CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.

1.1 Background of the Study

Self-medication is the administration of pharmaceuticals by individuals to cure self-determined

medical illnesses, or symptoms without seeking medical assistance.1 Self-medication also

alludes to the excessive usage of therapy prescribed by medical professionals for oneself or other

family members. Both industrialized and developing cultures engage in self-medication for self-

care. In nations like India, pharmacy services provide easy access to over-the-counter and

prescription drugs without physician consultation. The Internet's widespread availability has

furthered self-medication trends, enabling laypeople to self-diagnose and self-medicate

extensively.

Imprudent self-medication can endanger one's health in several ways, including delaying

necessary diagnosis and treatment, oblivious to drug interactions and contraindications, placing

oneself at risk of receiving the incorrect prescription, building a tolerance, and eventually

developing over-reliance and abuse. On the other hand, irrational self-medication exposes a

person to risks such as adverse events, microbial infection, hypersensitivity reactions, medication

resistance, withdrawal symptoms, and illness masking, which can procrastinate an accurate

diagnosis.6 However, its patterns diverge contingent upon multiple variables, including socio-

economic status, medical expertise, patient satisfaction, how individuals view the condition, their

capacity to treat some illnesses themselves, and the growing accessibility of pharmaceuticals.

Self-medication refers to usage of drugs by population to cure self-diagnosed medical illnesses

or symptoms without seeking medical advice. AI has become the prevailing technology in recent

times, experiencing significant growth. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a

1
surge in AI adoption, driven by concerns about visiting hospitals. Despite awareness of its

potential drawbacks, relying on AI and on-line resources for medical and therapeutic purposes

has become widespread.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has rapidly gained popularity in recent years and is significantly

transforming healthcare. While AI's sophisticated algorithms analyze extensive data to offer

personalized guidance on health concerns, medications, and lifestyle choices, there are both

benefits and drawbacks to its integration into healthcare. AI's advancements, including symptom

checkers and virtual health assistants, people are increasingly turning to these digital tools for

medical guidance and advice, often bypassing traditional healthcare channels. While enhancing

accessibility, misuse of AI can lead to unintended medical complications. Following the COVID-

19 pandemic, there has been a notable decrease in people's willingness to seek and interact with

medical professionals, largely influenced by the widespread availability of internet resources and

AI technology. The convenience of accessing information online has led many individuals to rely

more on self-diagnosis and self-treatment options. This shift reflects a broader trend towards

utilizing technology for health-related inquiries and decisions, raising questions about its advice

and decisions. This creates a medical concern governing human health.

The Indian populace has free and easy access to pharmaceuticals, which owes to a higher

prevalence of self-medication. A study revealed that 184 (92%) medical students out of 200

(100%) respondents from South India practice self-medication, with the most often used

medications being antipyretics, analgesics, antihistamines, and antibiotics. Numerous regional

studies have brought attention to the excessive regularity and incorrect self-medication practices

among those in the healthcare sector.

2
Pharmacy pupils serve as the primary contact of patients who advise on accurate medicine usage;

hence this study was conducted to evaluate the frequency and manner in which individuals

utilize the internet and AI technologies to access health information and engage in self-

medication practices. Additionally, this study aims to investigate pharmacy students' knowledge,

attitudes, and self-medication habits. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature.

Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents

by NLM or the National Institutes of Health.

Access to online health information has undergone a progressive evolution that has

revolutionized the way in which both healthcare professionals and the general population

understand and manage healthcare. Indeed, numerous technological advances have led to a

proliferation of healthcare resources available on the Internet, making it easier to access online

health information. Moreover, the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) tools in healthcare has

led to changes in the way diseases and health disorders are diagnosed and treated.

The accessibility of online health information guides patients and health professionals on

symptomatology, treatments and health recommendations on the web, thus transforming the

therapeutic alliance between patients and health professionals.

On the other hand, along with this ease of obtaining information, a trend toward self-medication

has emerged among the general population, but also among health professionals.

Self-medication is defined by the WHO as “the selection and use of medicines by individuals to

treat self-recognized diseases or symptoms".

Self-medication is a public health problem that can cause adverse effects, such as masking of

symptoms, delayed diagnosis of diseases and drug resistance.

3
Despite having healthcare training, healthcare professionals often resort to self-administration of

medications and treatments based on information they find through websites, forums, blogs,

social networking groups and AI.

Even social networking groups have become forums for discussion and consultation among

professionals, where experiences are shared and second opinions are sought.

Inappropriate self-medication can lead to adverse consequences, iatrogenic diseases and masking

of progressive diseases. Therefore, it represents an important problem that should be recognized

and prevented, as it generates a great impact on public health. Specifically, this practice often

bypasses the regulatory mechanisms that guarantee the quality of medical care. Some of the

consequences are a decrease in the efficacy of antibiotics due to the generation of resistant

strains of bacteria, the appearance of side effects due to the use of drugs that are not indicated for

the disease and, in some cases, direct damage to health due to the consumption of harmful

products. It is essential to raise awareness of the risks of self-medication and to promote

comprehensive health education that includes pharmaco-safety and pharmaceutical care,

especially considering that the COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent mobility restrictions

have exacerbated the phenomenon of self-medication. This increase is attributed in part to the

increased use of technologies and the difficulty in accessing medical care due to the saturation of

health centers .

A study conducted during this period reveals that 36.3% of healthcare professionals resorted to

self-medication. Despite possessing specialized knowledge in the health field, these professionals

did not consistently exhibit behaviours that reflect safe health practices.

4
Access to online health information has undergone a progressive evolution that has

revolutionized the way in which both healthcare professionals and the general population

understand and manage healthcare. Indeed, numerous technological advances have led to a

proliferation of healthcare resources available on the Internet. Making it easier to access online

health information, Moreover, the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) tools in healthcare has

led to changes in the way diseases and health disorders are diagnosed and treated.

The accessibility of online health information guides patients and health professionals on

symptomatology, treatments and health recommendations on the web, thus transforming the

therapeutic alliance between patients and health professionals.

On the other hand, along with this ease of obtaining information, a trend toward self-medication

has emerged among the general population, but also among health professionals.

Self-medication is defined by the WHO as “the selection and use of medicines by individuals to

treat self-recognized diseases or symptoms”.

Self-medication is a public health problem that can cause adverse effects, such as masking of

symptoms, delayed diagnosis of diseases and drug resistance .

Despite having healthcare training, healthcare professionals often resort to self-administration of

medications and treatments based on information they find through websites, forums, blogs,

social networking groups and AI.

Even social networking groups have become forums for discussion and consultation among

professionals, where experiences are shared and second opinions are sought.

5
Inappropriate self-medication can lead to adverse consequences, iatrogenic diseases and masking

of progressive diseases. Therefore, it represents an important problem that should be recognized

and prevented, as it generates a great impact on public health. Specifically, this practice often

bypasses the regulatory mechanisms that guarantee the quality of medical care. Some of the

consequences are a decrease in the efficacy of antibiotics due to the generation of resistant

strains of bacteria, the appearance of side effects due to the use of drugs that are not indicated for

the disease and, in some cases, direct damage to health due to the consumption of harmful

products. It is essential to raise awareness of the risks of self-medication and to promote

comprehensive health education that includes pharmacology-safety and pharmaceutical care,

especially considering that the COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent mobility restrictions

have exacerbated the phenomenon of self-medication. This increase is attributed in part to the

increased use of technologies and the difficulty in accessing medical care due to the saturation of

health centres.

A study conducted during this period reveals that 36.3% of healthcare professionals resorted to

self-medication. Despite possessing specialized knowledge in the health field, these professionals

did not consistently exhibit behaviours that reflect safe health practices.

The exacerbation of self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has increased its

prevalence in both the general population and among healthcare professionals, underscores the

need to review and update the underlying causes and motivations for these practices. Various

tools exist to analyze the causes and factors associated with self-medication, but these have not

been adapted to recent advances in the technological context, particularly with regard to the

influence of artificial intelligence (AI) on clinical decisions. Healthcare professionals’ reliance

6
on AI-assisted clinical judgement could significantly influence their self-medication practices, so

it is essential to update research methodologies to include these new paradigms.

In this context, the objective of the present study is to design and validate the content of a

questionnaire designed to assess self-medication in health professionals, delving into the

underlying ethologies, the pharmacological categories involved and the degree of confidence

placed in clinical assessments derived from AI tools.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Self-medicating can be dangerous and lead to several complications and poor health. Potential

risks of self-medication include incorrectly self-diagnosing and taking the wrong medication.

Negative Effects of AI used for self medication includes:

Data Privacy and Security Concerns:

AI systems collect and store sensitive personal health information, raising concerns about data

breaches, unauthorized access, and misuse of information.

Bias and Fairness:

AI algorithms are trained on data, and if that data reflects existing biases, the AI system may

perpetuate or amplify those biases, potentially leading to unfair or inaccurate health

recommendations for certain populations.

Over-reliance on Technology:

There is a risk that individuals may become overly reliant on AI-powered tools for health

management, potentially neglecting the importance of professional medical advice and human

interaction.

7
Loss of Human Touch:

AI lacks the empathy and emotional intelligence of human healthcare professionals, which can

be crucial for building trust and providing holistic care.

Cost and Accessibility:

Implementing and maintaining AI-powered health technologies can be expensive, potentially

creating disparities in access to these tools based on socio-economic status.

Regulatory and Ethical Challenges:

The rapid advancement of AI in healthcare raises questions about accountability, transparency,

and the need for robust regulations to ensure responsible use.

Misdiagnosis and Errors:

While AI can improve accuracy, it is not infallible. Incorrect diagnoses or treatment

recommendations can occur if the AI system is not properly trained, or if it misinterprets data.

This and other reasons prompted me into finding out the impact of AI on self medication among

students of City College Zaria.

1.3 Research Objectives

The main research objective is to identify the impact of Artificial intelligence on self medication

practices among students of City College Zaria. While the specific objective are as follows:

1. To identify the level of awareness of self medications among students of City College Zaria

and it impact using Artificial Intelligence (AI).

2. To find out the possible ways to reduce the practice of self-medication among the students of

City College of Health Science & Technology Zaria (CCHSTZ).

8
1.4 Research Questions

The following questions are set to guide the study:

1. What is the level of awareness on self medication among students of City College Zaria and it

impact using Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

2. What are the possible ways to reduce the practice of self medication among the students of

City College of Health Science & Technology Zaria (CCHSTZ)?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research is beneficial to me and other students in city college in understanding the existing

gap of self medication using AI, the research will also help other students who intend to write

project, seminar writing on related topic and lastly, the research will give more clarity to the

general public on the negative effects of self medication using AI.

1.6 Delimitation of The Study.

Due to lack of fund and time constrains, only The students in City College of Health Science &

Technology Zaria, where used to carry out this research, which limited the population scope of

study.

1.7 Definitions of Terms

1. Self-medication: is defined by the WHO as “the selection and use of medicines by individuals

to treat self recognized diseases or symptoms".

2. AI: Artificial intelligence

9
3 Therapy: Treatment intended to relieve or heal a disorder

4. Pharmacy: Is a place where medications are dispensed and Pharmacists provide health

services

5: Diagnosis: The identification of the nature of an illness or other problem by examination of

the symptoms.

6: Technology: The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in

industry

7. CCHSTZ: City College of Health Sciences and Technology Zaria

10
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Literature Review

In some cases, the effects of self-medicating can lead to a dependence on the substance. In the

most severe cases, self-medication can even increase your risk of medical complications or even

death.

Information technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), are revolutionizing modern

education. AI algorithms and educational robots are now integral to learning management and

training systems, providing support for a wide array of teaching and learning activities (Costa et

al., 2017, García et al., 2007). Numerous applications of AI in education (AIED) have emerged.

For example, Khan Academy offers Khanmigo, an AI tutor harnessing GPT-4 capabilities,

delivering personalized learning support and intelligent feedback across various subjects,

including mathematics, programming, and language learning. Similarly, Duolingo, a language

learning platform, uses sophisticated AI systems to improve learner experiences (Bicknell et al.,

2023). iFlyTek offers intelligent assessment systems tailored for various grading scenarios,

including the national college entrance examination in China (iFlyTek, 2024). AI-powered

learning management systems (LMS), such as Absorb LMS and Docebo, deliver multiple AI

capabilities to support teaching and learning activities, such as intelligent content creation,

administrative task automation, and personalized learning (Leh, 2022). In the realm of

educational robots, SoftBank Robotics Nao and Pepper robots are developed to serve as

language-teaching social robots (Belpaeme & Tanaka, 2022).

The applications of AIED are rapidly evolving, reshaping the overall teaching and learning

landscape (Popenici & Kerr, 2017). The advent of generative AI technologies has introduced

11
further opportunities, attracting investment into and development of the AIED industry. The

global AIED market, valued at USD 1.82 billion in 2021, is projected to grow at a compound

annual rate of 36 % from 2022 to 2030 (GrandViewResearch, 2021). Learners, teachers, and

educational institutions are quickly embracing AIED. Recent statistics indicate that 43 % of

college students in the US use AI tools like ChatGPT and half of instructors employ AI to

develop their lessons ([Link], 2023). Moreover, AIED demonstrates its efficacy and

effectiveness. Adaptive learning enabled by AIED has been shown to improve student test results

by 62 %, while AI usage, in general, enhances student performance by 30 % and reduces anxiety

by 20 % ([Link], 2023).

Concurrently, research on AIED has surged in recent years, yielding a substantial body of work

exploring various aspects of these applications, including design, effectiveness, and outcomes

(Chiu et al., 2023). This burgeoning research landscape has attracted review studies, which offer

insights into the general AIED research field (Chassignol et al., 2018, Goksel and Bozkurt, 2019,

Guan et al., 2020, Hwang et al., 2020, Srinivasan, 2022) as well as specific topics such as

learning analytics (Charitopoulos et al., 2020), machine learning and precision education (Luan

& Chin-Chung, 2021), or educational AI within particular subject areas such as mathematics

(Hwang & Tu, 2021) or STEM (Xu & Ouyang, 2022). Nonetheless, few studies have

systematically delineated the conceptual structure of the AIED research field and its theoretical

underpinnings, which are pivotal for understanding its current state and evolving prospects

.AI is a subfield of computer science dedicated to understanding human thought processes and

recreating their effects through information systems. The primary goal of AI is to create

intelligent systems (i.e., computer programs or machines) that are capable of intelligent

behaviors (Rainer et al., 2016), including learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and

12
creating. Typical examples of AI technologies include expert systems, neural networks

(including machine learning and deep learning techniques), fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, and

intelligent agents (Rainer et al., 2016). Scholars often distinguish between strong and weak AI

(Wells, 2023). Strong AI, also known as artificial general intelligence, possesses a broad

spectrum of human capabilities, including communication, reasoning, and emotional responses,

and is capable of multiple tasks. In contrast, weak AI, also known as narrow AI, does not possess

a full array of human capabilities but can use algorithms to solve problems or reason for specific

tasks, such as fraud detection and chess playing. AI applications that have been currently

developed and brought into commercial use are categorized as weak AI.

The field of education especially lends itself to AI technologies since educational activities,

including learning and teaching, are knowledge-intensive cognitive activities, and AI

applications, which are created for cognition and problem-solving based on algorithms and

knowledge base, can effectively support and augment educators’ and learners’ abilities in

teaching and learning. Since the advent of AI in the mid-1950 s, AI technologies have been

increasingly applied to facilitate education and training in various subjects, including language,

STEM, and medicine (Perrotta & Selwyn, 2020). To date, AIED applications are developed to

support teaching and learning activities such as content preparation and dissemination,

interactions and collaboration, and performance assessment (Chassignol et al., 2018, Perrotta and

Selwyn, 2020).

A substantial body of studies has examined AIED applications, leading to review studies in the

field. Table 1 provides a list of recent review articles. Several reviews pertain to the general field

of AIED (Chassignol et al., 2018, Chen et al., 2020, Chen et al., 2020, Chiu et al., 2023, Goksel

and Bozkurt, 2019, Guan et al., 2020), while most focus on a specific application area such as

13
chatbot (Okonkwo & Ade-Ibijola, 2021), precision education (Luan & Chin-Chung, 2021),

mathematics education (Hwang & Tu, 2021), STEM (Xu & Ouyang, 2022), or student

assessment (González-Calatayud et al., 2021). Scholars have used bibliometric, systematic or

simply narrative reviews in their investigation of the field. For example, through a narrative

review, Chassignol et al. (2018) summarized and presented their major literature findings in a

framework with four components of the educational process: content, teaching method,

assessment, and communication. Goksel and Bozkurt (2019) conducted a co-word analysis of the

keywords in 393 papers between 1970 and 2018, summarizing three key concepts in the AIED

literature, including adaptive learning, personalization and learning styles, and expert systems

and intelligent tutoring systems. Xu and Ouyang (2022) conducted a systematic review of 63

empirical AI-STEM research from 2011 to 2021, summarizing AI applications in STEM

education, their characteristics and effects.

programs and pain management standards. Also, Kiza et al., in a meta-synthesis, reported that

young adults often use OTC analgesics to manage pain and other non-medically indicated

disorders, such as anxiety and stress (Kiza et al., 2021).

Several studies illustrate that college students’ willingness to contact health practitioners to

pursue health-related treatment or access other health services is extremely poor (Alshogran et

al., 2018). Another strong trigger for using over-the-counter drugs is social media’s increased

influence. Thus, students rely more on the Internet than on consulting healthcare practitioners for

knowledge about their health (Kumar et al., 2013). Surprisingly, a study showed that 78.6 % of

medical students in Ethiopia practice self-medication. This indicates that medical students

indulge in self-medication despite knowing the ethics of drug consumption in clinical practice

(Kumar et al., 2013, Bai and Ravikumar, 2016, Tesfaye et al., 2020). A previous study at

14
Slovenia University aimed to compare self-medication prevalence among students, concluding

that the prevalence among non-medical students was high (Klemenc-Ketis et al., 2010,

Chautrakarn et al., 2021). In the United Arab Emirates, a study evaluated antibiotic utilization

attitudes and behaviors among students who reported high consumption rates regardless of the

student’s specialty; comparable results were reported in Saudi Arabia (Albusalih et al., 2017, Al-

Kubaisi et al., 2022, Sung and Chi, 2020). A single study, to the best of our knowledge, in

Western Saudi Arabia compared the self-medication practice among university students [348].

The absence of similar studies in our population and the insufficient data regarding the

prevalence, knowledge, and determinants of self-medication among medical and non-medical

students were fundamental aspects of conducting this study, which aimed to investigate those

areas.

2:1 Impacts of artificial intelligence on Self medication among Students.

AI could empower students to manage their health through personalized information and

medication reminders, potentially increasing adherence to treatment plans, but also risks over-

reliance and potential misuse if not used responsibly.

Here's a more detailed look at the potential impacts of AI on self-medication among students:

Potential Benefits:

_ Personalized Information and Guidance:

AI can analyze individual student data and provide tailored information about medications,

dosages, and potential side effects.

_Medication Reminders and Adherence:

15
AI-powered apps and devices can send timely reminders to take medications, improving

adherence to treatment plans.

_ Improved Patient Education:

AI can deliver educational materials in an interactive and accessible format, helping students

understand their conditions and medications.

_ Early Detection of Complications:

AI algorithms can analyze data to identify potential complications or adverse reactions early on,

allowing for timely intervention.

_ Cost-Effective Healthcare:

AI can help students access cost-effective healthcare resources and find the most appropriate

treatment options.

Potential Risks and Challenges:

_ Over-reliance on AI:

Students might become overly dependent on AI for medical advice, potentially neglecting

professional medical guidance.

_ Misinterpretation of Information:

AI-generated information might be misinterpreted or used incorrectly, leading to adverse

outcomes.

_ Data Privacy Concerns:

16
The collection and use of student health data raise concerns about privacy and security.

_ Bias in Algorithms:

AI algorithms can be biased, potentially leading to inaccurate or unfair recommendations.

_ Lack of Human Interaction:

AI-driven systems might not be able to fully address the emotional and social needs of students.

_ Self-Medication Risks:

AI could inadvertently encourage or facilitate self-medication, which can be dangerous if not

done under professional guidance.

2:2 Ways To Reduce The Practice Of Self Medication Among Students Of CCHSTZ

Globally, at least 400 million people have no basic health care and annually, 15 million people

die prematurely from non-communicable diseases.1 The United Nations has set 17 Sustainable

Development Goals which includes Good Health and Well-being (Goal 3). Under this goal, the

target of reducing by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through

prevention and treatment by 2030 is outlined.1

In the case of developing countries, a significant number of people do not have accessible and

affordable healthcare services2 resulting in self-medication practice (SMP).3 According to the

World Health Organization (WHO), self-medication is define as “selection and use of medicines

by individuals to treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms.”4 The treatment selected by the

consumers (i.e. patients, general population etc.) for self-medication may depend on the

magnitude of the disease (mild or serious), type of medicine, socio-economic status of the patient

17
and cultural factors.5,6 Self-medication have established benefits as well as potential risks,3 the

sole effectiveness of which depends on how rationally it is practised. For example, problems

with self-medication arise when patients practice it irrationally by using not only over–the-

counter (OTC) medicines7 but also prescription-only-medicines (POM).8 This practice has led to

serious consequences like adverse effects leading to hospitalizations, drug interactions, antibiotic

resistance, therapeutic failure, drug dependence, extended treatment periods or even death.9

A study conducted in a major city of Nepal reported a high prevalence rate of self-medication

(45.2%) within the community; almost half the medicines used were POMs.10 The reason for

this could be that in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) like Nepal, the pharmacy is the

first place where consumers seek advice for common symptoms and other health related

problems and have easy access to medicine/s.10,11 In Nepal, a large number of pharmacies are

owned by the private sector with a tendency of being more profit than service oriented.12 This

may lead to irrational practice of using POMs as self-medication by consumers because of ease

of access, being less time consuming and cheaper than consulting the physician.13,14

Nepal has its own Drug Act 1978 and according to clause 17 only the physician should prescribe

POMs, which should be dispensed by the pharmacy professionals.15 Practising healthcare

without a license is prohibited in Nepal.16 In practice, the implementation of strict regulation is

challenging due to poor monitoring processes. In addition, private medicine sellers or retailers

without having formal education can also practice medicine dispensing after undertaking training

and obtaining a license to operate a pharmacy from the Department of Drug Administration

(DDA) in the country.17 All these consequences may lead to an increase of SMP

18
Hence, greater attention is needed towards SMP specially in developing country like Nepal. In

this regard, many studies have identified several intervention measures to make SMP more

responsible.18, 19, 20 Implementing all intervention measures together is always difficult due to

the constraints of available resources, especially in developing countries. Choosing the best

alternative among the available intervention measures becomes quite complex in the absence of

evidence-based judgement. Under these conditions, the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP)

can be a potential tool to decide which of the available options are more appropriate to be used to

resolve the problem with SMP.

The AHP is a multi-criteria decision analysis tool, which was first developed in the 1970s by

Saaty.21 The method is well adapted22 and frequently used for decision processes in the

healthcare system where it allows input of quantitative and qualitative criteria into the decision

process.23 This method is a step-wise problem solving method where the decision-maker uses

experts' opinions for solving a problem effectively and efficiently.24,25

While using AHP decision model, development of decision model representing the system to be

studied uses pairwise comparisons to find the comparative importance of criteria with respect to

decision goal and prioritization of intervention options with respect to criteria.23 Weighting

approach is used for direct and indirect comparisons for getting combined numerical score in

order to determined priority ranking.23 Additionally, AHP reduces bias by measuring

consistency of judgments, thereby establishing an acceptable level of tolerance for degree of

inconsistency.26,27 The approach allows decision makers to make transparent judgments based

on numerical scores23 and use of small groups of related stakeholders for decision-making is

considered as one of the advantages.28

19
As SMP is multifaceted in nature based on several criteria, AHP is a suitable and appropriate

choice to support the decision-making process22,29 through construction of a decision model for

selecting the best alternative solutions for solving complex problems. In the present study, the

AHP method was used in decision-making related to prioritizing the intervention measures to

prevent inappropriate SMP.

2:3 Impacts Of Self Medication On Academic Performance of Students Of CCHSZ.

Self-medication among students can negatively impact academic performance by leading to

health complications, missed classes, and reduced cognitive function, potentially affecting their

ability to study and perform well in school.

Here's a more detailed breakdown of the potential impacts:

Negative Impacts on Health and Well-being:

Incorrect Diagnosis and Treatment:

Self-medication can lead to taking the wrong medication or dosage, which can worsen the

underlying condition or cause new health problems.

Masking Serious Conditions:

Self-medication can mask the symptoms of a serious illness, delaying proper diagnosis and

treatment, potentially leading to severe complications.

Drug Interactions and Side Effects:

Taking multiple medications, including over-the-counter drugs, can lead to dangerous drug

interactions and side effects.

20
Dependence and Addiction:

Self-medication with certain substances, like painkillers or stimulants, can lead to dependence

and addiction.

Increased Risk of Overdose:

Incorrect dosages or taking medications that are not intended for self-use can lead to overdose.

Negative Impacts on Academic Performance:

Missed Classes and Reduced Attendance:

Illness or side effects from self-medication can lead to students missing classes and falling

behind in their studies.

Difficulty Concentrating and Studying:

Illness, medication side effects, and the stress of managing health issues can make it difficult for

students to concentrate and study effectively.

Reduced Cognitive Function:

Certain medications can impair cognitive function, making it harder for students to learn and

retain information.

Poor Time Management:

Students who are frequently ill or experiencing medication side effects may struggle with time

management and completing assignments on time.

Increased Stress and Anxiety:

21
Dealing with health issues and the fear of potential complications can lead to increased stress and

anxiety, which can further hinder academic performance.

Social Isolation:

Students who are frequently ill or experiencing medication side effects may become socially

isolated, which can further impact their well-being and academic performance.

Factors Contributing to Self-Medication

Convenience and Time Constraints:

Students may choose self-medication due to limited access to healthcare, long wait times, or the

convenience of obtaining medications without a prescription.

Perceived Cost-Effectiveness:

Students may perceive self-medication as a more affordable option than seeking professional

medical care.

Lack of Knowledge and Education:

Students may lack sufficient knowledge about medications, potential risks, and the importance of

seeking professional medical advice.

Peer Influence:

Students may be influenced by their peers to self-medicate, especially if they perceive it as a way

to cope with stress or improve academic performance.

Misconceptions about Medications:

22
Students may have misconceptions about medications, such as believing that they are harmless

or that they can cure any illness. .

2:4 Risk Of Self medication

Self-medicating can be dangerous and lead to several complications and poor health. Potential

risks of self-medication include incorrectly self-diagnosing and taking the wrong medication. In

some instances, dangerous drug interactions may occur due to incorrect dosage or medication

misuse. To minimize potential risks, always seek a medical professional to provide an accurate

diagnosis and prescribe medication.

Substance misuse: When you take a medication without consulting a doctor or medical

professional, you might choose the wrong drug. Additionally, self-medicating increases your risk

of taking an incorrect dose or using drugs for longer than necessary.

Substance dependency: If you take a substance for a prolonged period, your body may become

dependent and need this substance to continue functioning correctly.

Masking a medical condition: While you may think taking medication to alleviate symptoms is

beneficial, it can often mask symptoms of an underlying medical condition. If you do not seek

proper medical guidance, an underlying medical condition may worsen and become dangerous

over time.

Drug interactions: When you take multiple medications or combine medication with alcohol or

substance use, you increase your risk of a negative drug interaction. When doctors prescribe

medication, they can ensure that this medication will react safely with any other medications you

take regularly.

23
Medical complications: Misusing or overusing medication can increase your risk for severe

medical complications. Taking too much medication or an incorrect medication can cause

harmful symptoms, including nausea, convulsions and even death.

2:5 Artificial Intelligence and Self Medication

Self-medication refers to usage of drugs by population to cure self-diagnosed medical illnesses

or symptoms without seeking medical advice. AI has become the prevailing technology in recent

times, experiencing significant growth. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a

surge in AI adoption, driven by concerns about visiting hospitals. Despite awareness of its

potential drawbacks, relying on AI and online resources for medical and therapeutic purposes has

become widespread.

Self-medication also alludes to the excessive usage of therapy prescribed by medical

professionals for oneself or other family [Link] industrialized and developing cultures

engage in self-medication for self-care. In nations like India, pharmacy services provide easy

access to over-the-counter and prescription drugs without physician consultation. The Internet's

widespread availability has furthered self-medication trends, enabling laypeople to self-diagnose

and self-medicate extensively.

Imprudent self-medication can endanger one's health in several ways, including delaying

necessary diagnosis and treatment, oblivious to drug interactions and contraindications, placing

oneself at risk of receiving the incorrect prescription, building a tolerance, and eventually

developing over-reliance and abuse. On the other hand, irrational self-medication exposes a

person to risks such as adverse events, microbial infection, hypersensitivity reactions, medication

resistance, withdrawal symptoms, and illness masking, which can procrastinate an accurate

24
diagnosis. However, its patterns diverge contingent upon multiple variables, including socio-

economic status, medical expertise, patient satisfaction, how individuals view the condition, their

capacity to treat some illnesses themselves, and the growing accessibility of pharmaceuticals.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has rapidly gained popularity in recent years and is significantly

transforming healthcare. While AI's sophisticated algorithms analyze extensive data to offer

personalized guidance on health concerns, medications, and lifestyle choices, there are both

benefits and drawbacks to its integration into healthcare.8 AI's advancements, including

symptom checkers and virtual health assistants, people are increasingly turning to these digital

tools for medical guidance and advice, often bypassing traditional healthcare channels. While

enhancing accessibility, misuse of AI can lead to unintended medical complications.9 Following

the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a notable decrease in people's willingness to seek and

interact with medical professionals, largely influenced by the widespread availability of internet

resources and AI [Link] convenience of accessing information online has led many

individuals to rely more on self-diagnosis and self-treatment options. This shift reflects a broader

trend towards utilizing technology for health-related inquiries and decisions, raising questions

about its advice and decisions. This creates a medical concern governing human [Link]

Indian populace has free and easy access to pharmaceuticals, which owes to a higher prevalence

of self-medication.A study revealed that 184 (92%) medical students out of 200 (100%)

respondents from South India practice self-medication, with the most often used medications

being antipyretics, analgesics, antihistamines, and antibiotics.12 Numerous regional studies have

brought attention to the excessive regularity and incorrect self-medication practices among those

in the healthcare sector.

25
Pharmacy pupils serve as the primary contact of patients who advise on accurate medicine usage;

hence this study was conducted to evaluate the frequency and manner in which individuals

utilize the internet and AI technologies to access health information and engage in self-

medication practices. Additionally, this study aims to investigate pharmacy students' knowledge,

attitudes, and self-medication habits.

2:6 Empirical Study

Thomas(2020)carriedoutaresearchstudytitled : Impacts of Artificial intelligence on self

medicationamong students, .Heset 3

researchobjective,researchquestionandresearchhypotheseseach.Astudydesignwasadoptedwhere60

0targetwereusedand60whereselectedasthesampleforthestudywhichwasdonethroughsystematicsam

[Link]: Impacts of Artificial intelligence on self medication among students

of City College of Health Science & Technology Zaria.,

[Link], 2

objectives,researchquestionandresearchhypothesesweresetbythepresentstudybuttheformerstudyw

here5 each,whichisa difference in thestudy.

Experimentalresearchdesignwasadoptedbythepresentbuttheformerresearchused a case

studyresearchdesign,600

targetpopulationusing60sampleswhichwereselectedthroughrandomizationwereadoptedintheprese

ntstudy.Andtheformerstudyalsoused600

[Link]

[Link]

[Link] sperm

26
anrankcorrelationwasusedtotestthenullhypothesesinwhichtheformerresearchusedx2testandallthenu

llhypotheseswhererejectedjustliketheformerresearchstudy.3findingsandrecommendationsweregiv

enbythepresentstudy,buttheformerstudyhad6findingsandrecommendations.

2:7 Summary of Related Literature

The concept of the Impacts of Artificial intelligence on self medication was discussed in which

many definitions were identified by many authors, The Impacts of self medication on students

were traced and discussed in details. The risk of self medication was not left out, the possible

ways to reduce the practice of self medication was thoroughly highlighted. Empirical study was

compared with the present study in which many similarities and differences were identified.

Lastly the summary of the related literature was done.

27
CHAPTERTHREE

RESEARCHDESIGNANDMETHODOLOGY

3:1ResearchDesign

The study adopts a descriptive research design to evaluate the impact of Artificial Intelligence on

Self Medication Practice Among Students of City College of Health Sciences and Technology

Zaria.

3:2 Population of the Study

City College of Health Sciences and Technology Zaria (CCHSTZ) is located at No. 1 Global

House Danmagaji Zaria, Kano-Kaduna Expressway Zaria, Kaduna State with Estimated

Population from the Administrative Record Department of the School of 1,500 – 2,000 Students

with 11 departments as the period of this research.

3.3Sample and Sampling Procedures

Sample is a subset of smaller group of individual from a larger population which serves as a

representative of the entire population.

The sample size for this studies was 100 respondents adopting a simple random sampling method

to give each member of the entire population equal right to be selected in the research.

3.4 Instruments of Data Collection

A structured questionnaire was designed which make the source of this study to be primary

source for data collection, supplemented by interviews and focus group discussions.

28
3.5 Validity of Instrument for Data Collection

The instruments undergo validation through expert review and pilot testing.

3.6 Methods of Data Analysis

The data was analyzed using descriptive (Frequency and percentage), thematically. Statistical

Package for Social science (SPSS) was used for data analysis.

29
CHAPTERFOUR:DATAPRESENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS

4.0Introduction

This chapter focuses on data presentation, analysis and discussion of findings. The tables below

represent the frequency and percentage distribution of the respondents. 100 questionnaires

administered to the respondents were completed and returned representing100%.

30
4.1 DATA PRESENTATION

TABLE 4.1 DATA PRESENTATION OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS

S/N DEPARTMENT NO OF QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTERED

1 PHARMACY 50

2 COMMUNITY HEALTH 35

3 OTHER DEPARTMENT 15

4 Total 100

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY 2025.

4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESPONDENTS BIO-DATA

4.1 GENDER OF RESPONDENT

Gender Frequency Percent

Male 54 54.0

Female 46 46.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY 2025

Interpretation of result:

From the table above, the results shows that male participated on filling the questionnaire than

female as indicated: Male 54 (54%), Female 46 (46%).

31
4.2AGERANGEOFTHERESPONDENTS

S/N Age range Frequency Percent

1 15-20 37 37.0

2 21-30 40 40.0

3 31-40 15 15.0

4 41-50 8 8.0

5 51-andabove 0 0.0

TOTAL 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY 2025

Interpretation of result:

From the table above , the results show that 37.0% represent 37 respondents which age ranges

15-20yrs, 40.0% represent 40 respondents which age ranges from 21-30yrs, 15.0% represent 15

respondents which age ranges from 31-40yrs, 8.0% represent 8 respondents which age ranges

from 41-50yrs, 0% represents 0 respondents which age ranges from 50yrs-Above. This implies

that respondents of age range, 21-30yrs (40.0%) participated most in filling the questionnaire

than the other age range respondents.

32
4.3 RESPONDENTS ACADEMIC LEVEL

Respondent’s Academic level

S/N Academic level Frequency Percent

1 100 Level 33 33.0

2 200 Level 47 47.0

3 300 Level 20 20.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY2025

Interpretation of result:

33
4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Table:4.1

STUDENTS SEARCH ONLINE FOR PRESCRIPTION DUE TO SISGN AND

SYPTOMS OF SICKNESS.

OPTIONS Frequency Percent

STRONGLY AGREE 40 40.0

AGREE 24 24.0

NEUTRAL 15 15.0

STRONGLY DISAGREE 10 10.0

DISAGREE 11 11.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD WORK 2025

Interpretation of Result:

The result obtained in table 4.1 shows that many students go online to search for prescription of

medicine to take due to the sign and symptoms they feel at a moment with the responses as

34
follows: strongly agree 40, Agree 24, Neutral opinion 15, Strongly Disagree 11 and Disagree 10

accordingly.

Table:4.2

AS STUDENT OF SCHOOL OF HEALTH, I DIDN’T ANYTHING WRONG

WITH SELF MEDICATION

OPTIONS Frequency Percent

STRONGLY AGREE 45 45.0

AGREE 28 28.0

NEUTRAL 8 8.0

STRONGLY DISAGREE 7 7.0

DISAGREE 12 12.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD WORK 2025

Interpretation of Result:

The choices of the respondents in table 4.2 shows that, they practice self medication since most

of the respondents said they didn’t see anything wrong with self medication since they are

students of School of Health. The responses recorded are: Strongly agree 45, Agree 28, Neutral

Opinion 8, Strongly Disagree 7 and Disagree 12 respectively.

35
Table 4.3

HEALTH EDUCATION ON THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE ON SELF MEDICATION CAN HELP REDUCE THE

PRACTICE OF SELF MEDICATION IN CCHSTZ STUDENTS

OPTIONS Frequency Percent

STRONGLY AGREE 42 42.0

AGREE 31 31.0

NEUTRAL 12 12.0

STRONGLY DISAGREE 9 9.0

DISAGREE 6 6.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD WORK 2025

Interpretation of Result:

The result in table 4.3 indicated that with more orientation on the negative impact of Artificial

Intelligence, Self medication practice can be reduce among students of City College, with the

following responses from the students base on data collected: Strongly agree 42, Agree 31,

Neutral Opinion 12, Strongly disagree 9 and Disagree 6.

36
Table:4.4

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ON SELF MEDICATION AFFECTS STUDENTS

COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND MAKE STUDENT MISS CLASSES.

OPTIONS Frequency Percent

STRONGLYAGREE 52 52.0

AGREE 31 31.0

NEUTRAL 10 10.0

STRONGLYDISAGREE 4 4.0

DISAGREE 3 3.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY 2025

Interpretation of Result:

Result from table 4.4 shows that used of Artificial Intelligence on self medication affects

cognitive function of students with choices as indicated: Strongly agree 52, Agree 31, Neutral

10, Strongly Disagree 4 and Disagree 3 respectively.

37
Table:4.5

I DO SEARCH FOR MEDICINE USING AI AND IT WORKS PERFECTLY FOR ME

OPTIONS Frequency Percent

STRONGLYAGREE 45 45.0

AGREE 28 28.0

NEUTRAL 10 10.0

STRONGLYDISAGREE 9 9.0

DISAGREE 8 8.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY 2025

Interpretation of Result:

The result obtained in table 4.5 shows that most of the students search for result and it does work

for them perfectly with the responses collected as shown above: Strongly agree 45, Agree 28,

Neutral 10, Strongly Disagree 9 and Disagree 8 respectively.

38
Table:4.6

TYPE OF SICKNESS THAT BECOMES REASON FOR SELF MEDICATION USING AI.

OPTIONS Frequency Percent

FEVER 52 52.0

TOOTHACHE 31 31.0

ABDOMINAL PAIN 10 10.0

COUGH 4 4.0

OTHERS 3 3.0

Total 100 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY 2025

Interpretation of Result:

The result obtained based on the students responses shows the common frequent sickness of

using AI includes: Fever with 52 responses, Toothache with 31 responses, Abdominal pain with

10 responses, Cough with 4 responses and other opinions for using AI for self medication with 3

responses.

39
CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study examined the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) among students of City College of

Health Sciences and Technology Zaria, Kaduna State. The study aimed to appraise the impact of

AI practice and it implications on self medication among they students.

A descriptive survey design was employed, using structured questionnaires distributed to

students within the school. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The findings showed

that a significant number of students used AI for self medication based on the sign and symptoms

of sickness the felt, which more often from the results obtained involved common reasons like:

Fever, Cough, Toothache, Abdominal pain, and other reasons.

It was also discovered that Students of the college felt they are in health school already so there

is nothing wrong with them in practising self medication using AI.

5.2 Conclusion

The study concluded that AI used is on increased daily among students globally due to access of

smart phones and internet connection, many students of the college by observation and personal

interviewed are on the practice of AI prescription with little knowledge of it effects at a point of

assuming a sign and symptom without going for proper test to know what is wrong.

40
5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

a. The school management should intensify more awareness on the impact of artificial

intelligence on self medication among student's

b. Students who are intending to carry out similar research should use this topic and

involves larger respondents and if Possible other School of health within Zaria LGA.

c. Similar research should be conducted within communities (e.g. Wusasa, Gwargwaje,

Madaci, Danmagaji) surrounding City College Zaria.

41
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