate the denominators
to zero then solve for the variable

96
b.) HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE. Compare the highest exponent of the variable
in the numerator and denominator.
b.1.) degree of N > degree of D -- no horizontal asymptote
b.2.) degree of N < degree of D -- horizontal asymptote is x-axis (y=0)
b.3.) degree of N = degree of D -- horizontal asymptote is
coefficient of the highest power of x in Numerator
y or y 2 =
coefficient of the highest power of x in Deno min ator

✔ if there is no HA:

OBLIQUE ASYMPTOTE – first degree equation

CURVILINEAR ASYMPTOTE – 2nd degree equation

Equation of OA/CA is obtained by dividing the numerator by

denominator: = Q + (R/g(x))

For intersection between curve and OA/CA, equate R to zero

and solve for x
5. POINT OF INTERSECTION OF HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE AND THE CURVE. Test if
the curve crosses the horizontal asymptote.
Substitute y of the Horizontal asymptote then solve for x.
6. CRITICAL POINTS. Obtain the maximum and minimum points, and point of
inflection

CRITICAL POINTS
Points on the graph of a function where the derivative is zero or
the derivative does not exist are important to consider in many
application problems of the derivative. The point (x, f(x)) is
called a critical point of f(x) if x is in the domain of the function
and either f′(x) = 0 or f′(x) does not exist. The geometric
interpretation of what is taking place at a critical point is that the
tangent line is either horizontal, vertical, or does not exist at that
point on the curve.

a. ) y = f(x)
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97
b.) obtain the first derivative
c.) equate y'=0 then solve for x
d.) substitute x in a to find the critical points of the curve
Note: If 𝑦 ′ > 0, 𝑦 increases
If 𝑦 ′ < 0, 𝑦 decreases

CONCAVITY
CONCAVITY
The second derivative is the rate of change of the first
derivative. It follows that when y” is positive, y’ is increasing;
as x increases, the tangent turns in a counterclockwise sense
and the curve is concave upward. When y” is negative, y’
decreases; the curve is concave downward.

These two facts can be summed up in the diagram

e.) obtain the 2nd derivative to determine slope of the line passing through the
critical points.

e.1.) if y" = + -- minimum point

e.2.) if y" = - -- maximum point
e.3.) if y"=0 --- the test fails (may be points of inflection)

98
POINTS OF INFLECTION
A point of inflection is a point at which the curve changes
from concave upward to concave downward, or vice
versa. At this point, the tangent reverses the sense in which it
turns, which means that y’ changes from an increasing to a
decreasing function, or vice versa. Hence at such point, y”
changes sign and, if it is continuous, must vanish. Conversely,
a point at which y” vanishes is a point of inflection, provided
y” changes sign at that point.
f.) set y" = 0,
then solve for
other Points of inflection, if any.

Watch Video 6 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 6, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
1. Find all critical points of
the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2

99
2. Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥. Remember to choose a suitable scale.

100
● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 6 at the end of Module 3 (Summative
Evaluation #6) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

One of the great powers of calculus is in the determination of the maximum or minimum
value of a function. Take f(x) to be a function of x. Then the value of x for which
the derivative of f(x) with respect to x is equal to zero corresponds to a maximum, a minimum
or an inflexion point of the function f(x). This unit presents applications of derivatives more
particularly on maxima and minima problems or optimization.
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

101
LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a. Demonstrate an understanding of optimization and steps in solving maxima
minima problems
b. Solve optimization problems

Take a
piece of

rectangular cardboard, with dimensions 20 cm by 30 cm. If you cut out a square

from each corner, and fold up the sides, you’ll get a box with no top (see figures
below). So without doing any calculations, try your best to decide how big a
square to chop off from the four corners to maximize your box’s volume. Create
your box (tape the edges together), take a picture (attach it here) and record the
dimensions of the box.
a. Length (in cms): _____________
b. Width (in cms): ______________
c. Height (in cms):______________
d. Volume (in cu. Cms): ________

MAXIMA / MINIMA PROBLEMS

102
One of the great powers of calculus is in the determination of the maximum or minimum
value of a function.

Three Methods of Determining the Maximum and Minimum of Functions

1. Graphical Method
2. Evaluating quadratic equations
3. Derivatives

Take f(x) to be a function of x. Then the value of x for which the derivative of f(x) with respect
to x is equal to zero corresponds to a maximum, a minimum or an inflection point of the
function f(x).

The second derivative demonstrates whether a point with zero first derivative is a
maximum, a minimum, or an inflection point.

For a maximum, the For a minimum, the For an inflection

second derivative is second derivative is point, the second
negative. The slope positive. The slope derivative is zero at
of the curve (first of the curve (first the same time the
derivative) is at first derivative) is at first first derivative is
positive, then goes negative, then zero. It represents a
through zero to goes through zero point where the
become negative. to become curvature is
positive. changing its sense.
Inflection points are
relatively rare in
nature.

103
GUIDELINES IN SOLVING MAXIMA/MINIMA PROBLEMS:

1. Determine the quantity to be maximized or minimized and represent this by a

variable
2. Form an equation for the quantity in terms of a single variable
3. Differentiate the function and equate it to zero
4. Solve the value of the variable
5. Use it to solve for what is required in the problem
6. Verify if the quantity is indeed a maximum or minimum

Illustrative Example: The sum of two positive numbers is 14. What are these numbers if their
product is a maximum?

Solution:

104
Illustrative Example. What number exceeds its square by the maximum amount?
Solution:

Illustrative Example. A box is to be made of a piece of cardboard 9 inches square by

cutting equal squares out of the corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the
largest box that can be made in this way.

105
Watch Video 7 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 7, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.

1. What positive
number added to
its reciprocal gives
the minimum sum?

106
2. Find two numbers whose sum is a, if the product of the square of one by the cube of
the other is to be a maximum.

3. Find the most economical proportions of a quart can.

107
● Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 7 at the end of Module 3 (Summative
Evaluation #7) which will contain questions on topics covered in
this unit.

We have seen that for quantities that are changing over time, the rates at which these
quantities change are given by derivatives. If two related quantities are changing over time,
the rates at which the quantities change are related. For example, if a balloon is being filled
with air, both the radius of the balloon and the volume of the balloon are increasing. In this
section, we consider several problems in which two or more related quantities are changing
and we study how to determine the relationship between the rates of change of these
quantities. In this unit, we are going to look at another application of derivatives – time rates
or related rates.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(a) Express changing quantities in terms of derivatives.

(b) Find relationships among the derivatives in a given problem.
(c) Use the chain rule to find the rate of change of one quantity that depends
on the rate of change of other quantities.

108
Take a can of soda or any canned drink and a
straw. Time yourself. How fast can you finish the soda using a regular
drinking straw? Would you have finished it sooner without the straw?

TIME TO FINISH (using straw) : _________________

TIME TO FINISH (without the straw): ____________

TIME RATES / RELATED RATES

If a quantity x is a function of time t, the time rate of change of x is given by dx/dt.

When two or more quantities, all functions of t, are related by an equation, the relation
between their rates of change may be obtained by differentiating both sides of the
equation with respect to t.

BASIC TIME RATES

109
GUIDELINES IN SOLVING TIME RATE PROBLEMS
Define the variables involved in the problem
Write down the given facts
Identify what is required
Form an equation involving the variables defined and which is true for
any time, t.
Differentiate with respect to time t.
Substitute values and solve for what is required.

Illustrative Example: Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank at the rate of 24 cu. ft.
per min. If the radius of the tank is 4 ft., how fast is the surface rising?

Solution:

Illustrative Example. A triangular trough is 10 ft. long, 6 ft. across the top, and 3 ft. deep. If
water flows in at a rate of 12 cu. ft. per min., find how fast the surface is rising when the
water is 6 in. deep.

110
Illustrative Example. A ladder 20 ft. long leans against a vertical wall. If the top slides
downward at the rate of 2 ft. per sec., find how fast the lower end is moving when it is
16 ft. from the wall

Watch Video 8 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 8, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.

1. Air is being pumped

into a spherical

111
balloon at a rate of 5 cm3/min. Determine the rate at which the radius of the balloon
is increasing when the diameter of the balloon is 20 cm.

2. A tank of water in the shape of a cone is leaking water at a constant rate

of 2ft3/hour2ft3/hour. The base radius of the tank is 5 ft and the height of the tank is
14 ft.
(a) At what rate is the depth of the water in the tank changing when the depth of
the water is 6 ft?
(b) At what rate is the radius of the top of the water in the tank changing
when the depth of the water is 6 ft?

112
Here are the answers to the Elaborate Exercises in
each of the Units for this module

ANSWERS TO UNIT 1

113
1.

ANSWERS TO UNIT 2

114
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115
ANSWERS TO UNIT 3

116
2.

(a) At what rate is the depth of the water in the tank changing when the depth of
the water is 6 ft?

(b) At what rate is the radius of the top of the water in the tank changing when the
depth of the water is 6 ft?

117
Score: /35 Unit 1 Assignment 6

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. (15 pts) Sketch the curve: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2

118
2. Find the equation of the tangent and normal line of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
(20 pts)
√2𝑥 − 1 at the point (5, 3).

119
Score: /20
Unit 2 Assignment 7

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. (10 points) A page is to contain 24 sq. in. of print. The margins at top and bottom are
1.5 in., at the sides 1 in. Find the most economical dimensions of the page.

120
2. (10 points) A rectangular lot is bounded at the back by a river. No fence is needed
along the river and there is to be 24-ft opening in front. If the fence along the front
costs $1.50 per foot, along the sides $1 per foot, find the dimensions of the largest lot
which can be thus fenced in for $300.

121
Score: /100
MODULE 3 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

TOPIC: The Derivative and Differentiation

Objective: This activity is designed to assess the student’s ability to Analyze and solve problems involving
Behavior of Functions and their Graphs, Extreme Functions and Values and Approximation and interpret results.
(TLO 3)

INSTRUCTIONS: Show COMPLETE solutions on the spaces. Write your FINAL answers on the rectangles
provided. NO ERASURES or SUPERIMPOSITIONS of any sort on the final answers.

𝑥
1. (20 points) Sketch the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥−1)2

122
2. (20 points) Findthe equation of the tangent and normal line of the function 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 +
𝑥 4 = 5 at the point (1, 1).

123
3. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle.
(10 points)
What shape gives the most light for the given perimeter of 30 ft?

4. (10 points) A man on an island 12 miles south of a straight beach wishes to reach a
point on shore 20 miles east. If a motorboat, making 20 miles per hour, can be hired
at the rate of $2.00 per hour for the time it is actually used, and the cost of land
transportation is $0.06 per mile, how much must he pay for the trip?

124
5. A first class radio-telephone operator wishes to cut the wire 100 meters long
(10 points)
into two pieces. One of the pieces will be bent into the shape of a square and the
other into the shape of a circle. Where should he cut the wire so that the sum of the
areas of the square and circle is maximized? Express your answers in terms of the
length of the wire to be bent into the shape of a circle.

6. A girl is using a straw to drink coke from a right cylindrical glass at a rate of
(10 points)
6 cubic centimeters per second. If the height of the glass is 12 centimeters and the
diameter is 6 centimeters, how fast is the level of the coke falling at a constant rate?

125
7. A man on a wharf is 12 meters above the level of water is pulling a rope
(10 points)
tied to a boat at a rate of 2 meters per minute. How fast is the boat approaching
the wharf when there are 20 meters of rope out?

8. (10 points) A man 167.68 centimeters tall .is walking directly away from a lamp post
fronting a building at the rate of 91.46 centimeters per second. If the lamp is 8
meters above the ground, find
a. The rate at which his shadow is lengthening
b. The rate at which the tip of the shadow is moving

126
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127
Score: /150 MIDTERM EXAM

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

Objective: This EXAM is designed to assess the student’s ability to

TLO1: solve problems involving Functions, Limits and Continuity and analyze results Analyze and solve problems
involving the expansion of binomials and factoring of polynomials.
TLO2: solve problems involving the Derivative and Differentiation
TLO3: analyze and solve problems involving Behavior of Functions and their Graphs, Extreme Functions and Values
and Approximation and interpret results.

INSTRUCTIONS: Show COMPLETE solutions on separate sheets of papers. Write your FINAL answers on
the rectangles provided. NO ERASURES or SUPERIMPOSITIONS of any sort on the final answers.

PART A. LIMITS of a FUNCTION

Evaluate the following limits.
x2 − 4
limx →2
1. x−2
x2 + 9 − 3
limx →0
2. x2
2− x
limx →4
3. 4−x
x − cos x
limx →
4. x

PART B. FUNCTIONS
Evaluate the following functions and determine what is being asked.
x 3 − x 2 − 8x + 12
f (x) =
5. If x 3 − 2x 2 − 4 x + 8 , find f ( a + 2 )

6. If
f ( x ) = −2x3 + ax2 + 2 and f ( 2) = 2a , find a .
f 2 = 3 , g (3) = 2 , f (3) = 4 , and g ( 2) = 5 , find f ( f g )( 3 )  .
7. If ( )

PART C. DERIVATIVES of ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

dy
Determine dx or y  of the following functions in terms of x.

128
−2 1 −3
8. y = 5x 5
+ 3x 3
+ 14 x 7

( ) ( 3x − 2 )
5 −11
y = x2 + 1 3
9.
2x 2 − 3
y=
(x + 4)
2

10.

11. y = 1 − x + 1 − x

PART D. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS, CHAIN RULE and HIGHER DERIVATIVES

dy y y −5
3xy 2 + 4 − 2 = 11
12. Evaluate dx from the equation x 2x − 1 when x = 1
dy
13. Evaluate dx when t = 7 .
y = 2z2 − 3z + 5
x = 4 t3 + t
t = z2 + z + 1
2
d3 y 1 3 1 3  1
x + y = 
14. Evaluate y  or dx 3
of the function 3 3  3  when x = 0.

PART E. MAXIMA-MINIMA and RELATED RATE APPLICATIONS

1. At noon, ship A is 20 kilometers north of Ship B. Ship A is traveling south at 50
kilometers per hour, and ship B is traveling east at 40 kilometers per hour. If visibility is
10 kilometers, could the people on the two ships ever see each other?

2. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in an isosceles
triangle if one side of the rectangle lies on the base of the triangle.

3. A stone dropped into a still pond sends out a circular ripple whose radius increases
at a constant rate of 2 meters per second. How rapidly is the area enclosed by the
ripple increasing at the end of 20 seconds?

4. The radius of a sphere is increasing at the rate of 2 meters per second. Find the rate
of change of the volume with respect to time t when r=4 meters.

5. The area of an equilateral triangle is decreasing at a rate of 4 sq. cm. per minute.
Find the rate at which the length of a side is changing when the area of the triangle
is 100 sq. cm.

129
MODULE 4
Derivatives of Trigonometric, Inverse
Trigonometric, Logarithmic, Exponential, and
Hyperbolic Functions

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 4: Solve problems involving Logarithmic, Exponential, Inverse Trigonometric,
and Hyperbolic Functions

Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric

Functions

This unit begins with a recall of Trigonometric Identities learned in Pre-Calculus. With
this unit we are going to start looking at the derivatives of functions other than
polynomials or roots of polynomials. We’ll start this process off by taking a look at the
derivatives of the six trigonometric functions. Two of the derivatives will be derived.
The remaining four are left to you and will follow similar proofs for the two given here.
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130
LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a. Memorize the derivatives of the six basic trigonometric functions and be able
to apply them in conjunction with other differentiation rules.
b. Calculate the derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
c. Apply the derivatives of trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions to
solving worded problems

Write all Trigonometric Identities you remember from Pre-Calculus (no

opening of any material / notes). How many identities do you remember?

DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Trigonometric identities and formulas are basic requirements for this section. If u is a function
of x, then

131
DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In the formula below, u is any function of x.

132
Illustrative Examples for Trigonometric Functions. Differentiate each of the following
functions

133
(e) (#1 page 120) 𝑦 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥
𝑑
𝑦 ′ =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 (3𝑥) = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥

(f) (#5 page 120) 𝑦 =𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 5𝑥

𝑑
𝑦 ′ = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (5𝑥) (5𝑥) = −5 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (5𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

(g) (#9 page 120) 𝑤 = 2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (1 − 3𝑥)

𝑑
𝑤 ′ = −2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (1 − 3𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (1 − 3𝑥) (1 − 3𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑤 ′ = −2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (1 − 3𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (1 − 3𝑥) (−3)
𝑤 ′ = 6 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (1 − 3𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (1 − 3𝑥) (−3)

Illustrative Examples for Inverse Trigonometric Functions. Differentiate each of the following
functions

1. (#1 page 136) 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥

134
4 4
𝑦′ = = √1−16𝑥 2
√1−(4𝑥)2

𝑥
2. (#3 page 136) 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎
𝑑 𝑥 1
(𝑎 ) 𝑎
𝑦′ = 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑎 = 2
𝑥 2 𝑎 +𝑥 2 𝑎 + 𝑥2
1 + (𝑎 ) 2
𝑎

3. (#5 page 136) 𝑓(𝜔) = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (1 + 4𝜔)

𝑑
(1 + 4𝜔) 4 4
𝑓 ′ (𝜔)
= 𝑑𝑥 = =
1 + (1 + 4𝜔)2 1 + (1 + 8𝜔 + 16𝜔 2 ) 2 + 8𝜔 + 16𝜔 2
2
𝑓 ′ (𝜔) =
1 + 4𝜔 + 8𝜔 2

4. (#7 page 136) 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑡 2 )

2𝑡
𝑦′ =
1+𝑡 4

5. (#16 page 136) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 4𝑥 ---🡪 applying derivative of a product

4 4𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 4𝑥 (1) = + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 4𝑥
1 + 16𝑥 2 1 + 16𝑥 2

6. (#21 page 136) 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥

1
𝑦 ′ = (1 + 𝑥 2 ) + (𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) (2𝑥) − 1 = 2𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2

1
7. (#23 page 136) 𝑦 = √𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ---🡪 this can be written as 𝑦 = (𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)2
𝑑
1 −2
1 (𝑥) 1
𝑦′ = 2 (𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
=
√1−(𝑥)2 2 √1−𝑥 2 √𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

8. (#25 page 136) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)√2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 1)

1 1 1
𝑦 ′ = (𝑥 − 1) ( ) (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )− 2 (2 − 2𝑥) + √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +
2 √1 − (𝑥 − 1)2

135
−(𝑥 − 1)2 1
𝑦′ = + √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +
√2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 √1 − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)

−(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) 1
𝑦′ = + √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +
√2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2

2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑦′ = + √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
√2𝑥 − 𝑥2

2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 2(2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑦′ = = =
√2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝑦 ′ = 2 √2𝑥 − 𝑥 2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

(MAXIMA-MINIMA PROBLEMS)

Many problems in application of maxima and minima may be solved easily by making use of
trigonometric functions. The basic idea is the same; identify the constant terms and identify
the variable to be maximized or minimized, differentiate that variable then equate to zero.

Example 1. (#1 page 124) Find the shape of the rectangle of maximum perimeter inscribed
in a circle.

136
Example 2. (#6 page 125) A trapezoidal
gutter is to be made, from a strip of metal 22
inches wide by bending up the edges. If the
base is 14 inches wide, what width across the
top gives the greatest carrying capacity?

Example 3. (#10 page 125) Find the largest conical tent that can be constructed having a
given slant height.

137
Example 4. (#14 page 125) A wall 10 ft. high is 8 ft. from the house. Find the length of the
shortest ladder that will reach the house, when one end rests on the ground outside the wall.

138
Example 5. (#19 page 125) A man on an island a miles south
of a straight beach wishes to reach a point on shore b miles
east of his present position. If he can row r miles per hour and
walk w miles per hour, in what direction should he row, to
reach his destination as soon as possible? See Fig. 57.

139
Example 6. (#22 page 125)
A sphere of radius a is dropped into a conical vessel full of water. Find the altitude of the
smallest cone that will permit the sphere to be entirely submerged.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

140
Example 7. (#37 page 137) A ladder 15 ft. long leans against a vertical wall. If the top slides
down at 2 ft./sec, how fast is the angle of elevation of the ladder decreasing, when the lower
end is 12 ft. from the wall?

A possible solution:

Another possible solution:

141
Example 8. (#39 page 137) A
balloon, leaving the ground
60 ft from an observer, rises 10
ft/sec. How fast is the angle
of elevation of the line of
sight increasing, after 8
seconds?

Example 9. (#45 page 138) A kite is 60 ft high with 100 ft of cord out. If the kite is moving
horizontally 4 mi/hr directly away from the boy flying it, find the rate of change of the angle
of elevation of the cord.

A possible solution:

142
Another possible solution:

143
Example 10. (#46 page 138) A ship, moving at 8 mi/hr, sails east for 2 hr, then turns N 30° W. A
searchlight, placed at the starting point, follows the ship. Find how fast the light is rotating, (a)
3 hr after the start; (b) just after the turn.

144
Example 11. (#55
page 138) The
lower edge of the picture is a ft, the upper edge is b ft, above the eye of an observer. At
what horizontal distance should he stand, if the vertical angle subtended by the picture is to
be greatest?

145
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146
Watch Video 9, 10 & 11 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 9, 10 &11 , you will need to

practice doing these on your own. Here are some
problems. The answers have also been provided
here already.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS Differentiate the following functions:

Answer.

Answer:

Answer

147
3
6. 𝑣 = (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑦)2
Answer:

𝑣 ′ = 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑦

7. A piece of pipe is being carried down a hallway that is 10 feet wide. At the end of the
hallway the there is a right-angled turn and the hallway narrows down to 8 feet wide.
What is the longest pipe that can be carried (always keeping it horizontal) around the turn
in the hallway?
Answer: 25.4033 feet

Logarithmic, Exponential and Hyperbolic

Functions

The next set of functions that we want to take a look at are exponential and logarithm
functions. The most common exponential and logarithm functions in a calculus course are
the natural exponential function, 𝑒 𝑥 , and the natural logarithm function, 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥) . Then we
look at higher functions such as the hyperbolic functions.

Derivative of a Logarithm

Where M = modulus = 0.43429

Illustrative Examples: Find the derivatives of the following:

148
Example 1: (#1 page 151) 𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (7 − 3𝑥)
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 7 − 3𝑥 ; = −3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −3
=
𝑑𝑥 7 − 3𝑥
Example 2: (#8 page 151) 𝜃 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4∅
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4∅ ; = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4∅
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝜃 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4∅
= = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4∅
𝑑∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4∅

𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑥
Example 3. (#11/151) 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ; = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑦 𝑀 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑎

1
Example 4. (#13/151) 𝑤 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑢 = (𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 )2 ;
𝑑𝑢 1 2 1 1
= (𝑎 − 𝑥 2 )− 2 (−2𝑥) = −𝑥 (𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 )− 2
𝑑𝑥 2

1
𝑑𝑤 −𝑥(𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 )− 2 −𝑥
= 1 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑥2
2
(𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 )2

4𝑡−1
Example 5: (#17 page 151) 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 4𝑡+1
4𝑡−1 𝑑𝑢 (4𝑡+1)(4)− (4𝑡−1)(4) 8
𝑢= = (4𝑡+1)2
= (4𝑡+1)2
4𝑡+1 𝑑𝑡
8
𝑑𝑦 𝑀[ ] 8𝑀 4𝑡+1 8𝑀
(4𝑡+1)2
= 4𝑡−1 = (4𝑡+1)2
∗ =
𝑑𝑡 4𝑡−1 16𝑡 2 −1
4𝑡+1

Example 6: (#21 page 152) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1) --- using product rule

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 3
= 𝑥3 (3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1) + (3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 3 ( ) + 3𝑥 2 (3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
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149
= 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 (3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1) = 3𝑥 2 (1 + 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1) = 3𝑥 2 (3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) = 9𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

DERIVATIVE OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

A. Derivative of a Constant with Variable Exponent

2
Example 7. 𝑦 = 5 𝑥
𝑎=5 ; 𝑢 = 𝑥2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥
2
𝑦 ′ = 5𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 5 (2𝑥)
2
= 2𝑥 (5𝑥 ) 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 5

Example 8. 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑎=2 ; 𝑢 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝑦 ′ = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 2 (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = −(𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 2 ) (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Example 9: (#5 page 154) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 --- using product rule

𝑑 𝑑
𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 [ 𝑒 −2𝑥 ] + 𝑒 −2𝑥 [ 𝑥] = 𝑥[−2𝑒 −2𝑥 ] + 𝑒 −2𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 10: (#7 page 154) 𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑒 2𝑥 + 2)

𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑒 2𝑥

2𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦′ =
𝑒 2𝑥 + 2

B. Derivative of a Variable with Variable Exponent

𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 where 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥)

Rule: Take the logarithm of both sides of the expression to bring down the exponent,
applying the property of logarithm,
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ; 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
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150
Example 11. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑥

𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 [1] +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 (1)
𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 1 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑦
𝑑𝑦
= (1 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )𝑦
𝑑𝑥

But 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 , therefore,
𝑦 ′ = (1 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) 𝑥 𝑥

Example 12: (#52 page 155) 𝑦 = (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )𝑥

𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 [ 𝑑 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) ] +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) [ 𝑑 𝑥]
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦
= {𝑥 [ 𝑥 ] +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )(1) } ∗ 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= [ +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) ] ∗ (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )
= [ ] ∗ (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

151
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )𝑥−1 [1 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) ]
𝑑𝑥

Example 13: (#53 page 157) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )2

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
= ∗ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑙𝑛 𝑥 −1 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The last set of functions that we are going to be looking at in this module are the hyperbolic
functions. In many physical situations combinations of e x and e-x arise fairly often. Because of
this, these combinations are given names. There are six hyperbolic functions and they are
defined as follows.

Here are the graphs of the three main hyperbolic functions.

152
We also have the following facts about the hyperbolic functions.

You’ll note that these are similar, but not quite the same, to some of the more common
trigonometric identities so be careful to not confuse the identities here with those of the
standard trigonometric functions.

Because the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential functions finding their
derivatives is fairly simple provided you already understood the derivatives of exponential
functions. Recalling this formula

With this formula we’ll do the derivative for hyperbolic sine and leave the rest to you as an
exercise.

For the rest we can either use the definition of the hyperbolic function and/or the quotient
rule. Here are all six derivatives.

153
Illustrative Examples. Differentiate each of the following functions:

Applying the product rule

Applying the quotient rule

Watch Video 12 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 12, you will need to practice

Practice Problems:
doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
The answers have also been provided here already.

154
Solutions:

Practice Problems for Hyperbolic Functions

155
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156
Score: /150
MODULE 4 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

I. DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC AND INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. Find dy/dx,

1. 𝑦 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1)

2. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝑥 − 1)

3. 𝑦 =𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 √𝑥 2 − 1

4. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃

5. 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 (𝑥 3 )

157
2𝑥−1
6. 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3𝑥+1)

II. APPLICATIONS. Solve the following problems COMPLETELY. Provide illustrations for each
problem.

1. A gutter having triangular cross-section is to be made by bending a strip of tin in the

middle. Find the angle between the sides when the carrying capacity is a maximum.

2. A balloon leaving the ground 60 ft. from an observer, rises 10 ft/sec. How fast is the
angle of elevation of the line of sight increasing after 8 seconds?

158
MODULE 5
Parametric Equations and Motion

In this module you will be introduced to more differentiation formulas which are vital to
surviving a Calculus course. Moreover, you will see more applications to worded problems
that will involve Parametric Equations and Motion. There are also a great many curves out
there that we cannot even write down as a single equation in terms of only x and y. So, to
deal with some of these problems we introduce parametric equations. This module will teach
you how to solve parametric equation problems and motion problems.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 5: Solve problems involving Parametric Equations and Motion and interpret
results

Recall the Projectile Motion equations you have learned in Physics. How do
these equations differ from previously learned equations?

159
DERIVATIVES OF PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS
In both pure and applied mathematics, a curve often arises most naturally as the locus of
points whose coordinates are determined by two equations:

𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)

Let f and g be two functions in terms of a third variable t, in a common domain D. The
equations x=f(t) and y=g(t) are PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS. The variable t is then called the
PARAMETER.

1. To find the derivatives of parametric equations, first we obtain the derivatives of x and
of y, with respect to t. Then find the ratio of dy/dx. These ratio now is a function of t.
Hence,
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑓′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= = 𝑑𝑡 = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑔′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

2. To find the second derivative, we need to use the formula for the derivative of a function
of a function. Thus, we find the derivative of the first derivative with respect to t then
multiply the result by dt/dx. Hence,

𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑡
= ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
Illustrative Examples: Find and from 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 + 4 and 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑡 − 3 = 2𝑡 + 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 2𝑡+4
= ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = (1st derivative)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2𝑡−3

𝑑 𝑢 𝑣𝑑𝑢−𝑢𝑑𝑣
2nd derivative: ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

𝑢 = 2𝑡 + 4 𝑣 = 2𝑡 − 3
𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑣 = 2

160
𝑑 2 𝑦 (2𝑡 − 3)(2) − (2𝑡 + 4)(2) 1 −14
2 = 2 ∙ =
𝑑𝑥 (2𝑡 − 3) (2𝑡 − 3) (2𝑡 − 3)3

Illustrative Examples : (from the book page 160, by Love and Rainville) Obtain the first and
second derivatives of the following
1
] 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4𝑡 − 3
160
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑡 =4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 4 2
1st: = ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑡 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑡

−2 1 1
2nd: 𝑦” = ( 𝑡 2 ) (2𝑡) = − 𝑡 3

3
] 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡
160
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑡 2 = 2𝑡 + 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2𝑡 + 1
𝑦′ =
3𝑡 2

𝑢 = 2𝑡 + 1 𝑣 = 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑣 = 6𝑡

3𝑡 2 (2) − (2𝑡 + 1)(6𝑡) 1 6𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 − 6𝑡 −6𝑡 2 − 6𝑡

𝑦" = ∙ 2= =
9𝑡 4 3𝑡 27𝑡 6 27𝑡 6
−6𝑡(𝑡 + 1) −2(𝑡 + 1)
𝑦" = =
27𝑡 6 9𝑡 5

5 1
] 𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 1
160 𝑡2

𝑑𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑦
= = 2𝑡 − 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑡3 𝑑𝑡

𝑡3 2(𝑡 − 2)𝑡 3
𝑦 ′ = (2𝑡 − 4) ( ) = = −𝑡 3 (𝑡 − 2)
−2 −2
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161
𝑡3 𝑡3
𝑦" = [(−𝑡 3 )(1) + (𝑡 − 2)(−3𝑡 2 )] [ ] = (−𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 2 ) ( )
−2 −2

𝑡3 2(−2𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 )𝑡 3
𝑦" = (−4𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 2 ) ( ) = = −𝑡 5 (−2𝑡 + 3)
−2 −2

𝑦" = 𝑡 5 (2𝑡 − 3)

CURVE TRACING: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

A curve may be drawn by plotting points directly from its parametric equations, assigning
suitable values to the parameter and computing corresponding values of x and y. The curve
may be drawn by eliminating the parameter and then tracing the locus of the rectangular
equation by our usual methods. Sometimes it is desirable to combine these two techniques.

Consider the curve:

𝑥 = 𝑡 3 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4𝑡 2 − 4𝑡

As a mild variation from the previous examples, let us employ differentials.

𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑦 = (8𝑡 − 4)𝑑𝑡 = 4(2𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 4(2𝑡−1)
Then 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑡 2

8(1−𝑡)
And 𝑦" = 9𝑡 5

For a critical point we must have 𝑦 ′ = 0. Hence, equating y’=0

4(2𝑡 − 1)
=0
3𝑡 2
4(2𝑡 − 1) = 0

8𝑡 − 4 = 0

8𝑡 = 4
1
𝑡=
2
1 9 9
So if 𝑡 = 2, then 𝑥 = 8 and 𝑦 = −1 and 𝑦" is positive. Therefore the point (8 , −1) is a minimum
point.
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162
Let us set 𝑦" = 0. Then,
8(1 − 𝑡)
0=
9𝑡 5
0 = 8(1 − 𝑡)

0 = 8 − 8𝑡

𝑡=1
4
Which leads 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 ′ = 3. It follows that (2,0) is a point of inflection and that the
4
inflectional tangent has a slope of , as shown in Figure 1.
3

From the sign of the second derivative we obtain the direction of concavity of the curve.
The results are:

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0, 𝑦" < 0, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑡 < 1, 𝑦" > 0, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 1, 𝑦" < 0, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

163
Steps on how to plot given a pair of parametric equations

3. Construct a table with three constants: t, x(t) and y(t)

4. Evaluate x and y for values of t over the interval for which the functions are defined.
5. Plot the resulting pairs (x, y).

Example: Sketch the graph of the parametric equations 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 + 1, 𝑦(𝑡) = 2 + 𝑡

Solution:

164
Analysis of the solution:

As values for t progress in a positive direction from 0 to 5, the plotted points trace out the top
half of the parabola. As values of t become negative, they trace out the lower half of the
parabola. There are no restrictions on the domain. The arrows indicate direction according
to increasing values of t. The graph does not represent a function, as it will fail the vertical
line test. The graph is drawn in two parts: the positive values for t, and the negative values
for t.

THE PROBLEM OF THE MOVING POINT

As an important application of parametric representation we cite the following problem of

mechanics. When a point moves in a plane curve under the action of a given force or
system of forces, an especially convenient way of studying the motion is to express the
rectangular coordinates of the point as functions of the time t. The equations giving x and y
in terms of t are parametric equations of the path.

RECTILINEAR MOTION

165
Consider a point P moving in a straight line. Choose as origin any convenient fixed point in
the line of motion, and denote the distance OP by x, positive on one side of O, negative on
the other. The velocity at any instant is defined

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
i.e., velocity is time rate of change of distance, measured from a fixed point in the line of
motion

When the velocity is constant, the motion is said to be uniform, and the distance covered in
any time is merely proportional to the time. When the velocity changes from instant to
instant, the motion is accelerated.
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
i.e., acceleration is time-rate of change of velocity. Since by chain rule
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
= ∙ =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
or
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣
𝑑𝑥
When a particle of mass m moves with an acceleration a, the motion is said to be due to
the action of force. Force is define as the product of mass by acceleration.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

If there is no force acting (or if all the forces balance), the particle is equilibrium. A particle
in equilibrium is either at rest or moving uniformly in a straight line.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚 = 𝑚 2 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

Watch Video 13 for more examples and explanations

166
After watching Video 13 , you will need to practice
doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
The answers have also been provided here already.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Find the tangent line(s) to the parametric curve given by

Solution:

Note that there is apparently the potential for more than one tangent line here! We
will look into this more after we’re done with the example.

The first thing that we should do is find the derivative so we can get the slope of the
tangent line.

At this point we’ve got a small problem. The derivative is in terms of t and all we’ve got
is an x-y coordinate pair. The next step then is to determine the value(s) of t which will
give this point. We find these by plugging the xx and y values into the parametric
equations and solving for t.

Any value of t which appears in both lists will give the point. So, since there are two
values of t that give the point we will in fact get two tangent lines.
For t = −2:
Since we already know the x and y-coordinates of the point all that we need to do is
find the slope of the tangent line.

167
For t = 2:

Again, all we need is the slope

Before we leave this example let’s take a look at just how we could possibly get two
tangents lines at a point. A quick graph of the parametric curve will explain what is
going on here.

So, the parametric curve crosses itself! That explains how there can be more than one
tangent line. There is one tangent line for each instance that the curve goes through the
point.
2. Find the second derivative for the following set of parametric equations.

168
Solution:

This is the set of parametric equations that we used in the first example and so we
already have the following computations completed.

We will first need the following,

The second derivative is then,

169
Score: /80 MODULE 5 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS. Find the second derivative of y with respect to x from the parametric equations given. (10 pts each)

1. 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 4𝑡 − 3

2. 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 1 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡

170
1
3. 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 1
𝑡2

4. 𝑥 = √1 − 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 − 3𝑡

1 7 2
5. 𝑥 = 1 − , 𝑦 =6− + 𝑡2
𝑡 𝑡

171
6. 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 + 4 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 5

7. 𝑥 = 3 + 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝑦 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 4

8. Solve for the critical points of the parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 − 1, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡

172
MODULE 6
Approximation and Differentials

In this module we are going to take a look at an application not of derivatives but of the
tangent line to a function. Of course, to get the tangent line we do need to take derivatives,
so in some way this is an application of derivatives as well. We will also be looking at
differentials in a different perspective which we will be using in the succeeding modules.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 6: Solve problems involving Approximation and Differentials

Without using your calculator, estimate the square root of 5.

LINEAR APPROXIMATION

We have just seen how derivatives allow us to compare related quantities that are changing
over time. In this section, we examine another application of derivatives: the ability to
approximate functions locally by linear functions. Linear functions are the easiest functions
with which to work, so they provide a useful tool for approximating function values.
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173
Given a function, f(x), we can find its tangent at x=a. The equation of the tangent line,
which we’ll call L(x) for this discussion, is,

Take a look at the following graph of a function and its tangent line.

From this graph we can see that near x=a the tangent line and the function have nearly the
same graph. On occasion we will use the tangent line, L(x), as an approximation to the
function, f(x), near x=a. In these cases we call the tangent line the linear approximation to
the function at x=a.

So, why would we do this? Let’s take a look at an example.

3
Illustrative Example. Determine the linear approximation for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at x= 8. Use the linear
3 3
approximation to approximate the value of √8.05 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √25.
Solution:
Since this is just the tangent line there really isn’t a whole lot to finding the linear
approximation.

The linear approximation is then,

174
Now, the approximations are nothing more than plugging the given values of x into
the linear approximation. For comparison purposes we’ll also compute the exact
values.

So, at x=8.05 this linear approximation does a very good job of approximating the
actual value. However, at x=25 it doesn’t do such a good job.

This shouldn’t be too surprising if you think about it. Near x=8 both the function and the
linear approximation have nearly the same slope and since they both pass through the
point (8,2) they should have nearly the same value as long as we stay close to x=8.
However, as we move away from x=8 the linear approximation is a line and so will
always have the same slope while the function’s slope will change as x changes and
so the function will, in all likelihood, move away from the linear approximation.

Here’s a quick sketch of the function and its linear approximation at x=8.

As noted above, the farther from x=8 we get the more distance separates the function itself
and its linear approximation.

175
Linear approximations do a very good job of approximating values of f(x)f(x) as long as we
stay “near” x=a. However, the farther away from x=a we get the worse the approximation is
liable to be. The main problem here is that how near we need to stay to x=a in order to get
a good approximation will depend upon both the function we’re using and the value
of x=a that we’re using. Also, there will often be no easy way of predicting how far away
from x=a we can get and still have a “good” approximation.

The idea behind Local Linear Approximation, also called Tangent Line Approximation
or Linearization, is that we are going to zoom in on a point on the graph and notice that
the graph now looks very similar to a line.

Again, every curve will always look like a line if we zoom in small enough! And it’s this
amazing fact that will enable us to then estimate another point on the curve that is close
to our zoomed in point.

All we have to do find four things:

1. Find the point we want to zoom in on

2. Find the slope at that point
3. Write the equation of the Tangent Line using Point-Slope Form, and
4. Evaluate our Tangent Line to estimate another point nearby.

176
Approximating Roots and Powers
Linear approximations may be used in estimating roots and powers. In the next example,
we find the linear approximation for 𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 at x=0, which can be used to estimate
roots and powers for real numbers near 1. The same idea can be extended to a function of
the form 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑚 + 𝑥)𝑛 to estimate roots and powers near a different number m.

Illustrative Example. Find the linear approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 at x=0. Use the
approximation to estimate (1.01)3.

Solution:
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177
DIFFERENTIALS

We have seen that linear approximations can be used to estimate function values. They can
also be used to estimate the amount a function value changes as a result of a small change
in the input. To discuss this more formally, we define a related concept: differentials.
Differentials provide us with a way of estimating the amount a function changes as a result
of a small change in input values.

178
When we first looked at derivatives, we used the Leibniz notation dy/dx to represent the
derivative of y with respect to x. Although we used the expressions dy and dx in this notation,
they did not have meaning on their own. Here we see a meaning to the expressions dy and
dx. Suppose y=f(x) is a differentiable function. Let dx be an independent variable that can
be assigned any nonzero real number, and define the dependent variable dy by

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ----- Equation 1

It is important to notice that dy is a function of both x and dx. The expressions dy and dx are
called differentials. We can divide both sides of Equation 1 by dx, which yields

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ---- Equation 2
𝑑𝑥

This is the familiar expression we have used to denote a derivative. Equation 2 is known as
the differential form of Equation 1.

Illustrative Examples.

179
Watch Video 14 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 14, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
The answers have also been provided here already.
Practice Problems
Linear Approximation

1. Find a linear approximation to

Solution:

180
4
2. Find the linear approximation to 𝑔(𝑧) = √𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2. Use the linear approximation
4 4
to approximate the value of √3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √10.

Solution:

3. Without using any kind of computational aid use a linear approximation to estimate
the value of e0.1.

181
Given the value we are being asked to estimate it should be fairly clear that the
function should be,

The point for the linear approximation should also be somewhat clear. With the
function in hand it’s now clear that we are being asked to use a linear approximation
to estimate f(0.1). So, we’ll need a point that is close to x=0.1 and one that we can
evaluate in the function without a calculator. It therefore seems fairly clear that x=0
would be a really nice point use for the linear approximation.

At this point finding the linear approximation shouldn’t be too bad so here is the
work for that.

The linear approximation is then,

The estimation of e0.1 is then,

Differentials
2
1. For 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , find dy
2
Answer: 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥

2. Compute for the differential of

Answer:

182
Score: /80 MODULE 6 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

1. Use linear approximation or differentials (but not both) to estimate:

Is your answer an underestimate or an overestimate? Explain very briefly (roughly 2

sentences) and with the help of a graph.

183
2. Find the linear approximation to h(y)=sin(y+1) at y=0. Use the linear approximation to
approximate the value of sin(2) and sin(15)sin. Compare the approximated values to the
exact values.

184
3. Find the linear approximation to

at t=32. Use the linear approximation to approximate the value of

Compare the approximated values to the exact values.

185
4. Estimate the ln (1.1) and sec (0.1) using a linear approximation and without using any
kind of computational aid.

186
MODULE 7
Other Indeterminate Forms

This module will allow you to revisit indeterminate forms and limits and take a look at
L’Hospital’s Rule. L’Hospital’s Rule will allow you to evaluate some limits you were not able to
previously. In this module, we examine a powerful tool for evaluating limits. This tool, known
as L’Hospital’s Rule, or spelled in some books as L’Hôpital’s rule, uses derivatives to calculate
limits. With this rule, we will be able to evaluate many limits we have not yet been able to
determine. Instead of relying on numerical evidence to conjecture that a limit exists, we will
be able to show definitively that a limit exists and to determine its exact value.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO7: Solve problems involving the Indeterminate Forms

What result do you obtain when you evaluate the limit (RHL and LHL) of

INDETERMINATE FORMS AND

L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
Back in the module on Limits we saw methods for dealing with the following limits.

187
In the first limit if we plugged in x=4 we would get 0/0 and in the second limit if we “plugged”
in infinity we would get ∞/−∞ (recall that as x goes to infinity a polynomial will behave in the
same fashion that its largest power behaves). Both of these are called indeterminate forms.
In both of these cases there are competing interests or rules and it’s not clear which will win
out.

In the case of 0/0 we typically think of a fraction that has a numerator of zero as being zero.
However, we also tend to think of fractions in which the denominator is going to zero, in the
limit, as infinity or might not exist at all. Likewise, we tend to think of a fraction in which the
numerator and denominator are the same as one. So, which will win out? Or will neither win
out and they all “cancel out” and the limit will reach some other value?

In the case of ∞/−∞ we have a similar set of problems. If the numerator of a fraction is going
to infinity we tend to think of the whole fraction going to infinity. Also, if the denominator is
going to infinity, in the limit, we tend to think of the fraction as going to zero. We also have
the case of a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are the same (ignoring the
minus sign) and so we might get -1. Again, it’s not clear which of these will win out, if any of
them will win out.

With the second limit there is the further problem that infinity isn’t really a number and so we
really shouldn’t even treat it like a number. Much of the time it simply won’t behave as we
would expect it to if it was a number.

This is the problem with indeterminate forms. It’s just not clear what is happening in the limit.
There are other types of indeterminate forms as well. Some other types are,

These all have competing interests or rules that tell us what should happen and it’s just not
clear which, if any, of the interests or rules will win out. The topic of this module is how to deal
with these kinds of limits.

As already pointed out we do know how to deal with some kinds of indeterminate forms
already. For the two limits above we work them as follows.

188
In the first case we simply factored, canceled and took the limit and in the second case we
factored out an x2 from both the numerator and the denominator and took the limit. Notice
as well that none of the competing interests or rules in these cases won out! That is often the
case. This is where the subject of this section comes into play.

L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

0 ±∞
TYPE 1: , ±∞
0

L’Hospital’s Rule tells us that if we have an indeterminate form 0/0 or ∞/∞ all we need to do
is differentiate the numerator and differentiate the denominator and then take the limit.

Illustrative Examples:

189
L’Hospital’s Rule works great on the two indeterminate forms 0/0 and ±∞/±∞. However, there
are many more indeterminate forms out there as we saw earlier. Let’s take a look at some
of those and see how we deal with those kinds of indeterminate forms.

TYPE 2: (0) ∙ (±∞), ∞ − ∞

190
Illustrative Examples.

191
In the previous example we used the fact that we can always write a product of functions
as a quotient by doing one of the following.

Using these two facts will allow us to turn any limit in the form (0)(±∞) into a limit in the form
0/0 or ±∞/±∞. Which one of these two we get after doing the rewrite will depend upon which
fact we used to do the rewrite. One of the rewrites will give 0/0 and the other will give ±∞/±∞.
It all depends on which function stays in the numerator and which gets moved down to the
denominator.

TYPE 2: 0 0 , ∞0 , 1 ∞

192
Another type of indeterminate form that arises when evaluating limits involves exponents.
The expressions 00,∞0, and 1∞ are all indeterminate forms. On their own, these expressions are
meaningless because we cannot actually evaluate these expressions as we would evaluate
an expression involving real numbers. Rather, these expressions represent forms that arise
when finding limits. Now we examine how L’Hôspital’s rule can be used to evaluate limits
involving these indeterminate forms.

Since L’Hôspital’s rule applies to quotients, we use the natural logarithm function and its
properties to reduce a problem evaluating a limit involving exponents to a related problem
involving a limit of a quotient. For example, suppose we want to evaluate limx→a f(x)g(x) and
we arrive at the indeterminate form ∞0. (The indeterminate forms 00 and 1∞ can be handled
similarly.) We proceed as follows. Let

Illustrative Example

193
Watch Video 15 for more examples and explanations

Practice Problems
After watching Video 15, you will need to practice
doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
The answers have also been provided here already.

194
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195
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196
Score: /80
MODULE 7 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

INDETERMINATE FORMS: Use L’Hospital’s Rule to evaluate the given limit. Use separate
sheets for the solutions.

197
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198
MODULE 8
Differential Calculus of Functions of More Than One Variable

Now that you learned a lot of calculus formulas in one variables, you can proceed into taking
derivatives of functions of more than one variable. In this module, you are going to learn
about partial derivatives and concentrate exclusively on only changing one of the variables
at a time, while the remaining variable(s) are held fixed.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO8: Analyze and solve problems involving Differential Calculus of Functions of more
than one variable

What is f'(x) of the function f(x) = 4xy3 if you consider y as a constant?

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Now that we have the brief discussion on limits out of the way we can proceed into taking
derivatives of functions of more than one variable. Before we actually start taking derivatives
of functions of more than one variable let’s recall an important interpretation of derivatives
of functions of one variable.

Recall that given a function of one variable, f(x), the derivative, f′(x), represents the rate of
change of the function as xx changes. This is an important interpretation of derivatives and
we are not going to want to lose it with functions of more than one variable. The problem
with functions of more than one variable is that there is more than one variable. In other
words, what do we do if we only want one of the variables to change, or if we want more
than one of them to change? In fact, if we’re going to allow more than one of the variables
to change there are then going to be an infinite amount of ways for them to change. For
instance, one variable could be changing faster than the other variable(s) in the function.
Notice as well that it will be completely possible for the function to be changing differently
depending on how we allow one or more of the variables to change.
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199
We will need to develop ways, and notations, for dealing with all of these cases. In this
section we are going to concentrate exclusively on only changing one of the variables at a
time, while the remaining variable(s) are held fixed.
Because we are going to only allow one of the variables to change taking the derivative will
now become a fairly simple process. Let’s start off this discussion with a fairly simple function.

Let’s start with the function f(x,y)=2x2y3 and let’s determine the rate at which the function is
changing at a point, (a,b) if we hold y fixed and allow x to vary and if we hold x fixed and
allow y to vary.

We’ll start by looking at the case of holding y fixed and allowing x to vary. Since we are
interested in the rate of change of the function at (a,b) and are holding y fixed this means
that we are going to always have y=b (if we didn’t have this then eventually y would have
to change in order to get to the point…). Doing this will give us a function involving only x’s
and we can define a new function as follows,

Now, this is a function of a single variable and at this point all that we are asking is to
determine the rate of change of g(x) at x=a. In other words, we want to compute g′(a) and
since this is a function of a single variable we already know how to do that. Here is the rate
of change of the function at (a,b) if we hold y fixed and allow x to vary.

We will call g′(a) the partial derivative of f(x,y) with respect to x at (a,b) and we will denote
it in the following way,

Now, let’s do it the other way. We will now hold x fixed and allow y to vary. We can do this
in a similar way. Since we are holding x fixed it must be fixed at x=a and so we can define
a new function of y and then differentiate this as we’ve always done with functions of one
variable. Here is the work for this,

In this case we call h′(b) the partial derivative of f(x,y) with respect to y at (a,b) and we
denote it as follows,

200
Note that these two partial derivatives are sometimes called the first order partial derivatives.
Just as with functions of one variable we can have derivatives of all orders.

Note that the notation for partial derivatives is different than that for derivatives of functions
of a single variable. With functions of a single variable we could denote the derivative with
a single prime. However, with partial derivatives we will always need to remember the
variable that we are differentiating with respect to and so we will subscript the variable that
we differentiated with respect to. We will shortly be seeing some alternate notation for partial
derivatives as well.

Note as well that we usually don’t use the (a,b) notation for partial derivatives as that implies
we are working with a specific point which we usually are not doing. The more standard
notation is to just continue to use (x,y). So, the partial derivatives from above will more
commonly be written as,

Now, as this quick example has shown taking derivatives of functions of more than one
variable is done in pretty much the same manner as taking derivatives of a single variable.
To compute fx(x,y) all we need to do is treat all the y’s as constants (or numbers) and then
differentiate the x’s as we’ve always done. Likewise, to compute fy(x,y) we will treat all
the x’s as constants and then differentiate the y’s as we are used to doing.

Before we work any examples let’s get the formal definition of the partial derivative out of
the way as well as some alternate notation.

Since we can think of the two partial derivatives above as derivatives of single variable
functions it shouldn’t be too surprising that the definition of each is very similar to the
definition of the derivative for single variable functions. Here are the formal definitions of the
two partial derivatives we looked at above.

Now let’s take a quick look at some of the possible alternate notations for partial derivatives.
Given the function z=f(x,y) the following are all equivalent notations,

201
For the fractional notation for the partial derivative notice the difference between the
partial derivative and the ordinary derivative from single variable calculus.

Okay, now let’s work some examples. When working these examples always keep in mind
that we need to pay very close attention to which variable we are differentiating with
respect to. This is important because we are going to treat all other variables as constants
and then proceed with the derivative as if it was a function of a single variable. If you can
remember this you’ll find that doing partial derivatives are not much more difficult that doing
derivatives of functions of a single variable as we did in the previous topics.

Illustrative Examples

202
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203
Watch Video 16 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 16, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
The answers have also been provided here already.

Practice Problems. Find all of the first order partial derivatives for the following functions.

204
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205
Score: /80
MODULE 8 QUIZ

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

INSTRUCTIONS. Show complete solutions for each problem. Write your final answers in the
rectangles provided. NO ERASURES, NO SUPERIMPOSITIONS for the FINAL ANSWERS.

A. Find the first partial derivatives of the given functions.

1. 𝑧 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 2

206
2. 𝑧 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 4𝑥 − 7

𝜕𝑓
3. Find 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥

207
𝜕𝑧
4. Find 𝑖𝑓 𝑦𝑧 −𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
𝜕𝑥

B. Find the equations of the tangent line in the given plane.

1. Tangent to the parabola 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 , 𝑥 = 1 , at point ( 1 , 2, 13 )

208
2. Tangent to the curve 𝑧 2 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑧 = 3 , at the point ( 1, 4 , 3 )

C. Given : 𝑣 = (3𝑡 − 𝑥 ) 𝑒 − 2𝑡 , ( 10 points each)

𝜕2 𝑣
1. Find
𝜕𝑡 2

209
𝜕2 𝑣
2. Find
𝜕𝑡𝜕𝑥

210

EnggMath 5 - Modules 1-3 (Prelims)
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EnggMath 5 - Modules 1-3 (Prelims)
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