Subtopic 2.
4 Climate and
Biomes
Guiding Questions
● How does climate determine the distribution of natural systems?
● How are changes in Earth systems affecting the distribution of biomes?
● What role do human activities play in altering the distribution and
characteristics of biomes?
● How do ocean currents and atmospheric circulation patterns influence
regional climates and biomes?
Weather and
Climate
2.4.1 Weather and Climate
Watch the video and answer
Q1
2.4.1 Weather and Climate
Weather: Atmospheric conditions over a
short period (e.g., daily or weekly).
Climate: Average atmospheric conditions
over a long period (e.g., 30 years).
Examples: Weather includes daily
temperature, humidity, and precipitation;
climate includes long-term patterns like
Mediterranean or tropical climates.
[Link]
2.4.1 Understanding
Weather and Climate
Weather Journal: Over the next week, keep a weather
journal, recording daily weather conditions.
Then, compare your data to the long-term climate data
of their area
Q2
2.4.2 Global Biome
Distribution
Similar climatic
conditions wherever they
happen on Earth develop
ecosystems with shared
characteristics called
biomes
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution
of Biomes
Biomes are a major association of vegetation that share similar climate
characteristics and so biome distribution is largely determined by the climate. The
three main factors govern the distribution of biomes
● Insolation: The amount of solar radiation received by an area.
● Precipitation: The amount and distribution of rainfall or snowfall in an area.
● Temperature: The average and seasonal variation in temperature.
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution
of Biomes
Watch the video and
complete Q4
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution of Biomes
● Insolation (the amount of Sun's energy reaching the surface)
○ Tilt of Earth’s axis
○ It is measured by the amount of solar energy received per square centimetre per
minute.
[Link]
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution of Biomes
● Precipitation
○ Any form of water, liquid or solid, that falls from the Earth's atmosphere to
the surface. It is a fundamental component of the Earth's water cycle and
plays a crucial role in shaping our planet's climate and ecosystems
○ Usually measured in mm per metre squared. (mm3)
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution of Biomes
● Temperature
○ The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles within the
environment of that ecosystem. It represents the level of heat present in the
ecosystem, which has significant implications for the organisms and
ecological processes within it
○ Land and water absorb and retain heat differently
○ Usually measure in degrees Celsius.
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution of Biomes
● Latitude: Distance north and south from the equator.
● Altitude: Height above sea level. Air is less dense at higher altitudes.
Mountain
Altitude Ice and
snow
Tundra (herbs,
lichens,
mosses)
Coniferous
Forest
Latitude
Deciduous
Forest
Tropical
Forest Tropical Deciduous Coniferous Tundra (herbs, Polar ice
Forest Forest Forest lichens, mosses) and snow
2.4.5 Factors Governing Distribution of Biomes
●Rain shadow: a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area. The
mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a
"shadow" of dryness behind them.
[Link]
weather-extremes-helping-elementary-students-understand-weather-patterns-rain-shadows-
and-weather-extremes/
2.4.5 Factors Governing
Distribution of Biomes
● The large-scale movement of air and ocean currents across the Earth's surface.
● It is driven primarily by differential heating, as well as the Earth's rotation, and
the distribution of landmasses and oceans.
2.4.6 Ocean Currents and Winds
Winds cause ocean currents
and the Great Ocean
Conveyor Belt distribute
massive amounts of heat
from the equator towards the
poles.
2.4.5 The Tricellular Model
Atmospheric circulation is a mechanism that explains the distribution of precipitation
and temperature, which in turn influence the structure and productivity of different
terrestrial biomes.
2.4.5 The Tricellular Model
2.4.5 The Tricellular Model
1. Hadley: near the equator; typically circulate hot or warm air
2. Ferrel – mild latitudes; typically circulate air with moderate temperature
3. Polar – near Earth’s poles; circulates cold air
4. Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
Hot air contains the most energy
and therefore can hold more water
vapor than cold air; hence, the
tropics are generally wetter than
the polar zones. Spring, summer
and fall are wetter than winter
2.4.5 The Tricellular Model
Hadley Cell Impact on Climate
● Warm, moist air converging near the equator causes heavy precipitation – tropical rain
forests
● Creates the trade winds, tropical rain-belts and hurricanes, subtropical deserts and the
jet streams.
● Descending air is very stable and dry. As the air descends, low relative humidities are
produced – deserts
● Seasonal variation due to fluctuations – dry and wet seasons of savannahs
2.4.5 Coriolis Effect
Winds don’t blow directly north or
south because the Earth is
rotating towards the East.
Because of this anything not fixed
on the Earth appears to veer to
the right.
Watch the video and
complete Q6d
2.4.5 The Tricellular Model - Activity
Use the tricellular model of atmospheric circulation and link it to the planetary
distribution of heat and biomes.
Label the tricellular model on Q6.
2.4.3 Climate Graphs
Climate graphs are frequently used to
display the typical temperature and
precipitation patterns at a given
location over the course of a year.
These graphs generally include a
continuous red line that shows the
average monthly temperature and a
simple bar chart that illustrates the
average monthly rainfall amounts.
2.4.3 Climate Graphs
2.4.3 Climate Graphs -
Activity - Q7
Create climate graphs showing annual precipitation/
average temperature for different biomes.
Biomes
2.4.4 Biomes
A biome is a group of
comparable ecosystems that
have developed in similar
climatic conditions,
wherever they occur.
2.4.4 Biomes
● Biomes can be categorized into groups that include freshwater,
marine, forest, grassland, desert and tundra.
● Each of these groups has characteristic abiotic limiting factors,
productivity and diversity.
2.4.4 Biomes
Although opinions vary there are 5 major types of biome:
● Aquatic (some split this into freshwater and marine)
● Forest—tropical, temperate and boreal (taiga),
chaparral.
● Grassland—tropical or savanna and temperate.
● Desert—hot and cold.
● Tundra—arctic and alpine.
2.4.4 Biomes - Activity
Complete Q8
2.4.4 Biomes - Activity - Q8
For each biome you must identify the following:
● Location
● Climate (climate model)
● Nutrient Cycle
● Relative productivity
● Limiting factors
● Biodiversity
● Named plant and animal example
● Plant and Animal adaptations (vegetation structure)
● Problems
2.4.4 Biomes - Limiting Factors - Q8
2.4.4 Biomes - Productivity - Q8
2.4.4 Biomes - Biodiversity - Q8
2.4.4 Biomes
Biomes are not uniformly distributed
● They cross national boundaries
● Real biomes do not have sharply defined boundaries.
● Ecotones = Transitional zones
● A mosaic of patches
● Vary in microclimate, soil types, disturbances
2.4.7 Biome Shifts
With an increase in mean global
temperature and changes in precipitation,
evidence suggests biomes are moving.
It is estimated that between one tenth and a
half of the earth will be affected by biome
shifts
More than 89% of the changes that we
have seen in ecosystems today are
consistent with a response to climate
change.
[Link]
2.4.7 Biome Shifts
The climate is changing in these ways:
● Temperature increase of 1.5 – 4.5 degrees Celsius by 2100 (IPCC Report).
● Greater warming at higher latitudes.
● More warming in winter than summer.
● Some areas are becoming drier, others warmer.
● Stronger storms.
● Organism cannot adapt (evolutionarily) this quickly. They must, if they are
able, migrate.
2.4.7 Biome Shifts
● Organisms are moving towards the
cooler poles.
● Organisms are moving to higher
altitudes—500 mm of altitude
results in a 3 degree drop in
temperature.
● Organisms are moving towards the
equator where it is wetter.
[Link]
2.4.7 Biome Shifts
Watch the video and complete
Q12
2.4.7 Biome Shifts
Examples of Shifting Biomes:
● In Africa, in the Sahel region,
woodlands are becoming savannas.
● In the Arctic, tundra is becoming
shrubland.
● The Himalayas – species can move
no higher than the land mass.
● Equatorial Eastern Africa – with a
very drought-sensitive climate.
● The Mediterranean Region(s) –
drought, high temp.
● Madagascar – more extreme weather
events.
● The North American Great Plains and
Great Lakes .
2.4.7 Biome Shifts
Watch the video and complete Q13
2.4.7 Biome Shift - Activity
Research the effect of climate change on a local or regional biome and
produce a case study that explains the causes and effects of the shift.
HL ONLY
2.4.8 General Patterns of Climate
There are three general patterns of climate
types that are connected to biome types.
● tropical (seasonal and equatorial)
● temperate (maritime and continental)
● polar.
[Link]
2.4.8 Tropical Climate Types:
Equatorial Tropical Climates:
Location: Near the equator, from Tropic of
● Consistently high
Cancer (23.5° N) to Tropic of Capricorn
temperatures
(23.5° S)
● High rainfall year-round
● Supports lush, biodiverse
Characteristics:
rainforests
● High temperatures (20–30 °C)
Seasonal Tropical Climates:
● High humidity
Wet season:
● Year-round rainfall (exceeds 60 mm
● Heavy rains
each month)
● Warm temperatures
● Supports abundant
vegetation
Dry season:
● Drought conditions
2.4.8 Tropical Climate
Biomes: Climate Variations:
● Tropical rainforests Tropical Wet Regions:
● Tropical grasslands ● Hot and muggy
● Hot deserts ● Frequent rainfall
● Little temperature
variation
Arid and Semi-Arid Regions:
● Wet, warm summers
● Cooler, drier winters
● Greater temperature
variation
2.4.8 Temperate (Maritime and Continental)
Location: Characteristics:
● Northern Hemisphere: ● Temperature in the
Southern edge of the Arctic coldest month: 0°C to
Circle to the Tropic of Cancer 18°C
(23.5° to 66.5° N) ● At least one month with
● Southern Hemisphere: an average temperature
Northern edge of the Antarctic above 10°C
Circle to the Tropic of Capricorn ● Warm to hot summers,
(23.5° to 66.5° S) cool winters
● Greatest temperature
variations throughout the
year
2.4.8 Temperate (Maritime and Continental)
Continental Climates: Regions:
● Found in Eurasia and North
America ● Much of the United
● Greater temperature extremes States, Europe, Southern
due to inland location half of South America
Climate Variations:
● Cold, snowy winters (e.g., New
England)
● Balmy, moderate weather (e.g.,
Mediterranean, Southern
California)
2.4.8 Polar
Location: Characteristics:
● Arctic and Antarctic regions ● Prolonged cold
● Far northern areas of Canada, ● No months averaging
Europe, and Russia above 10°C
● Greenland and Antarctica ● Ice cap climate: Monthly
● High altitudes (e.g., Himalayas) average never above 0°C
2.4.8 Polar
Ice Cap Zone: Effects on Environment:
● Dominated by snow and ice ● Extreme cold prevents
● Accumulation of glaciers plant growth
● Temperatures rarely rise above ● Formation and movement
freezing, even in warmest of glaciers
months
2.4.9 Primary Influences on Biome Development
Urbanisation
Impact:
● Urbanization replaces natural habitats with buildings, roads, and other
infrastructure to meet human needs.
Consequences:
● Disruption of biogeochemical cycles.
● Fragmentation and loss of habitats, threatening species and leading to
potential ecosystem collapse.
● Alteration of local climates, creating urban heat islands.
● Interruption of natural water flows and increased pollution.
2.4.9 Primary Influences on Biome Development
Deforestation
Impact:
● Removing large numbers of trees from forests leads to habitat loss, affecting
biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
Consequences:
● Disruption of biogeochemical flows, especially carbon and water cycles.
● Degradation of soil health, increasing erosion and reducing fertility.
● Alteration of local climates, potentially changing precipitation patterns and
temperatures.
● Contribution to global climate change through increased carbon emissions.
2.4.9 Primary Influences on Biome Development
Agriculture
Impact:
● Agriculture transforms biomes by replacing diverse natural habitats with
monocultures and less diverse crops.
Consequences:
● Disruption of biogeochemical flows, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus cycles.
● Simplification of food webs, reducing biodiversity.
● Alteration of soil composition and water availability, impacting local climates.
● Potential shifts in the distribution and characteristics of nearby biomes due to
changed environmental conditions.
2.4.9 Primary Influences on Biome Development
2.4.10 The El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO)
Normal Trade Winds and Walker Circulation:
● Trade winds move east to west across the Pacific Ocean.
● Warm equatorial surface water is pushed westward towards Asia and
Australia.
● Upwelling occurs along the South American coast, bringing cold, nutrient-
rich waters to the surface.
● Supports healthy marine ecosystems and fishing economies in South
America.
● Warm water in Asia leads to evaporation, cloud formation, and rain,
supporting agriculture.
2.4.10 The El Niño Southern Oscillation
(ENSO)
ENSO Cycle:
● Occurs every 2 to 7
years, alternating
between:
● El Niño: Warmer phase.
● La Niña: Cooler phase.
Irregular pattern makes it
difficult to predict.
2.4.10 The El Niño Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) - Activity - Q19
Analyze a specific ENSO
event and its global impact.
2.4.11 El Niño
● During El Niño, the normal east-west trade winds
weaken or reverse.
● The Walker Circulation, which typically moves
warm water from the eastern Pacific to the western
Pacific, is disrupted.
● The weakened winds allow warm water to
accumulate in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean, increasing surface temperatures.
● Increased surface stratification decreases the
upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water near the coast
of north-western South America, leading to
reduced marine productivity.
2.4.11 La Niña
● In contrast, La Niña is characterized by a
strengthening of the Walker Circulation. The trade
winds become stronger, enhancing the movement
of warm water towards the western Pacific.
● This strengthens upwelling in the eastern Pacific,
bringing colder, nutrient-rich water to the surface.
● The increased upwelling boosts marine
productivity near the coast of north-western South
America.
2.4.11 El Niño and La Niña
2.4.11 El Niño and La Niña
Examples of Resulting Weather Patterns and Ecosystem Changes
El Niño Example: Peru
● Increased rainfall leading to severe flooding, landslides, and destruction of
infrastructure.
● Reduced upwelling decreases fish populations, impacting local fishing
industries and marine biodiversity.
La Niña Example: Australia
● Increased rainfall leading to widespread flooding, benefiting agricultural
productivity but also causing flood damage.
● Enhanced marine productivity in the eastern Pacific boosts fish populations,
supporting fisheries and biodiversity.
2.4.11 El Niño and La Niña
[Link]
2.4.11 El Niño and La Niña - Activity - Q22
Research two examples of resulting weather patterns in specific locations
and the resulting changes to productivity of marine ecosystems and
agriculture
2.4.12 Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are powerful, rapidly circulating storm systems originating in the
tropics. Characterized by a low-pressure center, strong winds, and heavy rainfall.
Classification:
● Hurricanes:
● Tropical cyclones that form in the Atlantic Ocean or the northeastern Pacific Ocean.
Wind speeds exceed 119 km/hr (74 mph).
● Typhoons:
● Tropical cyclones that form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean are called typhoons.
Wind speeds exceed 119 km/hr (74 mph).
● Cyclones:
● In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, tropical cyclones are simply referred to as
cyclones. Wind speeds exceed 119 km/hr (74 mph).
2.4.12 Tropical Cyclones
2.4.12 Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
Formation:
● Tropical cyclones form over warm ocean waters in the tropics.
● Develop when sea surface temperatures are above 26.5°C (80°F),
● Features a low-pressure center, also known as the eye, surrounded by strong
winds and thunderstorms.
Movement:
● Tropical cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect.
● Their path is influenced by global wind patterns and the Earth's rotation.
2.4.12 Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
Structure:
● Eye: The calm, clear center of the storm with the lowest pressure.
● Eye Wall: The area surrounding the eye with the most intense winds and heavy
rainfall.
● Rainbands: Bands of thunderstorms that spiral outward from the eye wall,
bringing heavy rain and strong winds.
[Link]
2.4.12 Impacts of Tropical Cyclones
Strong Winds:
● High wind speeds can cause extensive damage to buildings, infrastructure, and
vegetation.
● Winds can turn debris into dangerous projectiles, posing significant risks to life
and property.
Heavy Rainfall:
● Intense rainfall can lead to severe flooding, damaging homes, crops, and
infrastructure.
● Saturated soils can trigger landslides in hilly or mountainous regions, causing
further destruction.
Storm Surge:
● The strong winds and low pressure of tropical cyclones can push large volumes
of seawater onto coastal areas, causing storm surges that lead to severe coastal
flooding and erosion.
2.4.12 Impacts of Tropical Cyclones
2.4.13 Rises in Ocean Temperatures
Global Warming:
● Driven by the increase in greenhouse gases.
● Causes a rise in ocean temperatures.
Impact on Cyclones:
● Warmer ocean waters and air have more energy.
● Leads to increased intensity and frequency of hurricanes and typhoons.
Significance:
● Highlights the connection between climate change and extreme weather
events.
2.4.13 Rises in Ocean Temperatures
Research how rising ocean
temperatures have affected
hurricane and typhoon activity and
its effect on a specific community.
- Q25
2.4.13 Rises in Ocean Temperatures
The graph shows Accumulated
cyclone energy (ACE). ACE is an
index used to measure the activity
of a cyclone/hurricane season. It
combines the number of hurricane
systems, how long they existed
and how intense they became.