CLASS NOTES

SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Space technology can be defined as the application of scientific knowledge and engineering principles to design, develop,
manufacture, operate, and utilize systems and tools for activities conducted in or related to outer space.
About Vikram Sarabhai
 is considered the Father of the Indian Space Program.
 Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR): • Convinced the Indian government to establish
INCOSPAR in 1962. • Served as its first chairman
 Restructured INCOSPAR into ISRO in 1969
Key Contribution :
 Launched India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, in 1975. was launched from the former Soviet Union
 Successfully conducted India’s first nuclear test in 1974. •
 Played a crucial role in developing India’s satellite communication and remote sensing capabilities.
Other Achievements::
 Established the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA). •
 Served as the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India. •
What Was the First Satellite in Space?
 Sputnik 1 was the first satellite in space. The Soviet Union launched it in 1957
 Explorer 1 satellite in 1958, was America's first man-made satellite.
WORLD SPACE ORGANISATION
Satellites have been launched and operated by :
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration : USA : formed 1958,HQ Washington DC
 Indian Space Research Organisation, formed 1969, Bengaluru
 European Space Agency, ESA, formed 1975 in Paris
 Roscosmos , of Russia in 1992 Moscow ( 1955- 1991 Soviet space progam)
 China National Space Administration, CNSA of China, formed 1993, Beijing HQ
 Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) , formed 2003 HQ Tokyo
Glonass is Russian Satellite Navigation System considered as counterpart to GPS of US, Galileo of European Union (EU) and
Beidou of China and Quasi-Zenith Satellite System of Japan

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BACKGROUND :
 1962 - Formation of INCOSPAR - The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962 chaired by
[Link] Sarabhai. ( founding father of Space Programme )
 1963 - Formation of TERLS - Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thiruvananthapuram for upper
atmospheric research.
 First Rocket was launched into space by India on 21 November, 1963- Nike Apache -Sounding rocket from TERLS . (
Recently ISRO commemorated the 60th anniversary)
 The first rocket, a Nike-Apache, procured from the US
 A sounding rocket is a rocket, which is intended for assessing the physical parameters of the upper atmosphere
 RH stands for 'Rohini' sounding rocket and the numeral indicate the diameter of the rocket in mm.
 India’s first indigenous sounding rocket, RH-75, was launched on November 20, 1967.
 Reason Why Thumba Selected: The geomagnetic equator of the earth passes over Thumba.
 INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969 within the Department of Atomic Energy and then in 1972 government
of India set up Space commission and DoS , bringing ISRO under it .
 ISRO Formed 15 August, 1969, Bangalore.
 ISRO built First Satellite , Aryabhata , which was launched by the Soviet Space Agency Interkoscoms in 1975
 Prof Udupi Ramachandra Rao was Indian space scientist and former chairman of ISRO, designed Aryabhata. Known
For " Satellite Man of India ".
SPACE COMMISSION
 is the apex body in the Indian government responsible for the formulation of policies and overseeing the
implementation of the Indian space program. It works under the Department of Space (DOS).
 is a high-level advisory body in India, headed by the Prime Minister, that oversees and formulates the country's space
program
 Formed in 1972
 The current Chairman of the Space Commission is Dr. V. Narayanan. He assumed office on January 14, 2025,
succeeding Dr. S. Somanath.
Objective of Space Commission
 Supreme Decision making body related with Space
 Make Space Related Policy
 Promotion of Space Technology and Techniques
Composition :
 Chairman : Secretary -Department of Space
 Member Principal Secretary to PM
 Member: National Security Advisor to PM
 Member: Cabinet Secretary
 Member :Principal Scientific Adviser to GOI
 Member: Chairman, IN-SPACe

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  Member : Foreign Secretary
 Member : Expenditure Secretary
 and other various members
Chairman List of Space Commission :
 Dr. Vikram Sarabhai: 1963 - 1971
 Prof. M. G. K. Menon: January 1972 - September 1972
 Prof. Satish Dhawan: 1972 - 1984
 Prof. U. R. Rao: 1984 - 1994
 Dr. K. Kasturirangan: 1994 - 2003
 Shri G. Madhavan Nair: 2003 - 2009
 Dr. K. Radhakrishnan: 1 2009 - 2014
 Dr. Shailesh Nayak (Interim): January 2015 - January 2015 (for a brief period)
 Shri A. S. Kiran Kumar: 2015 - 2018
 Dr. K. Sivan: 2018 - January 2022
 Dr. S. Somanath: January 2022 - January 2025
 Dr. V. Narayanan: January 14, 2025 - Present

SPACE DEPARTMENT
 Formed 1972
 Hq Bangalore
 Implement Policies made by the Space Commission
 autonomous unit of DOS
 Key Important Agencies :

1. Physical Research Laboratory : Ahmedabad

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 2. National Atmospheric Research Laboratory, Gadanki ,Tirupathi Andhra Pradesh
3. North Eastern Space Applications Centre: Umiam, Meghalaya
4. Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology- Thiruvananthapuram ( Asia First Space University )
HOW SPACE PROGRAMME BENEFICAL FOR A COUNTRY ( INDIA)
 Used in Various Domains and Provide Range of Beneficial Services.
 Immense importance for our economic security and lives
 Play a Big Role in Planning , Governance and Development of both Central and State Ministries
 For natural resources inventory and management
 disaster management support and risk reduction strategies
 Mapping of Mangroves , Coastal Ecosystems, Land degradation and Desertification, Solar and wind atlas
 being used in the crop insurance scheme in the agriculture sector and the soil health cards campaign
 Used in meteorological and early warning services and Communication services INSAT satellites are used for
telecommunications, television, streaming, etc
 geostatonary sateliites are used for meteorlogy and weather related monitoring, forecats and disaster managemnt
support.
 Used For Space probes: used to study the planets which can bring valuable information about the space bodies.
 Used in Tele- medicine : The digital transmission of medical imaging, remote medical diagnosis and treatment of
patients by means of telecommunications technology.
 Used in Tele - health is the distribution of health-related services and information via electronic information
and telecommunication technologies
 Used in Tele- education : an education in which the students receive instruction over the Internet, from a video, etc.,
instead of going to school
So, The synergistic use of remote sensing, communication and navigation satellites is needed for efficient management and
conservation of country’s natural resources and maximizing the efficiency of the national missions
Now ISRO Referred As India's SOFT POWER
Reason :
ISRO is pursuing international cooperation with space agencies and space related bodies with the objectives of enhancing the
capacity of Indian space program, strengthening diplomatic relations and formulating global guidelines on space.
MAJOR AREAS OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATON OF ISRO
 Realisation of joint satellite missions;
 accommodation of payloads/instruments in Indian satellites;
 establishment of ground station in other countries to support ISRO’s missions;
 sharing of satellite data and expertise; and
 contribution to the global initiatives on disaster management
Ex : Two -Joint Satellite Missions of ISRO and CNES (French national space agency)
 Megha-Tropiques(launched in 2011)
 SARAL(launched in 2013) : Satellite with ARGOS and ALTIKA (SARAL) is a joint Indo-French satellite mission
for oceanographic studies.
ISRO Ground Stations Outside India :
 ISRO is operating Telemetry Tracking and Tele-Command (TTC) ground stations in Indonesia, Brunei and Mauritius.
 ISRO also operates remote sensing data reception station in Antarctica
ISRO SPACE POLICY 2023
 AIM: To Promote the growth of the Indian Space Industry
 Involvement of Private Sector/ Parties
 Encourages non-government entities (NGEs) to invest in research and development in the space sector.
 Augment India's Space Capabilities
 Enable and Encourage the Development of Commercial Space Sector in India.
 Pursue International Relations in the Space Sector.

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 Establishment of a Regulatory Body called (IN-SPACe),
 The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre Under DOS
 will be responsible for regulating and promoting the commercial space sector in India
 located in Ahmedabad in 2020
 will act as a link between the ISRO and private sector companies

Agencies And Institutes: related with ISRO

 Indian Space Research Organisation
o Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram.
o Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Thiruvananthapuram.
o Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC-SHAR), Sriharikota.
o ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), Mahendragiri.
o ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore.
o Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad.
o National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad.
o ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU), Thiruvananthapuram.
o Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad.
o Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS), Bangalore.
o Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun.
o Master Control Facility (MCF), Hassan, Karnataka and Bhopal**
o ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), Bangalore.
TT&C (Telemetry, Tracking, and Command) are two fundamental component of space mission, they are crucial for maintaining
communication with and control over spacecraft. In the context of space, it's the "eyes and ears" of mission control on Earth
ISRO Ground Stations Outside India :
 ISRO is operating Telemetry Tracking and Tele-Command (TTC) ground stations in Indonesia, Brunei and Mauritius.
 ISRO also operates remote sensing data reception station in Antarctica
ISRO SIX MAJOR CENTRES:
1. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram;
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 2. U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), Bangalore;
3. Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC – SHAR) at Sriharikota;
4. Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore and Mahendragiri,
5. Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad and
6. National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad.
Major Functions of the Six Centres:
Key Centres of ISRO
ISRO Centres Specification
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram Building of Launch Vehicles
U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), Bengaluru Designing and Development of Satellites
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota Integration and launching of satellites
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Valiamala and Development of liquid stages including cryogenic stage
Bengaluru
Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad Sensors for Communication and Remote Sensing satellites
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad Remote Sensing satellite data reception processing and
dissemination
 Launch Vehicles are build at VSSC Thiruvananthapuram
 Satellites are designed and developed at URSC, Bangalore;
 Integration and launching of satellites and launch vehicles are carried out from SDSC, Shriharikota;
 Development of liquid stages including cryogenic stage is carried out at LPSC,
 Sensors for Communication and Remote Sensing satellites and application aspects of the space technology are taken
up at SAC, Ahmedabad and
 Remote Sensing satellite data reception processing and dissemination by NRSC, Hyderabad.
Important For Exam :
 Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university. Asia’s first
Space University, was established at Thiruvananthapuram in 2007
 Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bangalore Antrix's job is to promote products, services and
technology developed by ISRO. ( for Foreign )
 NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), 2019, Bangalore; Formed Under Department of Space and it is commercial arm of
ISRO with objective : enabling Indian industries to take up high technology space related activities ( for India/
Domestic)

Space Start Ups Launch Vehicle Name HQ

Skyroot Aerospace Vikram series Hyderabad
Agnikul Cosmos Agnibaan Chennai
Bellatrix Aerospace Chetak Bengaluru
ORBITS
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An orbit is the curved path, regular and repeating path that an object in space (such as a star, planet, moon, asteroid or
spacecraft) takes around another object due to gravity

ORBITS CLASSIFICATION
Types of Orbit based on Altitude

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Speed of Satellite in LEO is More than HEO (due to the higher gravitational force of the Earth acting on the satellite)
The speed of a satellite with respect to earth is inversely proportional to its altitude

Eccentricity of an orbit indicates the deviation of the orbit from a perfect circle. It governs the shape of an orbit (1 or 0) Zero-
Circular Orbit and Value 0 or 1 = elliptical orbit
For a circular orbit, e=0.- For an elliptical orbit, 0<e<1
Orbital inclination: It is the angle between the plane of an orbit and the equator
An orbital inclination of 0°is directly above the equator, and 90°crosses right above the pole ( Polar Satellite )

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Orbital Period: Time taken by Satellite to complete one revolution. varies between 90 min to 24 H
Ex LEO 90 to 100 min (varies 88 – 127) ; MEO - 12 Hours and HEO - 24 Hours
Retrograde and prograde directions describe the motion of satellites in relation to the rotation of body ( earth)
Satellite Orbit Moves in Same Direction of Earth Movement - West to East : Prograde Orbit ( requires less energy - ex
Geostationary communication satellite, International Space station- Inclination Range between 0° and 90° ( Equator and
Polar Orbit )
Satellite Orbit Moves in Opposite Direction of Earth Movement : Retrograde Orbit ( requires more energy - ex
Geostationary communication satellite, International Space station- Inclination Range between 90° and 180°
Ex Israel launches its reconnaissance satellites into retrograde orbits over the Mediterranean Sea to avoid debris falling on
populated areas during launch

Geostationary Orbit ( GSO)

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  Distance from Earth remains the Same at all times - 36000km (35784km)-
 circular Path- located only be above Equator( equatorial Plane)
 So there can be only 1 GSO -
 The satellites don’t change latitude.
 Orbital Period 24 Hours -
 Zero Eccentricity ( circular Orbit) and Zero Inclination( laititude)
 Application : Weather, communication ( INSAT and GSAT Series ) and global positioning satellites
 3 geostationary satellites are required to cover entire Earth

Geo Synchronous Orbits (GSnO) or Clarke Orbit

 are almost at a distance of 36,000 km (35,784 km) to the earth.
 The orbit is elliptical ((ie. The distance from the Earth may change)
 The satellites may change latitude
 Orbit may be inclined and may not lie on the equatorial plane. Thus, there can be many geo synchronous orbits.
 Orbital Period: 24 Hours
 Application : monitoring weather, communications and surveillance

Transfer Orbits : are intermediate orbits used to shift a satellite from one orbit to another

Examples:

 Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO): A very common application. Satellites are launched into a Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
and then use a Hohmann transfer to reach Geostationary Orbit (GEO) at approximately 35,786 km above the equator.
The GTO is a highly elliptical orbit with its perigee (closest point) in LEO and its apogee near GEO altitude.
 Used to minimizing fuel consumption, optimizing travel time, or leveraging gravitational assists

Statement 1: A transfer orbit allows a spacecraft to directly enter its final operational orbit without any intermediate
steps.
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 Statement 2: The perigee of a Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) is typically at a low Earth orbit altitude.
Answer: d) Statement 1 is false, and Statement 2 is true. (Transfer orbits are intermediate steps.)
Polar orbit is a Low Earth orbit where satellites travel past Earth from north to south; Polar orbit follows a circular shape;
hence, eccentricity is close to zero.; Inclination of the polar orbits around 90 degrees, with a deviation ranging from 20 to 30
degrees Application : Remote Sensing Satellites, Resources and Disaster Management)
What is the defining characteristic of a polar orbit?
a) Its orbital plane is aligned with the Earth's equator.
b) Its orbital plane is inclined at approximately 45 degrees to the Earth's equator.
c) Its orbital plane passes over or very near the Earth's poles.
d) Its orbital plane remains fixed relative to the stars.
Answer: c) Its orbital plane passes over or very near the Earth's poles.
Which of the following applications heavily relies on data from satellites in polar orbits?
a) Telecommunications for fixed locations.
b) Global Positioning System (GPS).
c) Weather forecasting and Earth observation.
d) Direct-to-home television broadcasting.
Answer: c) Weather forecasting and Earth observation.
What is the typical inclination of a sun-synchronous orbit, a special type of polar orbit?
a) 0 degrees
b) 90 degrees
c) Approximately 98 degrees (depending on altitude)
d) 180 degrees
Answer: c) Approximately 98 degrees (depending on altitude)
Que : Consider the Statements:
Statement 1: Satellites in polar orbits experience significant atmospheric drag due to their high altitudes.
Statement 2: Polar orbits are well-suited for monitoring changes in ice caps and deforestation.
Answer: d) Statement 1 is false, and Statement 2 is true. (Polar orbits are often at lower altitudes where drag is more
significant, but the statement itself is incorrect about significant drag being due to high altitude. Their coverage makes them
ideal for monitoring.)
Que : Consider the Statements:
Statement 1: Polar orbits are primarily used for telecommunications because they offer global coverage.
Statement 2: The orbital period of a satellite in a polar orbit is typically 24 hours to allow for consistent daily coverage.
Answer: d) Statement 1 is false, and Statement 2 is true. (Polar orbits are not primary for real-time telecommunications due
to the movement relative to ground stations. Their periods are much shorter than 24 hours.)
Molniya Orbit
 Molniya orbit is part of MEO .
 Used for High Altitude Observation in Polar Regions to observe the impact of climate change on polar regions
What is the primary distinguishing feature of a Molniya orbit?
a) It is a circular orbit at a low Earth altitude.
b) It is a geostationary orbit over the equator.
c) It is a highly elliptical orbit with a high inclination (around 63.4 degrees) and a long dwell time over high latitudes.
d) It is a sun-synchronous polar orbit.
Answer: c) It is a highly elliptical orbit with a high inclination (around 63.4 degrees) and a long dwell time over high latitudes.
The high eccentricity of a Molniya orbit results in:
a) Continuous coverage of the entire Earth.
b) A long period of slow movement over one hemisphere and a fast movement over the other.
c) A constant altitude above a specific point on Earth.
d) Minimal atmospheric drag.
Answer: b) A long period of slow movement over one hemisphere and a fast movement over the other.
Molniya orbits are particularly well-suited for providing communication services to:
a) Equatorial regions.

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 b) Mid-latitude regions.
c) High-latitude regions.
d) Ocean areas.
Answer: c) High-latitude regions.
Consider the Statements :
Statement 1: Molniya orbits are circular, allowing for consistent signal strength throughout their orbit.
Statement 2: The highly elliptical shape of a Molniya orbit causes the satellite to appear to move slowly across the sky at
apogee and quickly at perigee for ground observers in the apogee's hemisphere.
Answer: d) Statement 1 is false, and Statement 2 is true.
International Space Station ( ISS)
 orbit in LEO, At altitude apprx 400 km
 In Sun Synchronous orbit
 ISS Orbits West to East covering every Part of Land on the Earth, but excludes the Polar Regions
 is a joint project between five participating space agencies:
NASA (UniteStates), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and (Canada).
 China is not related with ISS
 Inclination : 51.65° prograde Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Tiangong Space Station:
 China's space station in LEO
 Tiangong is smaller than the International Space Station
 It can accommodate up to three astronauts at a time for six-month stays
 The International Space Station (ISS) orbits at a slightly higher altitude, with different Orbital Inclinations than
Tiangong
SATELLITE
Define : Satellites are celestial bodies that orbit larger bodies, such as planets
Types : Natural and Artificial
 Artificial satellites are placed in various orbits using rockets and equipped with instruments for a wide range of
applications.
 An artificial satellite orbiting around the Earth does not fall down. This is so because the attraction of Earth Provides
the necessary acceleration for its motion. [UPSC 2011]
Why Don't Satellites Crash Into Each Other?
 Actually, they can
 Collisions are rare because when a satellite is launched, it is placed into an orbit designed to avoid other satellites.
 But orbits can change over time. And the chances of a crash increase as more and more satellites are launched into
space.
 The motion of satellites in space is highly precise and governed by complex mathematical calculations to ensure they
stay on their designated paths and avoid collisions with other satellites or space debris.

Basic Band and Their Use

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  L - Band(1 -2 GHz) : Global Positioning System Carriers and Satellite Mobile Phones.
 S - Band( 2- 4 GHz) : Radar and Communication Satellites.
 C- Band( 4 -8 GHz) : TV network satellite communications
 X- Band( 8-12GHz) : meteorological satellite and Military
 Ku -Band (12- 18 GHz): Satellite Communications
 Ka -Band (26- 40 GHz): Satellite Communications ( close range high resolutions applications)
SATELLITE USED FREQUENCY BANDS

GHz: Unit of Frequency: Equal to 1 Billion hertz ; Used to Measure Computer Processing Speed and Electromagnetic
Frequencies.
Higher Frequency : Carry More Data ; require More Power ; But More susceptible to Interference
Lower Frequency : Carry Less Data; require Less Power; But Less susceptible to Interference
These Bands are divided on the Basis of Frequency and associated Factors like
 Bandwidth
 Antenna Size
 Attenuation : Susceptibility to rain interference
 Throughput : amount of data that can be transmitted between satellite and ground station in a given amount of
time.
Means :
 Low Earth Orbit Satellites : Higher Throughput ( Reason Nearness to the Earth
 Geo Stationary Satellites : Lesser Throughput ( Reason their distance from the Earth)
 Higher Throughput Means : Higher Frequencies ; Faster Downloads; More Reliable Connections ; increased video
streaming quality ; Improved Performance ( Think Conversely : Lower Throughput Means
So Increasing Satellite Throughput Capacity can provide range of benefits to Business or Country Economy . ( competitive
advantage)
 Smaller Antennas : can receive and transmit Less data ( Low Throughput Capacity )
 Larger Antennas : can receive and transmit More data ( Higher Throughput Capacity)
Latency : delay in signal transmission
LEO : Low Latency
MEO: Medium latency
HEO satellite have high latency Variable latency (low at perigee, high at apogee)
So , When selecting a Satellite System this Factors are More Critical or Essential .
SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY USE FOR
 Telephone/ Mobile Communications
 Broadcasting - Tv, Radio , digital cinema
 Astronomy studies
 Transport ,Communication, Navigation.
 Weather Forecasting
 Internet Access, Data transmission
 Mapping
 Earth Observation, and Space exploration
TYPES OF SATELLITES
Satellites are broadly classified into two, viz., Communication satellites and Remote Sensing satellites.

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  Geostationary Communication Satellites :

INSAT Series: Indian National Satellite System ( GEO )

GSAT Series
EDUSAT
HAMSAT

A Remote Sensing satellite is intended for natural resource monitoring and management and operates from a Sun
Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO).

 Earth Observation Satellites : Used For Earth, Climate , Ocean , Disaster Observation ( USE POLAR ORBITS and LEO )
IRS Series : Indian Remote Sensing Satellite , Example like
CARTOSAT
RESOURCESAT
OCEANSAT
RISAT
ASTROSAT : Astronomy Related Satellite ,
Hubble Telescope and James Web Space Telescope
Spy Satellites or Reconnaissance Satellite for Intelligence or Military Applications
 Navigation Satellites :
GPS :Global positioning system
GAGAN
IRNSS Now NAVIC

GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN),

 is implemented jointly by ISRO and Airport Authority of India (AAI).
 The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required
for civil aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace.

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.Q With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:
1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.
3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019. Which of the statements
given above is/are correct? (2018)
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) None
Ans A
ROCKET TECHNOLOGY
SPACE PORT OF INDIA :
1 Shriharikota :
Location: 13.7178°N 80.2000°E Elevation 1 M
located north of Chennai city.
Sriharikota
 Barrier Island Located in Nellore Andhra Pradesh, previously but now part
of Tirupati district
 Satish Dawan Space Centre Located Here
 PSLV and GSLV, Sounding rockets launched here
 Impacted Pulicat lake and Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary

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Launch Vehicles used Rocket Fuel called" Propellant "

Solid Propellants:
 Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB)
 Ammonium Perchlorate (AP)
 Aluminium powder: Added as a fuel to increase the energy output.
Liquid Propellants (Earth-Storable/Hypergolic)
 Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine (UDMH)
 Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4) (oxidizer)
 Monomethylhydrazine (MMH)
Cryogenic Propellants
 Liquid Hydrogen (LH2)= Stored at extremely low temperatures (-253°C), it's a highly efficient fuel.
 Liquid Oxygen (LOX or LO2): Stored at -183°C, it's the oxidizer for liquid hydrogen.

Hybrid Propellant : mixture of solid and liquid propellant engines.

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CRYOGENIC ENGINE
 is a low temperature based technology.
 makes use of Liquid Oxygen as oxidiser(LOX) and Liquid Hydrogen as fuel (LH2) as propellants which liquefy at -
183 deg C and -253 deg C respectively.
 The United States, Russia, Japan, India, France and China are the only countries that have operational cryogenic
rocket engines.
VIKAS ENGINE:
 Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai ( VIKAS) is liquid fuel rocket engine built by ISRO
 Used to Launch PSLV ( second Stage) and GSLV Mark I, II, III
 LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark III) / GSLV Mk III used this engine in core liquid stage
 Vikas Engine not Used in SSLV
 Reusable Launch Vehicle: Under development, likely to be used in liquid stages.
Applications of Cryogenic Technology
 In Rocket Engine
 Frozen Food
 Blood Banking
 Infrared Sensors
 Electronics
 X-Rays
 Preservation of Bodies
 Grinding
 Superconductivity
 used in industrial and medical applications.
 used for the magnets of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems in most hospitals.
 fast freezing of some foods and the preservation of some biological materials such as livestock semen as well as
human blood, tissue, and embryos.
Disadvantages:
 Storage,
 huge initial capital investment,
 very sophisticated technology requiring high level of technical expertise

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 AIR BREATHING ENGINES
 These engines utilize atmospheric air for combustion, making them efficient and effective for high-speed flight.
 In the burning of fuel, air-breathing engines utilize oxygen from the environment.
 Efficiency at Various Speeds
 Ex The turbojet, turbofan , ramjet, Scramjet are among them
TYPES OF AIR BREATHING JET ENGINES:
Turbojet - first type of these engines developed for military aviation
They operate by compressing incoming air, mixing it with fuel, and igniting the mixture to produce thrust and known for high
speed capabilities but have lower efficiency at subsonic speeds.

Turbofan engine :
 More efficient at subsonic speed
 are more fuel-efficient and quieter than turbojets
 it is fusion of turbojet and turboprop engines ( use gas turbine to power propeller)
 Modern airliners, military transport, fighters
 Ex : Tejas, Sukhoi 30MKI, MIG-29, Rafale Fighter planes used turbofan engines and commercial aircrafts

Ramjet:
 It is an air breathing propulsion engine operating on the principle of supersonic combustion
 It has the absence of any rotator and relies solely on the forward motion of the engine to compress incoming air
 The ramjet gets its name from this fact; it "rams" the air hard enough to compress it to a combustible pressure.
Scramjet:
 supersonic combustion ramjet
 A scramjet engine is superior to a ramjet engine because it can run at hypersonic speeds while still allowing
supersonic combustion
 It carries liquid Hydrogen as fuel and liquid Oxygen for combustion (oxidiser) to generate thrust

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  Increase Speed, More Fuel Efficient, Good Performance than Ramjet
 Speed - greater than Mach 5 to 10
 Just like the Ramjet engines, they also have no moving parts
 The USA, Russia, India, and China (2014), have succeeded at developing scramjet technologies
So Scramjet Technology used in cruise missiles, ballistic missiles, and space launch vehicles
Scramjet Technology Used in Rockets in initial Ascent, to reduce oxidiser load, increasee pay load capacity and reduce
launch costs and scramjets cannot be used for the primary propulsion of upper stages that operate outside the Earth's
atmosphere. However, they could potentially be used for atmospheric reentry and landing of reusable stages
Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ):
 type of jet engine where a ramjet transforms into a scramjet over Mach 4-8 range,
 It can efficiently operate both in subsonic and supersonic combustion modes.

TYPES OF ROCKETS:

 Sounding Rockets
Sounding rockets
 are single- or two-stage solid-propellant rockets designed to carry scientific instruments into the upper atmosphere
for research purposes. They provide valuable data on atmospheric conditions, ionospheric studies, and other space-
related phenomena.
 ISRO’s Beginnings: India launched its first sounding rocket, the RH-500, in 1963 from Thumba, near
Thiruvananthapuram, marking the beginning of its space program
The Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR) Program:
 Consolidation: Established in 1975, the RSR program consolidated all sounding rocket activities in India.
 Payloads: These rockets carried various payloads ranging from 8 to 100 kg, including instruments to study
the atmosphere, ionosphere, and solar radiation.
To Launch Satellites in Orbit We Need Launch Vehicles :
Launch Vehicles ( LV)
 rocket Powered Vehicle used to transport and put satellites into Space.
 In India LV development Program began in early 1970s.
1. Satellite Launch Vehicle ( SLV) 1980s
2 Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle ( ASLV) 1990s
3. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle ( PSLV)

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4. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle ( GSLV)
Augmented SLV
 second generation launch vehicle
 Five stage , all solid Propellant
 weighing 40 tonnes
 Height 23.8 m
 capable of orbiting 150 kg class satellites into 400 km circular orbits

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With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
1. Polar satellite launch vehicles (PSLVs) launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLVs) are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular
location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and
fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2018)
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only
Ans A
Pushpak : ISRO RLV- Reusable Lauch Vehicle- In a first in the world, a winged body has been carried to an altitude of 4.5 km
by a helicopter and released for carrying out an autonomous landing on a runway.

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  RLV uses a winged air-craft which re enters and returned back to the earth
 Use Boosters to go to outer space.
 2 stage to orbit launch vehicle
 RLV is more cost effective wrt ELV

Satellite Launch Vehicle ( SLV)

 India’s first experimental satellite launch vehicle
 all solid Fuel
 It is a 3-stage launch vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion-based Velocity
Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
 It will be a four stage launching vehicle
 Payload capability - 500 kg to 500 km planar orbit or 300 kg to Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit.
 Unlike the PSLV and GSLV, the SSLV can be assembled both vertically and horizontally
 It would help to meet the demand of the global launch services market for small satellites (nano, micro etc).
 New Space India Limited (NSIL), a PSU, will be the sole nodal agency responsible for providing end-to end SSLV
Launch services.
 It had a height of 22m and

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NGLV -NEXT GENERATION LAUNCH VEHICLE

 The Union Cabinet has approved the development of the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) in September 2024.
 NGLV will offer higher payload capacity and will have modular green propulsion systems.
 NGLV will allow for multiple reuses, reducing operational costs and increasing operational efficiency of the booster.

Aim:

To develop a new generation of human rated launch vehicles with high payload capability & reusability.

Completion is expected by 2032.

Specifications :

 NGLV is a three-stage partially reusable Heavy-lift launch vehicle, currently under development by the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO).
 Reusability: It will have a reusable first stage, which would be utilised 15 to 20 times, to make the launches more
affordable.
 Length: NGLV is projected to have a liftoff mass of 1,000 tons and a height of 91 meters, significantly larger than the
43-meter LVM3.
 Fuel: NGLV will have semi-cryogenic propulsion (refined kerosene as fuel with liquid oxygen (LOX) as oxidiser) for the
booster stages.
 Maximum payload capability: 30 tonnes to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
 Currently, ISRO has achieved self-reliance in launching satellites through operational vehicles like PSLV, GSLV, LVM3,
and SSLV.
 LVM3 has a maximum payload capacity of 10 tonnes to LEO and 4 tonnes to Geo-Synchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).
 NGLV will have 3 fold payload capacity compared to LVM3, while its cost will be only 1.5 times more.

Vikram Launch Vehicle:

 refers to a family of small-lift launch vehicles developed by Skyroot Aerospace, a private Indian space
company of Hyderabad
 Vikram-S was the first rocket in this family and also India's first privately built rocket

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  Vikram series (Vikram I, Vikram II, and Vikram III)
Dhawan Engines
 skyroot Aerospace has developed its own series of cryogenic rocket engines named the Dhawan series, in honor of
Dr. Satish Dhawan, another prominent figure in Indian space research and a former chairman of ISRO
Agniban Launch Vehicle and mobile launchpad called ‘Dhanush,of Agnikul Cosmos
, a private space company, chennai
 launched the world's first rocket, Agnibaan Sub Orbital Technology Demonstrator (SOrTeD), powered by a fully 3D-
printed engine. It uses liquid oxygen and kerosene as propellant . t reached an altitude of about 20 kilometers before
splashing down in the Bay of Bengal.
 Launch was supported by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Indian National Space Promotion and
Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe).
3D printing refers to an additive manufacturing process used to create the rocket's "Agnilet" engine.
3D printing or Additive Manufacturing: Unlike traditional manufacturing where material is cut away (subtractive) or
molded, 3D printing builds objects layer by layer from a digital design.
3D Printing:

 3D printing is also known as additive manufacturing which uses materials such as plastics and metals to convert
products envisaged on computer-aided design to real three-dimensional items..
How 3 D Printing Technology Help Space Domain
 Less Material Waste: Additive manufacturing uses only the necessary material, minimizing waste compared to
traditional subtractive methods like machining.

General Benefits:

 Lightweighting: Reduced mass for lower launch costs and fuel consumption.
 Design Flexibility: Creation of complex and optimized geometries.
 Part Consolidation: Fewer parts, simplified assembly, increased reliability.
 Rapid Prototyping: Faster design cycles and testing.
 Customization: Tailored parts for specific mission needs.
 Reduced Waste: Efficient material usage.
 Cost Reduction: Lower manufacturing and inventory costs.
 On-Demand Manufacturing: Production of parts when and where needed.
 By enabling on-site manufacturing, 3D printing reduces the need for extensive inventories of spare parts and reliance
on multiple suppliers, streamlining the supply chain.
Advanced Capabilities:

 Topology Optimization: Creating lightweight yet strong structures.

 Advanced Materials: Utilizing specialized materials for extreme space environments.
 Integrated Functionality: Printing parts with embedded sensors or circuits.
 Self-Healing Materials: Potential for future self-repairing structures.
 Miniaturization: Creating smaller and more efficient components.

ISRO’S INTERPLANETARY MISSION

ASTROSAT: INDIA'S FIRST MULTI-WAVELENGTH SPACE OBSERVATORY
 First Indian dedicated astronomy mission
 Launched: September 28, 2015
 ISRO: Indian Space Research Organisation
 Multi-wavelength: Simultaneous observation (UV, Optical, X-ray)
 Orbit: 650 km, near-equatorial
 Mission Life: Initially 5 years (extended)
 Objective to Study neutron stars, black holes, X-ray sources , X-ray sky monitoring,Deep field UV survey
 Ground control at ISTRAC (Bengaluru)

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XPoSat Mission
Context
: Recently ISRO has Succesfully Launched its XPoSat Mission ( X ray Polarimeter Satellite )
XPOSAT - is Astronomy Observational Satellite ( telescope to study Universe at high altitude to get clear view - No Dust, No
Pollution, No light )
This is India's third Space Observatory after Aditya L1 Mission and Astrosat
India is Second Country after USA ( IXPE Mission )for studying X rays in Universe
Polarimeter
 is optical instruments provide a clarity and undistorted image about Universe Objects
 Launch: Successfully launched on January 1, 2024, aboard the PSLV-C58 rocket.
 Orbit: Low Earth orbit at an altitude of approximately 650 km.
 Mission Duration: Expected to operate for at least five years
Scientific Payloads : POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays) and XSPECT (X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing)
Purpose : to study polarization of X-rays emission from celestial sources including X-ray pulsars, black hole binaries, neutron
stars etc
After Launching a Satellite with rocket, the last part of rocket just floats like Space Debris
It is Zero Debris mission ?
 They used the last part of the rocket as a mini-space lab. They attached some experiments to it.
 called ( POEM- 3) experiment will be executed
 -due to innovative use of the PSLV's fourth stage as an orbital platform called POEM-3 (PSLV Orbital Experimental
Module-3).
 After the experiments were done, they steered this mini-lab to a lower path around Earth.
 This lower path has more air, which acts like a brake.
 They also made sure there was no fuel left in the mini-lab that could cause an explosion.
 Controlled Re-entry: Due to the lowered orbit and natural atmospheric drag, POEM-3 re-entered the Earth's
atmosphere on March 21, 2024, and burned up over the North Pacific Ocean. This ensured that no long-lasting debris
was left in orbit from this mission.
SPADEX MISSION

What is Space Docking?

Docking is the process of bringing two fast-moving spacecraft into the same orbit, moving them closer, and finally joining
them together. It is essential for missions involving heavy spacecraft, space stations, and sample return missions.
Why is Docking-Undocking Important?
 It enables assembly of large spacecraft in orbit (reducing launch weight constraints).
 It is critical for space stations (India plans to have its own space station by 2035).
 It is essential for lunar missions (e.g., Chandrayaan4’s sample return mission).
 It supports human spaceflight missions (India aims to send astronauts to the Moon by 2040
Spa DEx
 CONTEXT : Recently Space Docking Experiment ( Spa Dex ) has been successfully executed by ISRO ( Jan 2025)
 SpaDeX Mission is a cost-effective technology demonstrator mission that will demonstrate in-space docking using two
small spacecraft (‘Chaser’ and ‘Target’) launched by from a single PSLV class vehicle and to dock at an altitude of
about 700 kilometres.
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  ISRO successfully completed docking and undocking operations of SpaDeX satellites, marking a major milestone
 ISRO Launched its PSLV-C60 mission, marking a historic moment in space technology
 The Satellites carefully align with each other to perform a "Space Handshake" and connect . NASA said docking
as mating operations
 aims: to develop satellite docking technologies for future space missions like crew transfers and satellite servicing.
 This accomplishment made India the fourth country after USA, Russia and China in the world to achieve the feat.

Project NETRA of ISRO

Project NETRA (Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis) is an initiative by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) to establish an early warning system for space debris and other hazards to Indian satellites
Objective / Applications :
Space Situational Awareness (SSA): To give India its own capability to monitor and track objects in space, including active
satellites, space debris, and other potential threats.
Protecting Indian Space Assets: To safeguard Indian satellites from collisions with space debris, which can cause significant
damage and loss of functionality.
Early Warning System: To detect and track space objects as small as 10 cm in diameter in lower Earth orbits (LEO) and up
to 30 cm in geostationary orbit (GEO).
Collision Avoidance: To provide timely warnings of potential collisions, enabling ISRO to take necessary avoidance
maneuvers to protect its satellites.
Contributing to Global Efforts: To share data and analysis with international space monitoring networks, enhancing overall
space safety and sustainability.
Significance of the project:

 used to ‘predict’ threats from debris to Indian satellites.

 Increase India's Space capability .
 The effort would make India a part of international efforts towards tracking, warning about and mitigating
space debris.

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Optical Telescopes: High-precision, long-range telescopes are planned for locations like Leh, Ponmudi, and Mount Abu to get
a broader view of space. These telescopes are equipped with high-speed cameras to capture fast-moving debris.
The Indian Astronomical Observatory is already located in Hanle, near Leh, highlighting the region's suitability for optical
telescopes.
Ponmudi , Thiruvanthapuram (Kerala): Located in the Western Ghats, Ponmudi offers a strategic southern vantage point for
observing space
Mount Abu (Rajasthan): This location in the Aravalli Range provides a western observing point. The Mount Abu Observatory,
managed by the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
Control Center: The ISRO SSA Control Centre, located at the ISTRAC (ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network)
campus in Bangalore, serves as the hub for data processing, analysis, and coordination.

Lagrange point (L-points)/Halo Orbit

 Lagrange points are five special points of enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion between the Sun and the Earth
system. It is named after Joseph-Louis Lagrange, an Italian-French mathematician
 These points , offer stable positions for spacecraft to maintain their relative position to the Earth andSun. allowing the
object to remain in a stable or semi-stable position relative to the two bodies

L1 is unstable point , here satellite revolving in vertical direction

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Aditya-L1 Mission: It is the first space-based observatory-class Indian solar mission to study the Sun. It is placed in a halo orbit
around the Lagrangian point (L1)
The L1 point is home to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite (SOHO), an international collaboration project of
NASA & European Space Agency (ESA).
L2: It is located behind the Earth. Earth is between the L2 and Sun. It is a significant place to observe the larger Universe. The
James Webb Space Telescope is placed at L2
Lagrange points are locations in space where:
a) The gravitational forces of two large bodies cancel each other out completely.
b) A small object placed there will remain stationary relative to the two large bodies due to a balance of gravitational and
centrifugal forces.
c) Spacecraft require the least amount of fuel to maintain their position.
d) The magnetic fields of two large bodies are strongest.
Answer: b) A small object placed there will remain stationary relative to the two large bodies due to a balance of gravitational
and centrifugal forces.
Q : Which Lagrange point is located directly between the two large bodies?
a) L1
b) L2
c) L3
d) L4
Answer: a) L1
Q The James Webb Space Telescope is currently located near which Lagrange point of the Sun-Earth system?
a) L1
b) L2
c) L3
d) L4
Answer: b) L2
Consider the Statements :
1 Objects placed at Lagrange points require no energy to maintain their position relative to the two large bodies.
2 The L1 Lagrange point of the Earth-Sun system is a good location for solar observatories because it provides an unobstructed
view of the Sun.
1 false ( less energy require) 2 True
3 The L2 Lagrange point of the Earth-Moon system is an ideal location for telescopes observing the distant universe because it
is far from both Earth and Moon. ( true)
4 Lagrange points exist only in the Sun-Earth and Earth-Moon systems. (false. (Lagrange points exist in any two-body
gravitational system.))
ISRO Placed Aditya L1 in Halo Orbit

India's first space-based solar observatory.

Aim : comprehensive study of the Sun
Launch Vehicle : PSLV C 57
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 It is placed in a halo orbit around the Lagrange point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system, about 1.5 million km from Earth. ( 1
Au)
A key advantage of the L1 point is the continuous, unobstructed view of the Sun.
The spacecraft carries seven scientific payloads to observe the photosphere, chromosphere, and corona.
It will contribute to understanding the Sun's influence on Earth's climate.
L1 Sites :
 Aditya
 SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory): SOHO is also located in a halo orbit around the Sun-Earth Lagrange
Point 1 (L1). SOHO is a collaborative project between the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA.
 China's Kuafu-1 (ASO-S - Advanced Space-based Solar Observatory): This satellite, part of the Kuafu project, is
indeed located at the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 1 (L1).
 Parkar Solar Probe of NASA to study Sun Outer Corona located near L1
Sun Internal to External Layer

Solar Wind and Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejection are Same ? No
Recently, the Sun emitted an X-class solar flare, disrupting radio communications over parts of the United States and
the Pacific Ocean.

Q. If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?(2022)

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1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Ans: (c)
News : INDIA’S ADITYA-L1 MISSION CAPTURES SOLAR FLARE
Context: India’s first solar mission, Aditya-L1, has made a historic advancement in solar research. Through its instrument, the
Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT), Aditya-L1 has captured an extraordinary observation of a powerful solar flare,
providing new insights into solar activity
Aditya-L1 is India’s inaugural mission designed to study the Sun. It is a key part of the country’s space exploration program and
is equipped with advanced instruments, including the Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT), to monitor solar phenomena
It is positioned at Lagrange Point L1, about 1.5 million km from Earth. The mission aims to improve our understanding of solar
activities and their effects on space weather, which can impact Earth’s atmosphere and technological systems.

Sunspots : Temporary dark spots on the photosphere of strong magnetic fields on the surface of the sun. They can spawn
eruptive disturbances such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). These regions of the sun appear darker because
they are cooler than their surroundings.
Solar Cycle :
 periodic 11-year change in the Sun's activity measured in terms of variations in the number of observed sunspots on
the Sun's surface.
 The beginning of a solar cycle is a solar minimum/ when the Sun has the least sunspots
 The middle of the solar cycle is the solar maximum ( sunspots increases )
 As the cycle ends, it fades back to the solar minimum and then a new cycle begins.

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PAPA: Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya ( PAPA) payload onboard the Aditya L1 Mission detected solar wind impact
of Coronal Mass Ejections

Objectives:

 To understand the characteristics of the solar wind near Earth.

 To analyze the different ion species present in the solar wind.
 To study how the solar wind interacts with the environment in interplanetary space.
 To contribute to a better understanding of space weather phenomena.
Developer: Space Physics Laboratory, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram.

AMATERASU PARTICLES
 Context: Scientists recently detected the most powerful cosmic ray seen in more than three decades, which has been
named ‘Amaterasu’.
 Define - refers to an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray detected by Telescope Array experiment in Utah, USA
 Name: It was named "Amaterasu" after the sun goddess in Japanese mythology, reflecting its immense energy and
mysterious origin.
 Energy Level : Its energy was estimated to be 244 exa-electron volts (EeV)- That is millions of times more than
particles produced in the Large Hadron Collider, the most powerful accelerator ever built
 Mystery: Scientists are unsure what the particle is exactly and what kind of astronomical phenomenon could have
accelerated it to such extreme energies.
 Comparison to "Oh-My-God" Particle: The Amaterasu particle's energy is comparable to the "Oh-My-God" particle
(320 EeV detected in 1991), the most energetic cosmic ray ever recorded.
 The Amaterasu particle presents a significant mystery in astrophysics, potentially pointing towards unknown
astronomical phenomena or even physics beyond the Standard Model
 the "Amaterasu particle" is not a new type of fundamental particle but rather an extraordinarily energetic cosmic ray
whose detection poses a significant mystery in astrophysics, prompting further investigation into the universe's most
extreme phenomena and the laws of physics that govern them.
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) [UPSC 2016]
Mission: India’s first interplanetary space mission.
Launch: November 5, 2013, aboard PSLV-C25.
Significance: Made India the first Asian country and the fourth in the world to reach Mars in 2014.
Objectives: Study the Martian atmosphere, surface features, mineralogy, and morphology. Develop technologies for
interplanetary missions.

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Consider the following statements: (2016)
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO
1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: (c)
India is the only 4th country after the USA, Russia and Europe to have a spacecraft orbiting the Mars. Hence, statement 2 is
not correct.
As of 2023, the Soviet Union, United States and China have conducted Mars landings successfully
MARS MISSION
 Perseverance, Curosity , Odyssey - USA
 Hope Mission - UAE
 Tianwen 1 - China
 Mars Moon Expolaration mission - Japan
VENUS: SHUKRAYAAN-1
Mission: India’s first planned mission to Venus, designed to study the planet’s surface, atmosphere, and geological features.
Launch Vehicle: GSLV Mk II rocket.
Orbiter: A spacecraft of approximately 2500 kg will orbit Venus to gather data.
Objectives: Understand Venus’s climate and its evolution, Explore signs of active volcanoes and seismic activity.
Other Missions to Venus:
 Soviet Union (Venera Program)
 •United States (Mariner & Pioneer Venus)
 Venus Express: By European Space Agency (ESA), which orbited the planet from 2006 until 2016, and
 Akatsuki Venus Climate Orbiter: By Japan, which has been in orbit since 2016.

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The Vikram lander and the Pragyan rover

Name of landing Site

Jawahar Point Chandrayaan-1 Crash site on Lunar surface in 2008
Tiranga Point Chandrayaan-2 crash-landed on the Moon in 2019.
Shivshakti Point Chandrayaan -3 achieved a soft landing on the Moon's South Pole on August 23, 2023.

FIRST DETAILED GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE MOON’S SOUTH POLAR REGION

This mission has resulted in the first-ever detailed geological map of the moon’s south polar region, created by Indian
scientists. The map is shedding new light on the moon’s history, its formation, and its geological makeup
The detailed geological map was created using data from the Pragyan rover, which was deployed by the Vikram lander.
The map shows an undulating landscape, including highlands and flat plains, surrounding the landing site
It highlights the Schomberger crater, which was identified as the primary source of debris around the landing zone

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This crater is part of the lunar impact history, and its study helps understand the moon’s evolution
Magma Beneath the Surface: Data from Chandrayaan-3 confirmed that magma lies beneath the moon’s surface in the south
pole region. This supports earlier data from other missions, but it is the first confirmation of this in the high-latitude area.
Common Origin of Earth and Moon: The study revealed that Earth and the moon share a similar geochemical history and likely
originated from the same molten cloud of material about 5 billion years ago

Note : China has become the first country to successfully collect and return samples from the far side of the Moon, marking a
significant milestone in lunar exploration and space technology.
Chang’e-6 mission landed on the Moon’s far side and collected from the South Pole-Aitken Basin
The far side of the Moon is the side not visible from Earth, a result of a phenomenon called “tidal locking.”
In contrast, the near side, which constitutes 60% of the Moon’s surface, is always visible from Earth
This side isn’t actually dark; it receives ample sunlight and experiences lunar day and night cycles, just like the near side.
Day and Night: A lunar day lasts over 29 Earth days, while a lunar night is roughly two weeks long. This extended cycle is due
to the Moon’s rotation around its axis and its orbit around Earth, resulting in the same side always facing our planet.
Lunar Probe Exploration Mission (LUPEX)
Joint Mission: A collaborative venture between the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and the Japan Aerospace
Exploration Agency (JAXA).
Objective: To explore the Moon’s south polar region, focusing on the presence of water and other resources.
Launch Vehicle: Japan’s H3 rocket is scheduled to launch the mission.
Timeline: Targeted for launch in 2025.
Key Features:
 Lander and Rover: LUPEX will consist of a lander and a rover, developed by ISRO and JAXA respectively.
 Scientific Instruments: The rover will carry instruments to measure the water content of lunar regolith, drill and
sample lunar materials, and conduct other scientific experiments.
 International Collaboration: The mission will also include instruments from NASA and the European Space Agency
(ESA).
 Significance: Water on the Moon, Future Exploration, Technological Advancement.
GAGANYAAN MISSION
 It is India’s first manned space mission that will be fully indigenously developed by ISRO
 Aim : sending humans into orbit
 Significance: It will make India one of the only 4 countries in the world to launch a human spaceflight mission (after
USA, Russia and China).
 It consists of three planned flights: two unmanned missions and one crewed mission
 Crewed Mission: The final mission will carry three Indian astronauts into space.
 Objectives: Gaganyaan aims to demonstrate India’s capability in human spaceflight and conduct scientific
experiments in microgravity

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Vyom Mitra is half-humanoid and her body stops at the torso and has no legs
Key-features:
 It is capable of switching panel operations, performing Environment Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS)
functions, conversations with the astronauts, recognising them and solving their queries.
 It can detect and give out warnings if the environment changes within the cabin.
 The humanoid has been developed by the ISRO Inertial Systems Unit, Thiruvananthapuram.
Key Details of Mission :
Launch Vehicle: The GSLV Mk III (Launch Vehicle Mark-3) is the powerful rocket chosen to launch Gaganyaan.
Orbital Module: The spacecraft carrying the astronauts will be the Orbital Module
Mission Duration: The crewed mission will orbit Earth at a low-earth-orbit altitude of 300-400 kilometers for 5-7 days
Astronauts: Three Indian astronauts, including a woman, will participate in the crewed mission.
GAGAN: INDIA’S GLOBAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
Collaboration: Developed by ISRO and the Airports Authority of India, GAGAN is India’s first satellite-based global positioning
system.
Satellite Network: GAGAN relies on ISRO’s GSAT satellites for precise positioning and navigation services.
Limitation: While GAGAN offers accurate positioning, it currently only supports one-way communication. This means that
users cannot make calls using GAGAN.

GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) uses a system of ground stations to provide necessary augmentation.
Which of the following statements is/are correct in respect of GAGAN?

I. It is designed to provide additional accuracy and integrity.

II. It will allow more uniform and high quality air traffic management.
III. It will provide benefits only in aviation but not in other modes of transportation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) I, II and III
(b) I only
(c) II and III only
(d) I and II only
III Statement is Incorrect
Its accurate positioning data can be used in diverse fields such as:

 Railways: For train tracking, signaling, and safety.

 Maritime: For navigation, port operations, and search and rescue.
 Road transport: For intelligent transportation systems, fleet management, and navigation.
 Surveying and mapping: For precise location data.
 Agriculture: For precision farming and land management.

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  Disaster management: For emergency response and relief operations

GEMINI: GAGAN ENABLED MARINER’S INSTRUMENT FOR NAVIGATION AND INFORMATION

The GEMINI device, developed by ISRO, is a portable satellite receiver that can be used for communication in areas beyond
the reach of traditional cellular networks
 It offers a valuable tool for disaster management, especially in remote regions or during emergencies.

Key Features:
 Satellite Connectivity: GEMINI connects to ISRO’s satellites, enabling communication over long distances.
 Wide Coverage: The device can transmit signals up to 300 nautical miles, extending communication reach beyond the
limitations of cellular networks.
 Disaster Management: GEMINI is particularly useful during storms, strong seas, or tsunamis, providing a reliable
communication channel in emergency situations.
MISSION SHAKTI
 On March 27, 2019, India successfully conducted its first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile test, named Mission Shakti.
 This mission, carried out by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam
Island in Odisha, demonstrated India’s capability to develop and deploy a complex missile system with potential
applications in space warfare.
 The objective was to destroy a defunct Indian satellite in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at an altitude of approximately 283
kilometers
 Focus on Indigenous Development: The successful launch emphasized India’s ability to develop and execute such
intricate missions with entirely indigenous technology
 Missile Used: The mission employed the Prithvi Delivery Vehicle Mark-II (PDV MK-II), developed by DRDO. This missile
successfully intercepted and destroyed the targeted Indian Microsat-R satellite.
NISAR Mission (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar)
Purpose: To study Earth’s surface changes, monitor natural hazards, analyze climate patterns, and understand dynamic
ecosystems.
Collaboration: A joint mission between NASA and ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization).
Launch: Scheduled for 2025.
Category: Earth observation satellite
Launch Vehicle: GSLV Mk II
Launch Site: Satish Dhawan Space Center, ISRO
Orbit: Sun-synchronous orbit (LEO) at an altitude of 747 km
Significance: Comprehensive Earth Observation, Disaster Monitoring, Climate Change Research, Resource Management
Difference Between James Webb and Hubble Telescope
JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE
Work on Infrared radiations Work on Ultraviolet radiations
Large Mirror Diameter Capacity 6.5m Small Mirror 2.5m

Provide large view and proper image Provide small view

Not orbiting the Earth Orbiting the Earth
Orbiting the Sun at L2 approx 1.5 million km from Orbits at Altitude of 575 km from the Earth
the Earth
Provide Extra advantage to Studies ;about baby
galaxies or new galaxies, exoplanets etc
James Webb Space Telescope
o The telescope is the result of an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the
Canadian Space Agency which was launched in December 2021.
o It was launched on an Ariane 5 ECA rocket from French Guiana in South America.
o It's the largest, most powerful infrared space telescope ever built.
o It's the successor to Hubble Telescope.
 It is currently at a point in space known as the Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point, approximately 1.5 million km beyond
Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
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  The Lagrange Point 2 is one of the five points in the orbital plane of the Earth-Sun system.

L2 is ideal for astronomy because a spacecraft is close enough to readily communicate with Earth, can keep Sun, Earth and
Moon behind the spacecraft for solar power and (with appropriate shielding) provides a clear view of deep space for our
telescopes.
 Goal:
o To search for the first galaxies that formed after the Big Bang.
o To determine how galaxies evolved from their earlier formation until now.
o To observe the formation of stars from the first stages to the formation of planetary systems.
o To measure the physical and chemical properties of planetary systems and investigate the potential for life in
such systems.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), Gaia and Euclid are some of the important astronomical probes which are
presently in orbit around L2
ISRO’S SUCCESSFUL SPACE FARMING
Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) sent lobia (black-eyed pea) seeds into space as part of its Compact
Research Module for Orbital Plant Studies (CROPS). These seeds successfully germinated marking a significant step in space
farming research.
How Are Plants Grown in Space?
There are various methods for growing plants in space:
 Hydroponics: Plants grow without soil, using a nutrient-rich liquid solution.
 Aeroponics: Plants grow in the air with minimal water usage, absorbing nutrients from the air.
 Soil-like Media: Some plants grow in soil-like substances that provide structure and nutrients
How ISRO Grew Lobia
 ISRO used a mini greenhouse (CROPS box) with Soil-like medium: Porous clay pellets for water and nutrient
absorption.
 LED lights: Simulated day and night cycles for photosynthesis.
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  Controlled temperature & air: Maintained Earth-like conditions
 The lobia seeds sprouted in four days, showcasing the potential of space farming
Ideal Plants for Space
 Leafy greens: Lettuce, spinach, and kale.
 Beans and peas: High in protein and help improve soil.
 Root vegetables: Radishes and carrots.
 Cereals: Wheat and rice for long-term sustenance.
PRATUSH - INDIA’S MOON BASED TELESCOPE
o Context: PRATUSH is a radio telescope designed to be placed on the far side of the moon. It is built by Raman Research
Institute (RRI), Bengaluru and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

 Main roles: It will be to detect signals from the first stars and galaxies, reveal the cosmic dawn of the universe,
answering the question when the first stars formed, the nature of the first stars and what was the light from the first
stars.

What are Radio waves?

These are a type of electromagnetic radiation. A radio wave has a much longer wavelength than visible light. Humans
use radio waves extensively for communications. This radio tower has both rectangular and circular antennas to
transmit and receive radio frequency energy.
NASA INITIATIVES
GREAT OBSERVATORY PROGRAMME
 was a series of four major space-based telescopes launched by NASA between 1990 and 2003.
 Each telescope was designed to observe a specific range of the electromagnetic spectrum, providing a comprehensive
view of the universe

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NASA PERSEVERANCE ROVER MISSION on Mars to study Astrobiology: Searching for signs of ancient microbial life and
Sample Collection: Gathering rock and regolith samples for potential return to Earth
Parker Solar Probe:
 NASA’s Parker Solar Probe mission designed to study the Sun’s outer atmosphere, the corona.
 Launch-Launched in 2018,
 Objective: To understand the mechanisms that heat the corona and accelerate the solar wind.
 Significance : Sun’s behavior and its influence on the solar system, understanding of solar physics, astrophysics, and
space weather.
Lucy Mission- To study Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids, remnants of our solar system’s formation. launched in 2021.
MISSIONS TO MOON
Crewed Missions: Apollo Program (United States)
 Apollo 8: The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon in 1968.
 Apollo 11: The historic mission that saw Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans to walk on the
Moon in July 1969.
 Total Crewed Missions: A total of twelve astronauts have walked on the Moon, with the last mission being Apollo 17
in 1972.
NASA’s Artemis Program: Aims to land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon, using innovative technologies
to explore more of the lunar surface.
OUTER SPACE GOVERNANCE - Foreign Space Policy
Existing Outer Space Governance Framework
UN COPUOS: Established in 1958 by the UN General Assembly to oversee space exploration and use.
UNOOSA: Supports UN COPUOS in its work.
Key Treaties: •
 Outer Space Treaty (1967): Establishes principles for space exploration and use. •
 Rescue Agreement (1968): Addresses rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
 Liability Convention (1972): Establishes liability for damage caused by space objects.
 Registration Convention (1976): Requires registration of space objects. •
 Moon Agreement (1979): Governs activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies (India has not ratified).
 India is a signatory to all five of these treaties but has not ratified the Moon Agreement
Artemis Accords , 2020
 Developed by NASA and seven global space agency Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, UAE, UK
 Non Binding Global Principles
 Purpose: to guide the civil exploration and use of outer space and Sets Global principles for peaceful exploration and
use of outer space, Moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids.
 Foundation: Based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967.
 Signatories: India is the 27th signatory, joining other nations committed to these principles
 As of April 2025, 54 countries have signed the Artemis Accords

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Artemis Moon Mission Program led by NASA. it include Mission Like Artemis I 2022 (uncrewed test), Artemis II 2026
(crewed flyby), and Artemis III (crewed landing on the South Pole).
Manned Moon Mission - Artemis
INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
The International Space Station (ISS) is a large, habitable spacecraft orbiting Earth at an altitude of approximately 400
kilometers.
 Countries: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), and CSA (Canada).
 Orbit: Circles Earth every 90 minutes at a speed of about 28,000 kilometers per hour.
 Inhabitation: Continuously inhabited since 2011, serving as a home for astronauts from participating countries.
 Scientific Research: Serves as a platform for conducting various scientific experiments in microgravity, expanding our
knowledge of space and its implications for Earth
Recent Developments
● India is seeking to launch its own space station by 2030, joining the league of US, Russia, and China to an elite space club.
● China has been operating its completed Tiangong Space Station for almost two years now and is looking to expand its
capabilities with new modules and spacecraft. The three-module, T-shaped
Tiangong space station was fully assembled in November 2022, with the arrival of the Mengtian science module
DEFINE SPACE-BASED INTERNET
- satellite internet, is a type of internet connectivity that utilizes satellites orbiting the Earth to provide broadband service
This technology offers a potential solution for areas with limited or no access to traditional internet infrastructure, such as
rural regions, remote locations, and developing countries.

Starlink is a satellite internet system launched by SpaceX.

It uses a constellation of low Earth orbit satellites to provide high-speed, low-latency broadband internet to users, especially in
remote or underserved areas
Context: Billionaire Elon Musk has recently denied claims that his space company SpaceX’s Starlink satellite internet
technology is being used by militants in Manipur, following the discovery of Starlink devices seized by the Indian Army and
police.
India has strict regulations around satellite-based communication systems
Under the Indian Wireless Act and Indian Telegraph Act, the use of satellite phones and services like Starlink without proper
authorization is illegal
Quw : Which one of the following countries has its own Satellite Navigation System? (2023) (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Israel
(d) Japan
Q . In which of the following activities are Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites used?
1. Assessment of crop productivity
2. Locating groundwater resources
3. Mineral exploration
4. Telecommunications

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5. Traffic studies
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (2015)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 4 and 5 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Ans A
Q1. In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news? (2010)
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
(d) A space telescope developed by India
Ans: (c)
Bhuvan
 is Geospatial portal, web-based platform that allows users to explore a rich set of geographical data and imagery of
India.
 Offers 2D and 3D views of the Earth's surface, with high-resolution satellite imagery specifically focused on India
 developed by NRSC, ISRO

Consider the following space missions:

I. Axiom-4
II. SpaDeX
III. Gaganyaan
How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None
What is Microgravity?
Microgravity isn't the complete absence of gravity, but rather a state of continuous freefall.
is the condition in which people or objects appear to be weightless
Key Areas of Microgravity Research:

 Biological and Life Sciences

 Physical Sciences
 Advancements in Medicine and Healthcare
 Improved Materials and Manufacturing
 Enhanced Understanding of Fundamental Processes and understanding of how the universe works

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About Axiom Mission 4 :

 Ax-4 is the fourth private human spaceflight mission by Axiom Space to the ISS, designed to advance
international collaboration and conduct cutting-edge research in microgravity.
 Organizations Involved:
o Axiom Space (Mission organizer)
o NASA (Host at ISS)
o SpaceX (Launch vehicle and Dragon capsule provider)
 Launch Site & Timeline:
o Launch Pad: LC-39A, Kennedy Space Center, Florida
o Launch On: June 25, 2025.
o Mission Duration: ~14 days aboard the ISS
 Mission Objectives:
o Microgravity Research:
 Over 60 experiments covering life sciences, material science, human physiology, and Earth
observation.
o International Outreach & Collaboration:
 Fosters cooperation in low-Earth orbit research, setting a precedent for future global
partnerships in space.
o National Program Development:
 Enables participating countries to leap forward in their human spaceflight capabilities.
o Crew Members:
 Peggy Whitson (USA) – Commander, holds the U.S. record for longest cumulative time in
space.
 Shubhanshu Shukla (India) – Pilot, first Indian to reach ISS and second Indian in space.
 Sławosz Uznański (Poland) – ESA Mission Specialist, second Polish astronaut after 1978.
 Tibor Kapu (Hungary) – Mission Specialist, second Hungarian astronaut after 1980.
 Zero-G Indicator: “Joy” the baby swan toy—selected by Shukla and his 6-year-old son Sid.
o Significance to India:
 Revival of Human Spaceflight:
 Shukla becomes the first Indian to enter ISS and only the second Indian in space
since 1984.
 Boost to Gaganyaan & Space Station Plans:
 Mission complements India’s ambition to launch its own crewed space mission
(Gaganyaan) and build an Indian space station by 2035.
 Scientific Leadership:
 India leads and participates in multiple experiments, expanding India’s role in space science
diplomacy.

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