Chapter 6

Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing And
Spreading

6.1
Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming
can be achieved by spreading.

6.2
6-1 MULTIPLEXING
• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a single data link.

•As data and telecommunications use increases, so does

traffic. We can accommodate this increase by continuing
to add individual links each time a new channel is
needed or we can install higher-bandwidth links and use
each to carry multiple signals.

6.3
 MULTIPLEXING
• In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of
one link.
• In Figure 6.1, the lines on the left direct their
transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which
combines them into a single stream (many-to one).
• At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a
demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream
back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and
directs them to their corresponding lines.
• In the figure, channel refers to the portion of a link that
carries a transmission between a given pair of lines.
6.4
Figure 6.1 Dividing a link into channels

6.5
Figure 6.2 Categories of multiplexing

6.6
 1- Frequency-Division Multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing(FDM) is an
analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the
combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
• In FDM, signals generated by each sending device
modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that can be transported by the link.
• Channels can be separated by strips of unused
bandwidth-guard bands- to prevent signals from
overlapping.

6.7
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
• With FDM, the frequency spectrum of a link is shared
among the connections established across the link.
• Specifically, the link dedicates a frequency band to
each connection for the duration of the connection.
• In telephone networks, this frequency band typically
has a width of 4 kHz.
• The width of the band is called, not surprisingly, the
bandwidth.
• FM radio stations also use FDM to share microwave
frequency spectrum.

6.8
Figure 6.3 Frequency-division multiplexing

6.9
Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.

6.10
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Process in FDM.
Multiplexing Process
• Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency
range.
• Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals
modulates different carrier frequencies (f1, f2, and
f3). The resulting modulated signals are then
combined into a single composite signal that is sent
out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.

6.11
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Process in FDM.
Demultiplexing Process
• The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to
decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals.
• The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from their carriers
and passes them to the output lines.

6.12
Figure 6.4 FDM process

6.13
Figure 6.5 FDM demultiplexing example

6.14
 Example 6.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20-
to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-
kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-
kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as
shown in Figure 6.6.
6.15
Figure 6.6 Example 6.1

6.16
 Example 6.2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.
6.17
Figure 6.7 Example 6.2

6.18
 Other Applications of FDM
• AM and FM radio broadcasting.
• TV Broadcasting
• Cellular phones.

6.19
 2- Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is
designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-
optic cable.
• The optical fiber data rate is higher than that of
metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable
for a single line wastes the available bandwidth.
Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into
one.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that
the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical
signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. We
are combining different signals of different
frequencies.
6.20
Figure 6.10 Wavelength-division multiplexing

6.21
Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

6.22
 3- Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital
process that allows several connections to share the
high bandwidth of a link.
• Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in
FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a
portion of time in the link.
• Digital data from different sources are combined into
one timeshared link. However, this does not mean
that the sources cannot produce analog data; analog
data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then
multiplexed by using TDM.
6.23
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
• For a TDM link, time is divided into frames of fixed
duration and each frame is divided into a fixed
number of time slots.
• When the network establishes a connection across a
link, the network dedicates one time slot in every
frame to the connection.
• These slots are dedicated for the sole use of that
connection, with a time slot available for use (in
every frame) to transmit the connection's data.

6.24
Figure 6.12 TDM

6.25
Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

6.26
 Synchronous TDM
• In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an
allotment in the output even if it is not sending data.
Time Slots and Frames
• In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection
is divided into units, where each input occupies one input
time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of
data.
• Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one
output time slot.
• The duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than
the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s,
the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of
connections. In other words, a unit in the output connection
has a shorter duration; it travels faster.
6
Figure 6.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

6.28
Note

In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.

6.29
 Example 6.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is

1kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit),
what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output
slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).

6.30
 Example 6.5 (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of

the input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The
duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an
input unit.

6.31
 Example 6.6

Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with a data stream

for each input and one data stream for the output. The
unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b)
the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit

duration, or ¼ μs.
6.32
 Example 6.6 (continued)

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit

duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So

the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second.
Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can
verify the result of the previous question by
multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per
frame.
6.33
Figure 6.14 Example 6.6

6.34
 Example 6.7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit

is 1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing,
(b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a
time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,
or 0.001 s (1 ms).

b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection,

or 4 kbps.
6.35
 Example 6.7 (continued)

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the

duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or
250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the
data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the
inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the

duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We
can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in
this case has four time slots. So the duration of a
frame is 4 times 250 μs, or 1 ms.
6.36
 Interleaving
• TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches,
one on the multiplexing side and the other on the
demultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized
and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite
directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch
opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process
is called interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as
the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from
the path

6.37
Figure 6.15 Interleaving

6.38
 Example 6.8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6.16. Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,
therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each
channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.
The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
6.39
Figure 6.16 Example 6.8

6.40
 Example 6.9

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a

time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

Solution
Figure 6.17 shows the output for four arbitrary inputs.
The link carries 50,000 frames per second. The frame
duration is therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The frame rate
is 50,000 frames per second, and each frame carries 8
bits; the bit rate is 50,000 × 8 = 400,000 bits or 400 kbps.
The bit duration is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.
6.41
Figure 6.17 Example 6.9

6.42
Figure 6.18 Empty slots

 Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does

not have data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is
empty.
 Statistical TDM can improve the efficiency by removing the empty
slots from the frame.

6.43
Figure 6.19 Multilevel multiplexing

Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the

data rate of an input line is a multiple of others.

6.44
Figure 6.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing

Multiple slot multiplexing - involves to allotting more

than one slot in a frame to a single input line. For
example, we might have an input line that has a data
rate that is a multiple of another input.

6.45
Figure 6.21 Pulse stuffing

 Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of

each other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can be
applied.
 One solution is to make the highest input data rate the
dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines
with lower rates. This technique is pulse stuffing.

6.46
 Frame Synchronization
• In TDM, we need to ensure Synchronization between
the multiplexer and demultiplexer.
• If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not
synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may be
received by the wrong channel.
• For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are
usually added to the beginning of each frame.
• These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern,
frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to
synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can
separate the time slots accurately.
6.47
Figure 6.22 Framing bits

6.48
 Example 6.10

We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per

second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data
rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each
frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the
data rate of the link.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2
kbps.
6.49
 Example 6.10 (continued)

b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;

therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or
4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source,
which means the link needs to send 250 frames per
second to keep the transmission rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note
that the duration of each frame is the same as the
duration of each character coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
6.50
 Example 6.11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and

another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed.
How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What
is the frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link?

Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots
to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The
frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries
1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000
frames/s × 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.

6.51
Figure 6.23 Digital hierarchy

6.52
Table 6.1 DS and T line rates

6.53
Figure 6.24 T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

6.54
Figure 6.25 T-1 frame structure

6.55
Table 6.2 E line rates

6.56
 Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
• In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are
dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth
efficiency.
• Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to
send is it given a slot in the output frame.
• In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each
frame is less than the number of input lines.
• The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin
fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line
has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and
checks the next line.
6.57
Figure 6.26 TDM slot comparison

6.58
6-1 SPREAD SPECTRUM
• In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from
different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our
goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming.
• To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add
redundancy.
• Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless
applications(LANs and WANs). In wireless applications,
all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for
communication.
• Stations must be able to share this medium without
interception by an eavesdropper and without being subject
to jamming from a malicious intruder.
6.59
How spread Spectrum works

6.60
 How spread Spectrum works
• At the sender’s side, Input is fed into a channel
encoder that produces an analog signal with a relatively
narrow bandwidth.
• This signal is further modulated using a sequence of
seemingly random digits known as a pseudorandom
sequence.
• The effect of this modulation is to significantly
increase the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted.
• On the receiving end, the same digit sequence is used
to demodulate the spread spectrum signal. Finally, the
signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover the data.
6.61
Figure 6.27 Spread spectrum

6.62
 1-Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
• This technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal.
• At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates
another carrier frequency.
• Although the modulation is done using one carrier
frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long
run.
• The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is
BFHSS> > B.
6.63
Figure 6.28 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.64
 How FHSS works
• A pseudorandom code generator, creates a k-bit pattern
for every hopping period Th.
• The frequency table uses the pattern to find the
frequency to be used for this hopping period and passes
it to the frequency synthesizer.
• The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that
frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier
signal.
• The frequency of the carrier is periodically modified
(hopped) following a specific sequence of frequencies.
• In FHSS systems, the spreading code is this list of
frequencies to be used for the carrier signal.
6.
Figure 6.29 Frequency selection in FHSS

6.66
Figure 6.30 FHSS cycles

6.67
Figure 6.31 Bandwidth sharing

6.68
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
• This technique also expands the bandwidth the original
signal, but the process is different.
• In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a
spreading code.
• In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits,
called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the
data bit.
• In DSSS, the spread signal can provide privacy if the
intruder does not know the code.
• In DSSS systems, the spreading code is the chip
sequence used to represent message bits.
6.69
Figure 6.32 DSSS

6.70
DSSS Example- At the sender

6.71
DSSS Example – At the Reciever

6.72
 Revision Questions
1. Describe the goals of multiplexing.
2. Which of the three multiplexing techniques is common for
fiber optic links? Explain the reason.
3. Distinguish between synchronous and statistical TDM.
4. Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz.
We need to multiplex 10 voice channels with guard bands of
500 Hz using FDM. Calculate the required bandwidth.
5. We need to transmit 100 digitized voice channels using a pass-
band channel of 20 KHz. What should be the ratio of bits/Hz if
we use no guard band?
6. Define spread spectrum and its goal..
7. Define FHSS and explain how it achieves bandwidth
spreading.
8. Explain how DSSS achieves bandwidth spreading.
6.73
 End
Be Blessed
6.74