CHAPTER-4

ACTUATOR
SELECTION
Chapter-4 Overview

Introduction Selection Criteria

01 02

H-Bridge Circuits PWM Speed Control

03 04

Relays Solenoids
05 06

Safety & Protection Summary

07 08
INTRODUCTION
 What Are Actuators?

Fundamental Definition
Actuators are electromechanical devices that convert electrical
signals into physical motion or force .

Why Proper Selection Matters

Proper actuator selection and drive circuitry are essential for system
performance:
Ensures reliable operation under all conditions
Achieves desired speed, torque, or force
Maintains high efficiency with minimal losses
Enables safe power handling
Key Requirements for Actuator Systems

Reliable Operation Speed, Torque, Force

Actuators must deliver precise performance parameters.
Systems must operate consistently under all specified conditions.

High Efficiency Safe Power Handling

Minimize power losses and heat generation. Protect circuits and users from electrical hazards.

Engineering Insight: These requirements often involve trade-offs. For example, higher torque may reduce speed or
increase power consumption. Proper design balances all factors.
Common Types of Actuators

DC Motors Stepper Motors Servo Motors

Convert DC voltage into continuous rotary motion. Move in discrete steps for precise positioning DC motor with feedback control for precise angular
Speed is proportional to voltage. without feedback. positioning.

Relays Solenoids

Electromechanical switches that use low-power signals to control high-power Produce linear motion when current flows through a coil.
circuits.

Selection Criteria: Each actuator type has unique characteristics making it suitable for specific applications. The
choice depends on motion type, precision, speed, and force requirements.
ACTUATOR SELECTION
Selection Depends on System Requirements

Application-Specific Choice Systematic Evaluation Process

Actuator selection is not one-size-fits-all. Each application A structured approach ensures all critical factors are considered:
has unique requirements that dictate the optimal choice. Define Requirements
1

Evaluate Constraints
2

Select Actuator
3
Interconnected Factors
Design Drive Circuit
4
Selection parameters are interdependent. Changing one requirement
affects others. For example, increasing speed may reduce available
torque or increase power consumption.

Critical Point: Rushing the selection process often leads to over-specified (expensive) or under-performing (unreliable)
systems. Take time to analyze all requirements thoroughly.
 Type of Motion

Linear Motion Rotary Motion

Movement along a straight line with defined stroke length. Movement around a rotational axis with angular displacement.

Key Parameters Key Parameters

• Stroke length: Maximum travel distance • Angular range: Rotation limits (degrees/revolutions)
• Force: Push/pull capability (N) • Torque: Rotational force (N⋅m)
• Speed: Linear velocity (m/s) • Speed: Angular velocity (RPM)

Common Applications Common Applications

Critical Impact on System Design

Motion type is the primary decision that dictates actuator family. Converting between motion types adds complexity and cost
(e.g., using leadscrews or gears). Choose the motion type that best matches your application's needs.
Load Requirements

Torque Force
Rotational force that causes angular acceleration (N⋅m or oz⋅in). Linear force that causes linear acceleration (Newtons or pounds).

Key Specifications Key Specifications

• Peak torque: Maximum instantaneous capability • Peak force: Maximum instantaneous push/pull

• Continuous torque: Sustained operation without overheating • Continuous force: Sustained without damage

• Stall torque: Maximum at zero speed • Holding force: Maintaining position

Peak vs Continuous Safety Margins Measurement Methods

Use load cells for direct measurement or
Peak is for short durations; continuous Add 20-50% margin to calculated loads.
calculate based on mass, acceleration, and
defines sustainable capability. Exceeding This accounts for unforeseen loads, ensuring
friction.
limits causes overheating. reliable operation.
Speed Range and Positioning Accuracy

Speed Requirements Positioning Accuracy

Define the operational speed range your application requires. The precision with which the actuator can achieve target positions.

Key Parameters Key Parameters

• Minimum speed: Slowest operation • Accuracy: Deviation from true position
• Maximum speed: Fastest operation • Repeatability: Ability to return to position
• Speed range: Ratio of max to min • Resolution: Smallest incremental step
• Acceleration: Rate of change • Backlash: Lost motion on reversal

Speed Control Feedback Systems Environmental Factors

Use PWM for DC motors. Consider gearing to match Encoders and resolvers provide position feedback for Temperature, vibration, and humidity affect accuracy.
load to motor's optimal range. closed-loop control. Choose actuators rated for the environment.
Operational Parameters

Duty Cycle Power Supply

The ratio of ON time to total cycle time, expressed as a percentage. Available voltage, current, and type (AC or DC) significantly influence
actuator choice.
Classification
• Continuous duty (100%): Constant operation
Considerations

• Intermittent duty (1-99%): Cyclic operation • Voltage level: 5V, 12V, 24V, 110V, 220V

• Short-time duty: Brief operation periods • Current capacity: Maximum available

• Stability: Regulation and ripple

Temperature Effects Humidity & Corrosion Vibration & Shock

Extreme temperatures affect actuator performance. High humidity or corrosive environments require High-vibration applications need ruggedized actuators
Derate specifications or choose specialized actuators. sealed or stainless steel actuators. with robust mounting and connections.
Economic and Maintenance Factors

Cost Considerations Maintenance

Look beyond initial purchase price to total cost of ownership (TCO). Consider accessibility, service intervals, and expected lifespan.

Cost Components Factors

• Initial cost: Purchase price • Service intervals: Time between maintenance
• Installation cost: Labor and materials • Accessibility: Ease of service
• Operating cost: Energy consumption • Parts availability: Lead times
• Maintenance cost: Service and repairs • MTBF/MTTF: Reliability metrics
• Downtime cost: Lost productivity

Lifecycle Analysis Energy Efficiency Supplier Support

Estimate actuator lifespan under your duty cycle. High-efficiency actuators reduce operating costs, Technical support, documentation quality, and
Consider wear items like brushes and bearings. especially in continuous duty applications. warranty terms affect long-term satisfaction.
H-BRIDGE
DRIVE CIRCUITS
 What Is an H-Bridge?
Fundamental Definition
An H-bridge is a power electronic circuit used to control the
direction of rotation of DC motors.

Why "H" Bridge?

The name comes from the circuit configuration:

• Four switches arranged in an "H" shape

• The motor sits at the crossbar of the H

• Power supply connects to the vertical legs

Key Advantage: H-bridges enable bidirectional control using a

single power supply, simplifying design.
Basic H-Bridge Configuration

Four-Switch Arrangement Circuit Schematic

H-Bridge uses four switches (transistors or MOSFETs) in an H shape.

Components
• Switches (S1-S4): Power transistors

• Motor: Connected between bridge outputs

• Power supply: V+ and ground

• Control logic: Gate/base drivers

Switch Types

• S1 & S4 ON: Forward rotation

• S2 & S3 ON: Reverse rotation

• All OFF: Motor stop (coast)

• Invalid states: S1+S3 or S2+S4 (short circuit!)

Switch States and Motor Actions

H-Bridge Truth Table

Switch State S1 S2 S3 S4 Motor Action Current Path

Forward ON OFF OFF ON ↻ Forward Rotation V+ → S1 → Motor → S4 → GND

Reverse OFF ON ON OFF ↺ Reverse Rotation V+ → S2 → Motor → S3 → GND

Coast/Stop OFF OFF OFF OFF ⏸ Coast to Stop No current flow

Brake OFF OFF ON ON ⏹ Dynamic Brake Motor terminals shorted

SHORT CIRCUIT ON OFF ON OFF ⚠ DESTRUCTIVE V+ directly to GND!

SHORT CIRCUIT OFF ON OFF ON ⚠ DESTRUCTIVE V+ directly to GND!

Forward Operation Reverse Operation Braking

S1 and S4 conduct, current flows left-to-right through S2 and S3 conduct, current flows right-to-left. Motor S3 and S4 conduct, shorting motor terminals. Dynamic
motor. Motor rotates clockwise (viewed from shaft end). rotates counter-clockwise. braking stops faster than coasting.
 Critical Warning: Shoot-Through

What Is Shoot-Through? How Shoot-Through Occurs

Shoot-through occurs when high-side and low-side transistors
conduct simultaneously.

Consequences
• Direct short circuit across power supply
• Massive current flow (limited only by supply)

• Instantaneous overheating of transistors

• Permanent damage to components
• Power supply shutdown or failure

⚠ THIS CONDITION MUST BE AVOIDED AT ALL COSTS!

• Timing mismatch: Delays in turn-off vs turn-on

• Insufficient dead time: No gap between transitions

• Component variations: Different switching speeds
• Noise interference: False triggering

Dead-Time Insertion Gate Drive Resistance Integrated Drivers

Carefully select gate resistors to control turn-
Introduce a time gap between turning off one Use dedicated H-bridge drivers with built-in dead-
on/turn-off times and prevent simultaneous
transistor and turning on its complement. time and protection circuits.
conduction.
Analog (Discrete) H-Bridge Implementation

Components Used Discrete H-Bridge Circuit

Discrete designs use individual components for maximum flexibility.

Power Transistors

Freewheeling Diodes

Gate Resistors

Control Logic Component Roles

Q1-Q4: Power transistors | D1-D4: Flyback diodes | R1-R4: Gate
resistors

Design Flexibility: Discrete implementations allow custom transistor selection, accommodating any voltage or current
requirement.
Advantages of Discrete H-Bridge Design

Flexible Design High Power Cost Effective

Maximum customization for specific needs. Excellent for high-power motors beyond IC Economical for custom or high-volume
ratings. designs.

Application Examples Design Optimization

• Industrial automation: Large motors • Thermal management: Custom heat sinks
• Electric vehicles: Traction motors • EMI/EMC control: Optimized layout
• Robotics: High-torque servo drives • Protection levels: As needed
• Custom applications: Unique requirements • Redundancy: Parallel transistors
Disadvantages of Discrete H-Bridge Design

Complex Wiring Larger Size Protection Circuits

Significant design and assembly complexity. Requires more PCB area. External protection circuits are essential.

Design Time Skill Requirements

• Longer development: Weeks to months • Power electronics: Design expertise

• Testing: Extensive validation • Thermal design: Management

• Debugging: Complex • EMC/EMI: Compliance

• Certification: Safety testing • Safety: Standards

Recommendation: Discrete designs are best for high-power or unique requirements. ICs are better for low-medium power or faster development.
Integrated H-Bridge ICs

What Are Integrated H-Bridge ICs?

Single-chip solutions that integrate all H-bridge components, simplifying motor control design.

Popular H-Bridge IC Examples

L293D L298N

DRV8871 TB6612FNG

Selection Criteria: Choose based on current, voltage, number of motors,

and protection features. Check datasheets carefully.
Features of Integrated H-Bridge ICs

Built-in Transistors Flyback Diodes

Integrated power transistors (MOSFET or BJT) eliminate Integrated freewheeling diodes protect against inductive spikes.
external components.

Thermal Shutdown Over-Current Protection Under-Voltage Lockout

Monitors die temperature and shuts down if Current sensing limits or shuts down on Prevents operation at low supply voltages.
exceeded. Prevents damage from excessive current. Protects against shorts, Protects against brownout conditions and
overheating. Auto-recovery when cooled. stalls, and other fault conditions. ensures reliable operation.

Benefit: Integrated protection features greatly improve reliability and simplify design. They protect against common failure
modes.
Advantages of IC-Based H-Bridges

Compact Size Easy Interface High Reliability

Single package integrates all components. Logic-level inputs connect directly to Built-in protection circuits prevent damage.
microcontrollers.

Faster Development Lower Skill Barrier

• Reduced design time: From weeks to hours • No power design expertise needed: Simplified
• Simplified PCB layout: Minimal routing • Beginner-friendly: Accessible to hobbyists
• Proven solutions: Reference designs • Well-documented: Datasheets and app notes
• Easy debugging: Fewer potential issues • Community support: Forums and tutorials

Ideal For: Students, hobbyists, and rapid prototyping. IC-based solutions are the best starting point for most applications.
Disadvantages of IC-Based H-Bridges

Limited Current Less Flexibility

Current ratings are limited compared to discrete designs. Fixed specifications and limited configuration.

Package Limitations Vendor Dependency Obsolescence Risk

Power dissipation is limited by package thermal You're limited to available ICs. If specs don't match, ICs can be discontinued, forcing redesign. Discrete
resistance. Exceeding ratings causes shutdown or you need a different IC or discrete design. components have longer availability.
failure.

Design Trade-Off: ICs offer convenience at the cost of flexibility and power. Choose based on your specific requirements.
Analog vs IC H-Bridge Comparison
Comprehensive Feature Comparison
Feature Analog (Discrete) IC Based

Complexity HIGH Low

Size Large Compact

Protection External Built-in

Power Handling High Limited

Cost (Low Volume) Medium-High Low-Medium

Cost (High Volume) Low-Medium Low-Medium

Design Time Weeks-Months Hours-Days

Flexibility Maximum Limited

Reliability Depends on Design High (Factory Tested)

Choose Discrete When: Choose IC When: Hybrid Approach:

High power (>5A), unique requirements, maximum optimization, Low-medium power (<5A), rapid development, limited Use IC for control + external transistors for power, combining

or high-volume cost optimization experience, or space constraints benefits of both approaches

PWM SPEED
CONTROL
The Need for PWM in Motor Control

Problem: Resistive Control Solution: PWM

Traditional voltage control using resistors is extremely inefficient. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controls average voltage efficiently.

Why Inefficient? Key Benefits

• Excess power dissipated as heat • High efficiency: 90-98%
• Linear regulator: 30-60% efficiency • Reduces power loss significantly
• Requires heat sinks and cooling • Less heat generation
• Poor battery life in portable systems • Digital control compatibility

Efficiency Comparison Heat Reduction Modern Standard

Resistive: 30-60% PWM switches transistors fully ON or OFF, minimizing PWM is the standard method for motor speed control
Linear Regulator: 40-70% time in linear region where heat is generated. in virtually all modern electronics.
PWM: 90-98%
What Is Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)?

Fundamental Definition
PWM is a modulation technique that controls the average voltage delivered to a load
by varying the duty cycle of a fixed-frequency signal.

Two Key Parameters

1. Fixed Frequency

2. Variable Duty Cycle

Analogy: Like flicking a light switch rapidly. The ratio of ON time to OFF time determines
brightness.
Principle of PWM: Duty Cycle

Duty Cycle Formula PWM Timing Diagram

Duty Cycle (%) = TON / T × 100

TON (On Time) T (Total Period)

Duty Cycle Examples

• 0% duty: Always OFF (0V average)

• 25% duty: ON 1/4 time (25% of supply)

• 50% duty: ON half time (50% voltage)

• 75% duty: ON 3/4 time (75% voltage)

• 100% duty: Always ON (100% voltage)

• Solid line: ON time (TON)

• Dashed line: OFF time (TOFF)

• Period T: Constant for all duty cycles

Example: 12V supply, 50% duty → 6V average. 25% duty → 3V average. Linear relationship!
PWM Waveform Visualization
25% Duty Cycle 50% Duty Cycle 75% Duty Cycle

Vavg = 0.25 × Vsupply Vavg = 0.5 × Vsupply Vavg = 0.75 × Vsupply

Key Observations Practical Implications

• Period T remains constant • Smooth speed control across range

• Pulse width varies with duty cycle • High efficiency at all duty cycles

• Average voltage scales linearly • Digital implementation friendly

• Motor speed follows average voltage • Microcontroller-compatible

Speed Control Using PWM

Average Motor Voltage Formula Motor Speed Relationship

Higher duty cycle → higher average voltage → higher motor speed.
Vavg = D × Vsupply
Speed Control Range
D (Duty Cycle) Vsupply • 0% duty: Motor stopped (0 RPM)

• 10-20% duty: Minimum starting speed

• 20-90% duty: Linear speed range

Example Calculations • 100% duty: Maximum speed

• 25% duty: 0.25 × 12V = 3V

Important Notes
• 50% duty: 0.50 × 12V = 6V

• 75% duty: 0.75 × 12V = 9V

• 100% duty: 1.00 × 12V = 12V

Starting Considerations Load Effects Frequency Selection

Motors require higher current to start. Use soft-start (gradually Heavier loads reduce speed at a given duty cycle. Closed-loop Choose PWM frequency above motor response (>1kHz) and
increase duty) to avoid current spikes. control (feedback) maintains constant speed. above audible range (>20kHz) to avoid singing.
PWM Generation Methods

Microcontrollers Analog Comparators Dedicated PWM ICs

Most common method using hardware timers. Pure analog method using triangle wave and Specialized chips for PWM generation.
comparator.
How It Works Features
Circuit

Method Comparison Selection Criteria

• MCUs: Most flexible, programmable • Complexity: MCU for complex

• Analog: Simple, no programming • Cost: Analog for simple

• Dedicated ICs: Specialized features •

• Choice depends: on system requirements Precision: MCU or dedicated IC

• Time-to-market: MCU or dedicated IC

Modern Trend: Most new designs use MCUs with built-in PWM modules. They offer the best balance of flexibility and cost.
Key Advantages of PWM Control

High Efficiency Smooth Speed Control

90-98% efficiency across the entire speed range. Linear and precise speed adjustment from stop to maximum.

Less Heat Generation Digital Control Compatible

Minimal thermal management requirements. Seamlessly integrates with modern digital systems.

Industry Standard: PWM is used in everything from toys to electric vehicles. Master it for effective motor control.
CHAPTER 05

RELAYS &
SOLENOIDS
 What Is a Relay?
Fundamental Definition
A relay is an electromechanical switch that uses an electrical signal to mechanically
switch circuits on or off.

Key Functions

Power Switching Electrical Isolation

Signal Amplification Logic Interface

Essential Component: Relays are fundamental components in automation, control systems, and
power electronics.
Relay Construction Components

Core Components Contact Types

Coil COM (Common)

Armature NC (Normally Closed)

NO (Normally Open)

Spring Contact Ratings Enclosure

Contacts rated for voltage, current, and power. Exceeding Protects internal components from environment. Plastic
Returns armature to default position when coil is de-
ratings causes arcing and damage. for low-power, metal for high-power applications.
energized. Determines switching speed and contact force.
Relay Working Principle

Coil Energized Coil De-Energized

When current flows through the coil: When current stops flowing:

Sequence Sequence
1. Magnetic field generated by coil 1. Magnetic field collapses
2. Armature attracted to coil 2. Spring returns armature
3. COM contact moves from NC to NO 3. COM contact returns to NC position
4. NC contact opens, NO contact closes 4. NO contact opens, NC contact closes
5. Load circuit energized 5. Load circuit de-energized

Switching Time Contact Bounce Back EMF

Typical relays switch in 5-20ms. Fast enough for most Contacts may bounce briefly (milliseconds) on switching. Collapsing magnetic field induces high voltage spike. Use
applications but not for high-speed switching. Use debouncing for digital circuits. flyback diode for protection.
Types of Relays

Electromechanical Relay Solid-State Relay (SSR) Reed Relay

Traditional mechanical relay with moving parts. No moving parts—uses semiconductor switching. Hermetically sealed contacts in glass tube.

Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics

Selection Criteria Comparison Table

• Electromechanical: General purpose, cost-effective • Speed: SSR > Reed > Electromechanical

• Solid-state: High-speed, reliable, quiet • Power: Electromechanical > SSR > Reed

• Reed: Low-power, compact, sealed • Life: SSR > Reed > Electromechanical

• Choice depends: on speed, power, environment • Cost: SSR > Reed > Electromechanical

Hybrid Relays: Combine mechanical contacts with semiconductor switches to get benefits of both types.
Relay Driver Circuit Design

Transistor Amplifier Flyback Diode Protection

Relays require higher current than typical logic outputs can provide. Mandatory protection against back EMF voltage spikes.

Why Needed? Why Critical?

• MCU GPIO: 10-20mA max • Collapsing magnetic field induces spike

• Relay coil: 50-500mA typical • Can reach hundreds of volts

• Transistor amplifies current • Destroys transistors and logic

• Provides sufficient drive current • Diode provides safe path for current

Common Transistors Diode Connection

Circuit Configuration Optical Isolation Relay Driver ICs

Control signal → base resistor → transistor base. Relay coil For extra protection, use optocouplers to isolate control circuit Dedicated driver ICs (e.g., ULN2003) integrate multiple
between V+ and transistor collector. Diode across coil. from relay driver completely. transistor drivers with flyback diodes.

Critical Warning:NEVER omit the flyback diode! It is essential for circuit protection. Without it, your transistor and possibly your MCU will be destroyed.
 KEY TAKEAWAYS

Actuator Selection H-Bridge Circuits

PWM Speed Control Relays & Solenoids

Best Practices