SCHOOL OF COMPUTING

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DATA SCIENCE

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 COURSE OBJECTIVES
Ø To understand the mathematical foundations required for data science.
Ø To describe a flow process for data science problems.
Ø To introduce basic data science algorithms and data visualization.
Ø To learn machine tools and techniques.
Ø To learn the ideas and tools for data visualization.

UNIT 2 LINEARALGEBRA 9 Hrs.

Algebraic view – vectors 2D, 3D and nD, matrices, product of matrix & vector, rank, null
space, solution of over determined set of equations and pseudo-inverse. Geometric view -
vectors, distance, projections, eigenvalue decomposition, Equations of line, plane,
hyperplane, circle, sphere, Hypersphere.

UNIT 3 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS 9 Hrs.

Introduction to probability and statistics, Population and sample, Normal and Gaussian
distributions, Probability Density Function, Descriptive statistics, notion of probability,
distributions, mean, variance, covariance, covariance matrix, understanding univariate and
multivariate normal distributions, introduction to hypothesis testing, confidence interval for
estimates.

UNIT 3 EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS AND THE DATA SCIENCE PROCESS

9 Hrs.
Exploratory Data Analysis and the Data Science Process - Basic tools (plots, graphs and
summary statistics) of EDA - Philosophy of EDA - The Data Science Process - Data
Visualization - Basic principles, ideas and tools for data visualization
- Examples of exciting projects- Data Visualization using Tableau.

UNIT 4 MACHINE LEARNING TOOLS, TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS 9

Hrs.
Supervised Learning, Unsupervised Learning, Reinforcement Learning, Dimensionality
Reduction, Principal Component Analysis, Classification and Regression models, Tree and
Bayesian network models, Neural Networks, Testing, Evaluation and Validation of Models.

UNIT 5 INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON 9 Hrs.

Data structures-Functions-Numpy-Matplotlib-Pandas- problems based on computational
complexity-Simple case studies based on python (Binary search, common elements in list),
Hash tables, Dictionary.
Max. 45 Hrs.
Course Outcome
On completion of the course, student will be able to
CO1 - Explain the basic terms of Linear Algebra and Statistical Inference.
CO2 - Describe the Data Science process and how its components interact.
CO3 - Apply EDA and the Data Science process in a case study.
CO4 - Classify Data Science problems.
CO5 - Analyse and correlate the results to the solutions.
CO6 - Simulate Data Visualization in exciting projects.

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 UNIT 2 LINEAR ALGEBRA

Algebraic view – vectors 2D, 3D and nD, matrices, product of matrix & vector, rank, null
space, solution of over determined set of equations and pseudo-inverse. Geometric view -
vectors, distance, projections, eigenvalue decomposition, Equations of line, plane, hyperplane,
circle, sphere, Hypersphere.

[Link] to Data science

• Data science is an interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes,

algorithms and systems to extract knowledge and insights from noisy, structured
and unstructured data.
• It is an analyzing method to extract accurate and deep understanding of a raw data
using methods in statistics, Machine Learning etc.
• Different process includes in data science are inspecting, cleaning, transforming,
modeling, analyzing and interpreting raw data.

Figure 1 : Collaboration of data science with other branch of studies

Data Science Life Cycle

Figure 2 :Data science life cycle process

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Applications of Data Science

• Fraud and risk detection

• Healthcare
• Airline Route Planning
• Image and speech recognition
• Augmented reality

[Link] Algebra

• Linear algebra is one of the most important mathematical and computational tools in
data science.
• It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the theory of systems of linear equations,
matrices, vector spaces, determinants, and linear transformations.

Figure 3 : Process in Linear Algebra

[Link] View: Vector

• A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction.

• Geometrically, we can picture a vector as a directed line segment, whose length is the
magnitude of the vector and with an arrow indicating the direction. The direction of
the vector is from its tail to its head.
• Vectors are used to represent numeric or symbolic characteristics, called features, of
an object in a mathematical, easily analyzable way.

Figure 4 : Vector representation

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Perpendicular vector and orthogonal vector

• Two vectors are perpendicular if the angle between them is 90 degrees.

• If two vectors are nonzero and their dot product is equal to 0, then they are
perpendicular.

• All perpendicular vectors are orthogonal.

• The 0 vector is orthogonal to everything else (even to itself)

[Link] a 2D point/Vector:

Figure 5: 2D vector plot

In 2D space, a point is defined as the (x,y) coordinates as shown above. Here, the x1 coordinate
(x coordinate) is 2, and the x2 coordinate (y coordinate) is 3.

Defining a 3D point/Vector:

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 Figure 6 : 3D vector plot

Extending the 2D concept in 3D space point ‘p’ is defined by (x,y,z) coordinates, where 2 is x1
coordinate(x coordinate), 3 is x2 coordinate (y coordinate), and 5 is x3 coordinate (z coordinate).

Distance of a point from Origin:

a) In 2D

Figure 7 : Distance of a point from origin in 2D space

In 2D space, the distance d is given by,

b) In 3D

Figure 8 : Distance of a point from origin in 3D space

In 3D space, the distance d is given by,

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 c) In nD:
In n-Dimensional space applying Pythagoras theorem on point ‘p’ we get,

Distance between two points

a) In 2D

Figure 9 : Distance between two points in 2D space

Consider we have two points say, p and q then the distance d is given by,

b) In 3D

Figure 10 : Distance between two points in 3D space

Extending the same concept in 3D space we get the distance d’ for the points p and q as
follows:

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c) In nD

Extending the above concept in nD space, we get the distance formulae as,

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[Link] Product of Vectors

[Link] Theory and Linear Algebra

• Matrices can be used to represent samples with multiple attributes in a compact form.
• Matrices can also be used to represent linear equations in a compact and simple fashion.
• Linear algebra provides tools to understood and manipulate matrices to derive useful
knowledge from data.

Figure 11 : Matrix elements

• A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions, arranged in rows

and columns.

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 • A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m×n matrix or m-by-n matrix,
where m and n are called the matrix dimensions.
• Matrices can be used to compactly write and work with multiple linear equations, that
is, a system of linear equations.
• A matrix is a 2-D array of shape (m×n) with m rows and n columns is as given below:

Tensor

Generally, an n-dimensional array where n>2 is called a Tensor. But a matrix or a vector is also
a valid tensor. A tensor is an algebraic object that describes a multilinear relationship between
sets of algebraic objects related to a vector space.

Figure 12 : Matrix and tensor

Terms related to Matrix

• Order of matrix – If a matrix has 3 rows and 4 columns, order of the matrix is 3*4
i.e. row*column.
• Square matrix – The matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of
columns.
• Diagonal matrix – A matrix with all the non-diagonal elements equal to 0 is called
a diagonal matrix.
• Upper triangular matrix – Square matrix with all the elements below diagonal equal
to 0.
• Lower triangular matrix – Square matrix with all the elements above the diagonal
equal to 0.
• Scalar matrix – Square matrix with all the diagonal elements equal to some constant
k.
• Identity matrix – Square matrix with all the diagonal elements equal to 1 and all the
non-diagonal elements equal to 0.
• Column matrix – The matrix which consists of only 1 column. Sometimes, it is used
to represent a vector.

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• Row matrix – A matrix consisting only of row.
• Trace – It is the sum of all the diagonal elements of a square matrix.

Basic operations on matrix

• Addition – Addition of matrices is almost similar to basic arithmetic addition.

Eg : Suppose we have 2 matrices ‘A’ and ‘B’ and the resultant matrix after the addition
is ‘C’. Then
Cij = Aij + Bij
For example, let’s take two matrices and solve them.
A =1 0
2 3
B = 4 -1
0 5 Then C = 5 -1
2 8
• Subtraction – Subtraction of matrices is almost similar to basic arithmetic subtraction.
Eg : Suppose we have 2 matrices ‘A’ and ‘B’ and the resultant matrix after the
subtraction is ‘D’. Then
Dij = Aij - Bij
For example, let’s take two matrices and solve them.
A =1 0
2 3
B = 4 -1
0 5
Then C = -3 1
2 -2

• Multiplication – In matrix multiplication the matrices don’t need to be quadric, but the
inner dimension needs to be same. The size of the resulting matrix will be the outer
dimensions.

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 Figure 13 : Matrix multiplication

Eg :

Applying Python on matrices

• In python, matrix can be implemented as 2D list or 2D Array.

• Matrix operations and array are defines in module “numpy“.

• add() :- This function is used to perform element wise matrix addition.

• subtract() :- This function is used to perform element wise matrix subtraction.
• multiply() :- This function is used to perform element wise matrix
multiplication.
• dot() :- This function is used to compute the matrix multiplication, rather than
element wise multiplication.
Transpose of a matrix

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Eg :

Determinant of a matrix

The determinant of a matrix can be calculated from square matrices.

Applying Python on matrices – Determinant

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Inverse of a Matrix

The formula to find the inverse of a matrix is

A-1 = 1/det(A) *Adj(A)

[Link] of a matrix
• Rank of a matrix is equal to the maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors in a matrix.
• A set of vectors is linearly dependent if we can express at least one of the vectors as a
linear combination of remaining vectors in the set.
• Note : Rank is the number of rows with non zero vectors.
• Rank of a matrix – Rank of a matrix is equal to the maximum number of linearly
independent row vectors in a matrix.
• A set of vectors is linearly dependent if we can express at least one of the vectors as a
linear combination of remaining vectors in the set.
• To Calculate Rank of Matrix There are Two Methods:
1. Minor method
2. Echelon form
— The maximum number of linearly independent rows in a matrix A is called the row
rank of A, and the maximum number of linearly independent columns in A is called
the column rank of A.
— If A is an m by n matrix, that is, if A has m rows and n columns, then it is obvious that

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 • To find the rank of a matrix, we will transform that matrix into its echelon form.
• Then determine the rank by the number of non zero rows.
• Consider the following matrix.

• While observing the rows, we can see that the second row is two times the first row.
Here we have two rows. But it does not count. The rank is considered as 1.

We can see that the rows are independent. Hence the rank of this matrix is 3.
The rank of a unit matrix of order m is m.
If A matrix is of order m×n, then ρ(A ) ≤ min{m, n } = minimum of m, n.
If A is of order n×n and |A| ≠ 0, then the rank of A = n.
If A is of order n×n and |A| = 0, then the rank of A will be less than n

Rank of a Matrix by Row- Echelon Form

— We can transform a given non-zero matrix to a simplified form called a Row-echelon

form, using the row elementary operations. In this form, we may have rows all of whose
entries are zero. Such rows are called zero rows. A non-zero row is one in which at least
one of the elements is not zero.

A matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if the following rules are satisfied.

— All the leading entries in each row of the matrix is 1
— If a column contains a leading entry then all the entries below the leading entry should
be zero
— If any two consecutive non-zero rows, the leading entry in the upper row should occur
to the left of the leading entry in the lower row.
— All rows which consist only of zeros should occur in the bottom of the matrix

A matrix A of order m × n is said to be in echelon form if

(i) Every row of A which has all its entries 0 occurs below every row which has a non-
zero entry.

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 (ii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less then the
number of such zeros in the next row.
— For example, consider the following matrix.
— Here R1 and R2 are non zero rows.
— R3 is a zero row.

— Note: A non-zero matrix is said to be in a row-echelon form, if all zero rows occur as
bottom rows of the matrix and if the first non-zero element in any lower row occurs to
the right of the first non-zero entry in the higher row.
— If a matrix is in row-echelon form, then all elements below the leading diagonal are
zeros.
— Consider the following matrix.

— Check the rows from the last row of the matrix. The third row is a zero row. The first
non-zero element in the second row occurs in the third column and it lies to the right of
the first non-zero element in the first row which occurs in the second column. Hence
the matrix A is in row echelon form.

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[Link] Space and Nullity of a Matrix

• Null space is a concept in linear algebra identifies the linear relationship among
attributes.
• The null space of a matrix A consists of all vectors B such that AB -= 0 and B ≠ 0.
• Size of null space of matrix – number of linear relation among attributes

Consider

Size of A is m * n and

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 Size of B is n * 1

Then the set of linear equations are

Eg : Find the null space for given Matrix A

Reduce the equation using Echelon form.

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[Link] - Nullity Theorem
The rank – nullity theorem helps us to relate the nullity of the data matrix to the rank and the
number of attributes in the data

Figure 14 : Rank – Nullity Theorem

Exercise 1:

Rank of the matrix r=2

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 Nullity of a matrix =n-r= 3-2=1

1.10. Linear Equations

1.11. Solution to over determined set of equations

• If there are fewer equations than variables, then the system is called underdetermined
and cannot have a unique solution. In this case, there are either infinitely many or no
solutions.
• A system with more equations than variables is called overdetermined.
• If the number of equations equals the number of variables, it is a balanced or square
system.
• A balanced system or an overdetermined system may have a unique solution.

Example 1: This system has infinitely many solutions. You can tell because these two lines
are the same. (The second one is scaled by a factor of 3.)
x+2y=4
3x+6y=12

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Notice that there is only one pivot column in this row-reduced matrix. The second column is
not a pivot column, so we call y a free variable. A system with free variables is
called dependent. Variables that do correspond to a pivot column are called fixed variables. In
general, we can express the solution of the system as the fixed variables in terms of the free
variables.

x=4−2yx=4−2y

This is a dependent system, and there are infintely many solutions, depending on the value of
the free variable y. Once a value of yy is selected, the value of x is automatically fixed.

Example 2:This system has no solution, so we call it inconsistent.

x+y+z=13
x−y−z=4
x+5y+5z=−1

We don't need to go any further than this. The last row reads 0x+0y+0z=−10x+0y+0z=−1, that
is, 0=−10=−1. Such a false statement reveals that this system of equations has no solution. It is
inconsistent.

1.12. Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors

The mathematical formulation is, Ax = λx

• The constant λ (positive) represents the amount of stretch or shrinkage the

attributes x go through in the x direction.

• The solution x are known as eigen vectors and λ is eigen values.

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 Figure 15: Eigen value λ

Characteristic Equation

The equation is called the characteristic equation of the matrix A

Note:
1. Solving , we get n roots for and these roots are called
characteristic roots or eigen values or latent values of the matrix A
2. Corresponding to each value of ,the equation AX = has a non-zero
solution vector X.

If be the non-zero vector satisfying AX= , when , is said to be

the latent vector or eigen vector of a matrix A corresponding to .
Working rule to find characteristic equation:

Fora 3x3matrix:

Method1:

The characteristic equation is

Method2:

Its characteristic equation can be written as where S1 =

sum of the main diagonal elements, S2=sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements,
S3=Determinant of A = |A|

Fora2x2matrix

Method1:

The characteristic equation is

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Method2:

Its characteristic equation can be written as where S1= sum of the

main diagonal elements, S2=Determinant of A = A

Problems:

1. Find the characteristic equation of

Solution:

Its characteristic equation is

Where S1=sum of the main diagonal elements=8+7+3=18,

S2=sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements=45

S3=Determinant of A= A=0

Therefore, the characteristic equation is .

2. Find the characteristic equation of

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is
.

S1 = 3+2=5and =3(2)–1(-1)=7

Therefore, the characteristic equation is =0.

Steps to find out the eigen value and eigen vector for variable x,

1. Find the characteristic equation

2. Solve the characteristic equation to get characteristic roots. They are called
Eigen values
3. To find the Eigen vectors, solve for different values of

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Problems:

1. Find the eigen values and eigenvectors of the matrix

Solution:
Let A= which is a non-symmetric matrix

To find the characteristic equation:

The characteristic equation of A is

Where,
,
=1(-1)–1(3)=-4

Therefore, the characteristic equation is

i.e., or

Therefore, the eigen values are 2,-2

To find the eigen vectors:

---------------(1)

Case1: If From(1)]

i.e.,

i.e., ,

i.e., we get only one equation

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Therefore
Case2:If From(1)]

i.e.,

i.e.,

i.e., we get only one equation

Hence,

[Link] the eigen values and eigen vectors of

Solution:

Let A=

To find the characteristic equation:

Its characteristic equation can be written as

where

=2(-5)-2(-6)-7(2)=-10+12–14=-12

Therefore, the characteristic equation of A is

3 1 0 -13 12

1 3 31 -4 0
 Therefore, the eigenvaluesare3,1,and-4

To find the eigen vectors: Let

Case1:If

i.e.,

(1)

(2)

(3)

Considering equations (1) and (2) and using method of cross-multiplication, we

get, x1 x2 x3
2 -7 1 2

0 2 2 0
x x x x x x
1=2=3Þ1=2=3
4 -16 -4 1 ç ÷

æ1ö

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 -4 -1
Therefore, X1=ç -4÷
ç-1÷
è ø

Case 2:If ,

i.e.,

(1)

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 (2)

(3)

Considering equations (1) and (2) and using method of cross-multiplication, we get,x1
x2 x3
2 -7 -1 2

-2 2 2 -2

x x x x x x
1=2=3Þ1=2=3
-10 -12 -2 5 6 1

Therefore,

Case3:If

(1)

(2)

(3)

Considering equations (1) and (2) and using method of cross-multiplication, we get,x1
x2 x3
2 -7 6 2

5 2 2 5

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 Therefore,

1.13. Singular Value Decomposition

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1.14. Pseudo Inverse

Pseudo inverse or Moore – Penrose inverse is the generalization of the matrix inverse that may not
be invertible. If the matrix is invertible then its inverse will be equal to pseudo inverse and denoted
by A+.

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Problems:

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1.15. Eigen Value Decomposition:

⚫ A few applications of eigen values and eigenvectors that are very useful when handing the
data in a matrix form because you could decompose them into matrices that are easy to
manipulate.

⚫ In order for the matrix “A” to be either diagonalized or eigen decomposed, it has to meet the
following criteria:

Ø Must be a Square matrix

Ø Has to have linearly independent eigenvectors

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Problem:

1.16. Equations of Line

• The equation of a line means an equation in x and y whose solution set is a line in the
(x,y) plane.

• The most popular form in algebra is the "slope-intercept" form y = mx + b.

• This in effect uses x as a parameter and writes y as a function of x: y = f(x) = mx+b.

When x = 0, y = b and the point (0,b) is the intersection of the line with the y-axis.

• Line as a geometrical object and not the graph of a function, it makes sense to treat x and
y more even handedly. The general equation for a line (normal form) is ax + by = c,

• This can easily be converted to slope-intercept form by solving for y:

y = (-a/b) + c/b,

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 except for the special case b = 0, when the line is parallel to the y-axis.

Finding the equation of a line through 2 points in the plane

— For any two points P and Q, there is exactly one line PQ through the points. If the coordinates
of P and Q are known, then the coefficients a, b, c of an equation for the line can be found by
solving a system of linear equations.

Example: For P = (1, 2), Q = (-2, 5), find the equation ax + by = c of line PQ.

— Since P is on the line, its coordinates satisfy the equation:

a(1) + b(2) = c, or a + 2b = c

Since Q is on the line, its coordinates satisfy the equation: a(-2) + b5 = c,

Or -2 a + 5b = c.

— Multiply the first equation by 2 and add to eliminate a from the equation:

4b + 5b = 9b = 2c + c = 3c, so b = (1/3)c.

— Then substituting into the first equation, a = c - 2b = c - (2/3)c = (1/3)c.

— This gives the equation [(1/3)c]x + [(1/3)c}y = c.

1.17. Equations of Plane

— A plane in 3D-space has the equation

ax + by + cz = d,

— where at least one of the numbers a, b, c must be nonzero.

— If c is not zero, it is often useful to think of the plane as the graph of a function z of x and y.
The equation can be rearranged like this:

z = -(a/c)x + (-b/c) y + d/c

— Another useful choice, when d is not zero, is to divide by d so that the constant term = 1.

(a/d)x + (b/d)y + (c/d)z = 1.

Example: Finding the equation of a plane through 3 points in space

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 — Given points P, Q, R in space, find the equation of the plane through the 3 points.

Example: P = (1, 1, 1), Q = (1, 2, 0), R = (-1, 2, 1). We seek the coefficients of an equation ax + by
+ cz = d, where P, Q and R satisfy the equations, thus:

a+b+c=d

a + 2b + 0c = d

-a + 2b + c = d

— Subtracting the first equation from the second and then adding the second equation to the
third, we eliminate a to get

b-c=0
4b + c = 2d

— Adding the equations gives 5b = 2d, or b = (2/5)d, then solving for c = b = (2/5)d and then a
= d - b - c = (1/5)d.

— So the equation (with a nonzero constant left in to choose) is d(1/5)x + d(2/5)y + d(2/5)z = d,
so one choice of constant gives

x + 2y + 2z = 5

— or another choice would be (1/5)x + (2/5)y + (2/5)z = 1

Figure 16. Equation of a plane

Example 2: P(x1, y1, z1), Q(x2, y2, z2), and R (x3, y3, z3) are three non-collinear points on a
plane. Find equation of plane.

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We know that: ax + by + cz + d = 0 —————(i)

By plugging in the values of the points P, Q, and R into equation (i), we get the following:

a(x1) + b(y1) + c(z1) + d = 0

a(x2) + b(y2) + c(z2) + d = 0

a(x3) + b(y3) + c(z3) + d = 0

Suppose, P = (1,0,2), Q = (2,1,1), and R = (−1,2,1)

Then, by substituting the values in the above equations, we get the following:

a(1) + b(0) + c(2) + d = 0

a(2) + b(1) + c(1) + d = 0

a(-1) + b(2) + c(1) + d = 0

Solving these equations gives us b = 3a, c = 4a, and d = (-9)a——————(ii)

By plugging in the values from (ii) into (i), we end up with the following:

ax + by + cz + d = 0

ax + 3ay + 4az−9a

x + 3y + 4z−9

Therefore, the equation of the plane with the three non-collinear points P, Q, and R is x + 3y + 4z−9.

Example 3: A (3,1,2), B (6,1,2), and C (0,2,0) are three non-collinear points on a plane. Find the
equation of the plane.

Solution:

We know that: ax + by + cz + d = 0 —————(i)

By plugging in the values of the points A, B, and C into equation (i), we get the following:

a(3) + b(1) + c(2) + d = 0

a(6) + b(1) + c(2) + d = 0

a(0) + b(2) + c(0) + d = 0

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Solving these equations gives us

a = 0, c = 1/2b, d = —2b ———————(ii)

By plugging in the values from (ii) into (i), we end up with the following:

ax + by + cz + d = 0

(0)x + (—by) + ½ bz — 2b = 0

x - y + ½ z —2 = 0

2x-2y + z-4 = 0

Therefore, the equation of the plane with the three non-collinear points A, B and C is

2x-2y + z-4 = 0.

1.18. Equation of hyperplane

• A hyperplane is a higher-dimensional generalization of lines and planes.

• The equation of a hyperplane is w · x + b = 0, where w is a vector normal to the hyperplane

and b is an offset.

Half Space

Figure 17: Halfspace

Example

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1.19. Equation of circle

A circle is a closed curve that is drawn from the fixed point called the center, in which all the
points on the curve are having the same distance from the center point of the center. The
equation of a circle with (h, k) center and r radius is given by:

(x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

This is the standard form of the [Link], if we know the coordinates of the center of
the circle and its radius as well, we can easily find its equation.

Example:

1. Consider a circle whose center is at the origin and radius is equal to 8 units.

Solution:

Given: Centre is (0, 0), radius is 8 units.

We know that the equation of a circle when the center is origin:

x2+ y2 = a2
For the given condition, the equation of a circle is given as
x2+ y2 = 82

x2+ y2= 64, which is the equation of a circle

2. Find the equation of the circle whose center is (3,5) and the radius is 4 units.

Solution:

Here, the center of the circle is not an origin.

Therefore, the general equation of the circle is,
(x-3)2 + (y-5)2 = 42
x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 -10y +25 = 16

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 x2 +y2 -6x -10y + 18 =0 is the equation of circle

3. Equation of a circle is x2+y2−12x−16y+19=0. Find the center and radius of the circle.

Solution:

Given equation is of the form x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,

2g = −12, 2f = −16,c = 19
g = −6,f = −8
Centre of the circle is (6,8)
Radius of the circle = √[(−6)2 + (−8)2 − 19 ]= √[100 − 19] = √81 = 9 units.

Therefore, the radius of the circle is 9 units.

1.20. Equation of sphere:

A sphere is a geometrical object in three-dimensional space that resembles the surface of a ball.
Similar to a circle in two-dimensional space, a sphere can be mathematically defined as the set of all
points that are at the same distance from a given point. This given point is called the center of the
sphere. The distance between the center and any point on the surface of the sphere is called the radius,
represented by r.
x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
This is called the equation of a sphere, also known as the general equation of a sphere or the equation
of a sphere through the circle.

i) Center - Radius form

ii) General Form

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1.21. Equation of hypersphere

• A hypersphere is a four-dimensional analog of a sphere; also known as a 4-sphere.

• The intersection of a sphere with a plane is a circle; the intersection of a hypersphere with a
hyperplane is a sphere. These analogies are reflected in the underlying mathematics.

• x2 + y2 = r 2 is the Cartesian equation of a circle of radius r; x2 + y2 + z2 = r 2 is the

corresponding equation of a sphere; x2 + y2 + z2 + w2 = r 2 is the equation of a hypersphere,
where w is measured along a fourth dimension at right angles to the x-, y-, and z-axes.

• The n-hypersphere (often simply called the n-sphere) is a generalization of the circle (called
by geometers the 2-sphere) and usual sphere (called by geometers the 3-sphere) to
dimensions n>=4. The n-sphere is therefore defined (again, to a geometer; see below) as the
set of n-tuples of points (x1, x2, ..., xn) such that

x12+x22+...+xn2=R2,

where R is the radius of the hypersphere.

• The hypersphere has a hypervolume (analogous to the volume of a sphere) of π2r 4/2, and a
surface volume (analogous to the sphere's surface area) of 2π2r 3.

• A solid angle of a hypersphere is measured in hypersteradians, of which the hypersphere

contains a total of 2π2. The apparent pattern of 2π radians in a circle and 4π steradians in a
sphere does not continue with 8π hypersteradians because the n-volume, n-area, and number
of n-radians of an n-sphere are all related to gamma function and the way it can cancel out
powers of π halfway between integers. In general, the term "hypersphere" may be used to
refer to any n-sphere.

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TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Cathy O’Neil and Rachel Schutt. Doing Data Science, Straight Talk From The Frontline.
O’Reilly. 2014.
2. Introduction to Linear Algebra - By Gilbert Strang, Wellesley-Cambridge Press, 5th
Edition.2016.
3. Avrim Blum, John Hopcroft and Ravindran Kannan. Foundations of Data Science.

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 QUESTION BANK

Part-A
[Link] Questions Competence BT Level
BTL 1
1. Define Data science. Remember
BTL 4
2. Distinguish between between a vector and a scalar point Analysis
BTL 1
3. List out the applications of data science. Remember
BTL 4
4. Differentiate between matrices and tensors. Analysis
BTL 4
5. When two vector will become perpendicular? Analysis
BTL 2
6. Define Linear algebra. Understand
Illustrate relationship diagram between data science and BTL 4
7. Analysis
other branch of studies.
BTL 4
8. Illustrate the geometrical representation of a vector point. Analysis
Is all orthogonal vector are perpendicular vectors? Justify BTL 4
9. Analysis
your answer.
Given two points A and B with coordinates (3,5) and (6,8) BTL 3
10. Apply
respectively. What is the distance between A and B?
. BTL 2
11. Understand
Define 1D vector?
BTL 2
12. Define 2D vector? Understand
BTL 2
13. Enumerate null space. Understand
BTL 2
14. Define Rank of a matrix with an example. Understand
BTL 2
15. Describe Rank-Nullity theorem. Understand
Differentiate between underdetermined and overdetermined BTL 4
16. Analysis
set of equations.
BTL 4
17. When a set of equations can be termed as balanced system? Analysis
BTL 4
18. Compare and contrast hyperplane and halfspace. Analysis
−5 2 BTL 3
19. Find out the Eigen value for the matrix ! ' Apply
−7 4

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 Write the equation of a circle when the center is at the BTL 3
20. Apply
origin?
PART B

[Link] Questions Competence BT Level

4 −2 1 BTL 3
1. Find the inverse of the given matrix A = ( 5 0 3- Apply
−1 2 6
1 2 1 BTL 3
2. Find the rank and nullity of the given matrix (−2 −3 1- Apply
3 5 0
1 2 1 1 BTL 3
3. Calculate the Null Space for the matrix A (1 2 2 −1- Apply
2 4 0 6
Find out the eigen values and eigen vectors for the given BTL 3
4. 8 7 Apply
matrix ! '
2 3
Perform diagonal decomposition to the given matrix A to BTL 3
5. make the sub matrices. Apply
2 1
A=! '
1 2
Do Singular Value Decomposition in the given matrix BTL 3
6. 4 0 Apply
! '
3 −5
1 2 3 BTL 3
7. Calculate the pseudo inverse for the matrix B = ! ' Apply
2 4 6
Find the equation of the sphere which passes through the BTL 3
8. points (2,1,1) and (0,3,2) and has its center on the line Apply
2x + y + 3z = 0 = x + 2y + 2z
Explain about the Equation of line, plane, and hyperplane BTL 4
9. Analysis
with an example?
BTL 4
10. Explain about the pseudo inverse with an example? Analysis
BTL 4
11. Explain 1D,2D and nD vectors? Analysis

50