Classification of Machining 1. Based on Material Removal Machining by Cutting (t= 0.025 —2.5mm ) “* Machining by Abrasion —(# = 0.0025-0.25mm) * Machining by Erosion (¢ = 0.0025mm — Angstroms) 2. Based on Dimension & Machining Tolerance ¢* Normal machining (dimension in m and tolerance in mm) + Precision machining (dimension in mm and tolerance in yz) + Ultra-precision machining (dimension in wm and tolerance in m7) 3. Based on Feature Size “* Macro machining (size > 10 mm) “ Meso machining (size 1 mm up to < 10 mm) “ Micro machining (size 1 ym up to < 1 mm) + Nano machining (size 1 mm up to < 1 wm) 4. Based on Type of Energy & Mechanics of Material Removal “* Conventional Machining Mechanical energy, solid wedge shape tool (H;> H7,). plastic deformation, direct contact (Tuning, Drilling, Milling, Grinding etc.) * Unconventional Machining Innovative source of energy such as Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical [Link]-brittle fracture, melting & vaporization, erosion, chemical dissolution (USM, EDM, WJM, ECM, IBM, LBM etc.) “ Hybrid Machining Electro-chemical and thermal energy based Hybrid Machining Processes consist of combination of Conventional and Unconventional machining processes such as ECAG, EDDG, and US-EDM etc.Needs Unconventional Machining Processes Machining of Advanced Engineering Materials The greatly improved thermal, chemical, and mechanical properties of the advanced engineering materials made it impossible or difficult to machine them using the conventional machining processes of cutting and abrasion. Advanced engineering materials play important role in modern manufacturing industries, especially in aircrafts, automobiles, tools, dies, medicals and electronics. Why are Advanced Machining Processes Needed? 1. Related to material properties ‘+ High hardness, > High strength, + High brittleness, 2. Related to workpiece structure “ ” ** Complex shapes, ¢ =Typical thin and delicate geometries, Parts which are difficult in fixturing, 3. Related to requirements in high surface finish and closer tolerances 4. Related to controlling of temperature rise and residual stresses during machining Limitations. % Low MRR “* High specific energy ‘* High initial cost and machining cost . ,Conventional Vs Unconventional Machining Factors Conventional Machining Unconventional Machining Tool Wedge shape tool material is Workpiece is harder than tool. Image of harder than workpiece material. | tool is used that transfer energy : . Innovative source of energy is required. Energy Mechanical energy ie., thermal, chemical, mechanical etc. . No direct contact between tool and Tool penetrate toward workpiece Pan wae : . : : workpiece, and material is removed in Mechanism and material removed in form of 5 : hips. (by direct contact) the form of particle by particle or atom elu. OY cnect Contac by atom. (by image contact) Depends upon cutting velocity, | Depends on process parameters Ferformance feed, and depth of cut. according to the process being used. MRR High Low Specific energy | Low High Turning, milling, drilling, boring. | Machining of difficult-to-machine Applications threading, broaching etc. to materials to create unusual shapes and create usual shapes and profiles. | profiles.Classification of Unconventional Machining Processes Unconventional Machini Based on Based on Based on Chemical Mechanical Thermal En With USM. a EDM Blectrici Jet Machining ECM AJM PCM WIM AWJMAbrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Principle or Mechanism of Material Removal: v In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), high velocity abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. v The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. v The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the workpiece and the impingement angle can be set desirably. v The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material. High velocity abrasive gas jet (150 ~ 300 mi: Y The removed materials in the form of tiny chips and particles are taken away with help of carrier gas (air). v AJM is different from standard shot pinning or sand blasting, (0.2 ~0.8 mm) nozzle Stand off distance v As in AJM, finer abrasive grits are .e—15mm) used (around 50 jum grit size), and the parameters can be controlled more effectively providing better control over product quality. workpieceAbrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Equipment: In AJM, Air + Abrasive — Abrasive Air Jet Machining: In AWJM, Water + Abrasive — Abrasive Water Jet Machining: Main Parts of Jet machining Equipment: 1. Jet Generation Unit; 2. Jet Delivery Unit: 3. Workpiece Positioning Unit; wv AJM — Air filter + Compressor + Regulator + Abrasive feeder + Nozzle + Work positioning system: v*AWJIM — Water filter + Intensifier + Regulator + Abrasive feeder + Nozzle + Work positionin; system: *Intensifier maintains pressure 451 MPa but Super Intensifier maintains pressure 105 MPa. Abrasive Pressure control filter feeder valve Abrasive mixed with carrier ga exhaust Mixing chamber turn valve Electro-magn: Air compressor shaker Electro-magnetic on-off valve:Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Equipment: In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas. v Gases like CO, N; can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be issued from a gas cylinder. Generally, oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. ” Dried gas is passed through a series of filters to remove any oil vapour or particulate contaminant. Then the carrier gas enters a closed mixing chamber, and the abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate of abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its frequency. The machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles from the nozzle impinge onto a workpiece traversing under the jet. Abrasive Pressure control feeder valve filter Abrasive mixed with carrier ga Mixing chamber turn valve Electro-magn shaker Air compressor Electro-magnetic on-off valve: tableAbrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Process Parameters: The process parameters are listed below: a) Abrasive Y Impingement Angle — 60° ~ 90° Material — Al,O; (for Al & Brass)/ d) Nozzle SiC (for Stainless Steel & Ceramics)/ ¥ Material — WC / sapphire v v glass beads (for Polishing purposes) wv Shape — irregular / spherical Size — 10 ~ 50 pm Mass flow rate — 2 ~ 20 g/min b) Carrier gas SN v ¥ Composition — Dry Air, CO}, N>, He; ff v Density — Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3; v ¥ Velocity — 500 ~ 700 m/s; v Pressure — 2 ~ 10 bar: Vo v Flow rate — 5 ~ 30 Ipm: v c) Abrasive Jet Velocity — 100 ~ 300 m/s RA KS Stand-off distance — 0.5 ~ 5 mm Diameter — (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm Life — 10 ~ 300 hours Performance Measures: The important machinin; characteristics in AJM are The material removal rate (MRR) mm?/min or e/min, Geometry of cut, The machining accuracy (overcut, hole taper, kerf taper etc.) The life of the nozzle Surface roughness Mixing ratio — volume flow ratio of abrasive to gas = (Vopr /Voas) Mass ratio — mass flow ratio of abrasive to abrasive-gas mixture = (Map,/ Mapr+gas)Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Applications: For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials like glass, silicon mica, and ceramics. v For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials v AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, slotting, grooving, deburring, cleaning, trimming, deflashing, and etching of metallic and non-metallic materials. v Micro-machining of brittle materials. Limitations: v MRR is rather low (around ~ 15 mm/min for machining glass) v Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if the work material is ductile wv Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet v Environmental load is rather high. Parts produced through abrasive-jet machining, produced in 50-mm (2-in.) thick 304 stainless steel.Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) Mechanism of Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) Process: AWJM uses innovative mechanical energy source to remove work materials duc to erosion, shear, or failure under rapidly changing stress for creating features. This process is similar to abrasive jet machining except that in this case water i: used as a carrier fluid in place of gas. The water jet operates at the pressure about 400 MPa which is sufficient tc produce a jet speed as high as about 900 m/s. Water-abrasive mixture jet exiting from the nozzle at such a high velocity i: fully capable to removes work materials by an erosive /micro-cutting action o: abrasive particles upon impinging the surface of hard and brittle materials. Removal of material from upper most position of a kerf is governed by erosive /micro-cutting action while that at depth it is governed by deformation wear. High velocity water abrasive jet (Ea “ Jet diameter Water Jet Machining [2] 2-08 my Stand off Distance WorkpieceAbrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) Parameters of AWJM Process: . oo°0 0 © 0 0 8 8 Process Parameters: Jet nozzle: Diameter, Standoff distance, Jet angle. Jet fluid: Velocity, Flow rate, Pressure, Viscosity. Abrasive: Type, Size, Shape, Mixing ratio, Abrasive flow rate. Workpiece: Type, Thickness, Feed rate. Performance Parameters: MMR (Productivity) Surface finish (QC), Overcut (QC), Kerf taper (QC), Circularity (QC),Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) Accumulator | — Water Check valves ' hanesniosion ines Intensifier SS Ee 4 = + iter [_4— On-off valve Directional valve —>} ae a mixing chambe = Sapphire nozzle 4 t Workpiece Oil ‘ : = uy = Water in “NY Motor = Pump { Drain Schematic of AWJM system [2] = AWJM — Water filter/ RO unit + Intensifier/pump + Regulator + Abrasive feeder + Nozzle + Catcher + Work positioning system; = Intensifier maintains pressure 451 MPa but Super Intensifier maintains pressure 10° MPa.Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) * AWIM system is made up of four important elements: 1) Pumping system, 2) Abrasive feeding system, 3) Abrasive jet nozzle, 4) Catcher and Worktable. 1) Pumping System: = It produces a high velocity water jet by pressurizing water to as high as 415 MPa by means of an intensifier. = Water flow requirements up to 3 gpm are quite common. = High pressure water from the pump is transmitted to the nozzle by high pressure flexible hose (if pressure < 124 MPa) or rigid tubing (if pressure > 124 MPa). 2)Abrasive Feed System: It deliver a controlled flow stream of dry abrasives particles to the jet nozzle.Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) 3)Abrasive Water Jet Nozzle: It performs two functions: (i) mixing of abrasive and water jet, and (ii) to form a high velocity abrasive water jet. 4) Catcher: = Catcher is a long narrow tube placed under the point of cut to capture the used jet. o Catcher is used when the nozzle remains stationary, and the workpiece moves. = In case when the workpiece remains stationary and the nozzle moves, a water filled settling tank is placed directly underneath the workpiece. o The used/unused jet dies out in this tank.Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) Application: Oo AWIJM process removes work materials by an erosive action of abrasive particle mixed with high velocity water jet for cutting, drilling, and cleaning of hard and brittle materials. Water-abrasive mixture jet exiting from the nozzle at such a high velocity is fully capable to cut ceramics, composites, rocks, metals etc. Advantages of AWJM Process: oo oO 86 DO 6 It offers advantage of cutting electrically non-conductive as well as difficult-to- machine materials comparatively more rapidly and efficiently than others. Other advantages may be listed as: practically no dust. high cutting speed, multidirectional cutting capacity, no fire hazards, no thermal or deformation stresses, high quality of machined edge, easy adaptation for remote control, recycling of abrasive particles, low power requirements, almost no delamination, and reduced striations.Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Principle or Mechanisms of Material Removal: = In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 10—50 pm over the workpiece. = Generally, the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F. Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in form of a water-based slurry. = As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, there are four kind of actions taken place such as Grain Hammering action, Grain Throwing action, Cavitation Erosion, and Chemical Action. =" In Grain Hammering action, tool hammers the abrasive grits over workpiece due to which abrasive particles act as the indenters and indent both the work material and the tool. o And they remove the hard and brittle work material due to brittle fracture. = In Grain Throwing action, abrasive grits are thrown with a very high velocity to impinge on workpiece and cause brittle fracture of workpiece materials. The removed materials are taken away with slurry. Ly Fores, F Vibration frequency f ~ 19 - 25 kHz t Amplitude, a~ 10 = 50 um Slurry of abrasiv and water ~,Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Equipment: The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press. However. it has additional features to carry out USM of brittle work material. The workpiece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at the desired position under the tool using a x and y axes table. The table can further be lowered or raised to accommodate work of different thickness. Typical elements of an USM: a) Power Supply System: Amplifier — low strength low frequency Alternating Current (AC) signal to high strength low frequency AC signal: b) Acoustic Head: converts high strength low frequency AC signal to high amplitude ultrasonic mechanical vibration: ¢) Tool Feeding System/Mechanism: to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining, d) Slurry Supply System: monitors slurry delivery and return system, a. Power Supply System: It uses transformer as Amplifier to amplify the low strength low frequency Alternating Current (AC) signal to high strength low frequency AC signal: b. Acoustic Head: 1. Resonator — converts high strength low frequency AC signal to ultrasonic frequency (high frequency) AC signal: 2. Transducer — converts the high strength AC signal with ultrasonic frequency to mechanical vibration with ultrasonic frequency: v The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer which is driven by suitable signal generator following power amplifier and resonator. These transducer works on following principles: a) Piezoelectric effect, b) Magnetostrictive effect, c) Electrostrictive effect. v Magnetostrictive transducers ave most popular and robust amongst all and is followed by horn.Ultrasonic Machining (USM) 3. Horn or Concentrator— converts low amplitude ultrasonic mechanical vibration to high amplitude ultrasonic mechanical vibration; horn mechanically amplifies the vibration by decreasing area of cross- section results increased amplitude of 15— 50 um and accommodates the tool at its tip. Power Signal amplifier jenerator Coolant in Vibration propagatior Cooling Leads to water Armature transducer Magnetostrictior winding transducer Magnetostrictor Cooling —— water Abrasive slurry Concentrator Magnetostrictor core Amptitude transformer tUltrasonic Machining (USM) v The horn or concentrator is a wave-guide, which amplifies and concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer. The hom or concentrator can be of different shape like Tapered or conical, exponential, and Stepped. Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the exponential one. ' ' 1 | \/ transducer horn ' ' workpiece xponential tapered stepped Return slurry Slurry pump Schematic view of an Ultrasonic Machine Slurry tankUltrasonic Machining (USM) c. Tool Feeding System/Mechanism: a. Counterweight type, b. Spring loaded, c. Pneumatic and Hydraulic, d. Motorized. Hydraulic / pneumatic actuator Acoustic head Concentrator Counterweight Fulkrum Lever = Acoustic head Concentrator ‘Counterweight with lever and fulcrum Control to adjust fluid resistance pesos -=»— Spring Acoustic head ‘Concentrator (b) Spring control Dashpot ph ion Stalled motor to develop torqueUltrasonic Machining (USM) d. Slurry Supply System: It monitors slurry delivery and return system as shown in Figure given below. The mixture of abrasive grains in water or kerosene (Abrasive grain + Water or Kerosene) transducer horn workpiece ——pof =") Slyrry to machining Slurry pump Slurry tank Basic arrangement and Slurry Supply System of USMUltrasonic Machining (USM) Process Parameters: The identified process parameters are listed below along with material parameters: ¥ Amplitude of vibration (a,) - 10-50 um Performance Measures: The important ¥ Frequency of vibration (f) — 19 — 25 kHz machining characteristics are wv Feed force (F) — related to tool dimensions Y The material removal rate (MRR) wv Feed pressure (p) mm/min or g/min v Abrasive size —15 ym— 150 pm Y The machining accuracy (overcut, hole v Abrasive material —AlO3, SiC, ByC, Diamond, taper, kerf taper etc.) v Flow strength of work material ¥ The life of the tool Y Flow strength of the tool material ¥ Surface roughness wv Contact area of the tool—A v Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry —C Applications: v Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides ete. v Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions. v Machining of wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies, v USM is used in different variants: 1. Die sinking USM, 2. Drilling USM, 3. Milling USM, and 4. Turning USM.Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Limitations: = Only suitable for Hard and Brittle materials having hardness more than 40 HRC and best suites for the materials having hardness more than 48 HRC. = Low MRR, and rather high tool wear = Low depth of hole.Electrochemical Machining (ECM) v ECM is the reverse process of electroplating, electrochemical or galvanic coating, or electro deposition. Thus, ECM is a process of controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level of workpiece. v It is applicable for machining of electrically conductive materials using a shaped tool due to flow of electrolytic current at relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte often water based neutral salt solution. WwW WwW T R R fe) K co | <} electrolyte kK L Initial stage of Steady state of ECM ECM Mechanism of Material Removal: v¥ During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes i.e., at the anode or workpiece and at the cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte. vIn the process of electrolysis, electrolytic desolation takes place at Anode (anode material dissolves into electrolyte), while electroplating takes place at Cathode (material deposited on Cathode). Hence, workpiece is treated as Anode and tool electrode is treated as Cathode. vY To avoid the deposition of material over tool electrode or Cathode for preventing alteration in size, a very high velocity flow of electrolyte is made to pass through the inter electrode gap and large electrolyte reservoir is used avoid any severe change in electrolyte concentration.Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Conti... ¥ During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes i.e., at the anode or workpiece and at the cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte. v Material is removed from Anode or workpiece in accordance with Faraday's Law of electrolysis. Tool (cathod) Flow of os Hydrogen electrons @ ion (5-20V) dissolution from workpiece Workpiece (metal)Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Reaction at the Anode — Electrolyte Interface: The electrochemical reactions at anode- electrolyte interface causes generation of oxygen gas and dissolution of anode. The negatively charged anions OH- and Cl- move toward the anode: NaCl = Na* + Cl (Neutral electrolyte) H,O + H*+ (OH) M—M* + Ze M®* +Z(OH) — M(OH), | (Formation of insoluble metal hydroxide precipitation) M*#+ZCl —Z MCh | (Formation of insoluble metal chloride precipitation) 2H,0 — O, | + 4H>+4e (in acidic electrolyte solution (like HCl, HNO3, H,SO, etc.)) 4(OH) — 2H,0 + O, f + 4e (in alkaline electrolyte solution (like KOH. NaOH etc.)) Reaction at the Cathode — Electrolyte Interface: The electrochemical reaction takes place at cathode- electrode interface. The positively charged cations of H~ and Na® are directed to the cathode and causes evolution of hydrogen gas. 2H* + 2e— Hf (in acidic electrolytic solution(like HCl, HNO;. H)SO, etc.)) 2H,O + 2e — 2(0H) +H f (Hydrogen bubble generation) Na +e— Na 2Na +2H,O — 2NaOH +H; t Hydrogen gas evolved at the cathode leads to sparking across the bubbles between the cathode and electrolyte.Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Conti... v The applied potential difference, however, also overcomes the following resistances or potential drops. They are: Process Parameters: ¥ The electrode potential, Power Supply: Direct current v The activation over potential, (DC), Pulsed-DC, Voltage (2- ¥ Ohmic potential drop, 50V), Current (50 to 40,000 A), ¥ Concentration over potential, Current density (0.1 A/mm? to 5 ~~ Ohmic resistance of electrolyte. A/mm) ete. Anadic ovelvoltage Voltage Anode potential | Activation over potential anode ohmic potential concentration potential concentration potential Ohmic drop activation overpotential cathodic potential cathode Voltage Electrolyte: Material-NaCl and NaNO;, Temperature (20°-50°C), Flow rate (20 Ipm per 100 A current), Pressure (0.5 to 20 bar), Concentration (100 g/l to 500 g/l), Working gap (0.1 mm to 2 mm), Feed rate (0.5 to 15 mm/min). Electrode material: Copper, brass, bronze, graphite. cathodic overpotentialElectrochemical Machining (ECM) Performance Parameters: MRR, Overcut, Undercut, Hole taper, Surface roughness etc. Equipment: The electrochemical machining system has the following major elements: v Power supply Electrolyte filtration and delivery system v v¥ Tool feed system Y Working tank valve Pressure relief valve Classification of Electrochemical Machining: Followings are the different variants of ECM Process. 1. Electrochemical Die-sinking, 2. Electrochemical Drilling, 3. Electrochemical Deburring, 4. Shaped Tube Electrochemical Machining (STECM) Flow control Flow meter ) Pressure gauge | Constant feed to the tool Spent electrolyte centrifuge Low voltage high current power supp!Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Evaluation of Material Removal Rate: The Faraday's Law of electrolysis deals with materia removal rate due to Electrochemical Machining. 1. It states that amount of mass dissolved /deposited on respective electrodes is directly proportional to electricity passed through it during electrolysis. 2. The amount of mass dissolved /deposited on respective electrodes of different materials i: directly proportional to their chemical equivalents for the same electricity passed during electrolysis. l.m « It ; where m= dissolved or deposited on electrodes, /= current, t = time A . . . [Link] orma« (5) where Z = chemical equivalent of electrode materials, A = atomic weight, Z = chemical valency It (A q(A m= ) == (5); where F = Faraday’s constant= 96,500C, qg = It. (1) F XZ. F XZ. 1. For Pure (Monolithic) Workpiece Materials: From (1), Vp = = (2); where m = Vp, J = change (dissolution) of volume of anode material, p = density of electrod materials or “= MRR = = (3) (2)Electrochemical Machining (ECM) 2. For Alloy Workpiece Materials: followings are the details of alloy anode material. X1,X2,X%3,—- — —,Xy are percentage of each element of alloy work material, 21,22, 23,— — —,Zp are chemical valency of each element of alloy work material, Ay, Az,A3,— — —, Ap are atomic weight of each element of alloy work material, Pa = density of Alloy, M, = mass of Alloy, V, = volume of Alloy, M,1,Mz,M3,— — —,M, are the mass of each alloying element dissolved during ECM with passing 41,92,43,— — —, 4p amount of electricity respectively. Hence, from (1) =m, F (2) = Paes (Z), where m, = _ Z2\ _ FMaX2 ake Dy M, =m2F |= = |, where mz = q2 2 (2) 100 (2) 2~ "1007 Zz. FM 9X3 [ Z. Max. 93 = M3F (=>) =—== (= ], where mg = — 3, A3 100 \a; 100 Z; FMgXn [{ Z Max Qn = M,F |=) = —=* |=), where m, = —- Ay 100 \An. 100Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Total electricity required ‘q,‘ to dissolve M, mass of alloy work material. 24=Uutdat4st —~--+ FMgX, (Z,\_, FMgX2 (Zz\ | FMaX3(Z3\ , FM an (Zn ~~ T00 \A, +0 As * 00 i "100 \A, FMq Zi > Ge = pp bier %i (2) @) 100 q, 100 It = Mg = FTN Fae) Fie) 100 It > VaPa = = awn. (Zi\ F Ye Xi (3 ‘) 7 1001 i neve al pak Sit-1xi(44) t Evaluation of Chemical Equivalent of alloy work material From equation (3): 3 qe = x (@) » and from (1): G =e) » where (@).> chemical equivalent of Alloy work material.Electrochemieal Machining (ECM) FM, FM, ; Zi > ila)” Too L ya" (#) =(), “z@) ).- sa) Zi Hydrodynamics of ECM Process or Electrolyte Flow Velocity: Electrolyte flow velocity (uz) is estimated to avoid significant increase in electrolyte temperature (AT). Rate of heat generation (//) due to ohmic resistance (Rgqp) of the electrolyte in Inter Electrod Gap (IEG) is given by h = I? Rgap- Where I = electrolytic current ( Heat stored in electrolyte = mhC, AT, (2) where rh = mass flow rate of electrolyte C.= specific heat of electrolyte, and AT = rise in electrolyte temperature. Heat generated are carried away by the flowing electrolyte with nominal increase o: temperature. Hence, equating equation (1) and (2). 2 a “ I? Rgap I@y y I*Rgap = 4.186 X MCAT, > mn = ——— = —_ gap 4186 CoAT 4.186 CeATA oe dee. y = inter electrode gap (IEG), A,= area of cross-section of the tool, and o,= veloonieg conductance of electrolyte. where RgqElectrochemical Machining (ECM) x I?y = m= p,(u,A-) = ———_—_ Po(UeAr) 4.186 CoATAt Ge velocity of electrolyte. _ Py => Ue = z 4.186 peCeo, ATA; , Where p,= density of electrolyte and u,= flowElectrochemical Deburring Electrochemical Deburring: v¥ In electrochemical deburring (ECDB), the anodic part to be deburred is placed in a fixture, which positions the cathodic electrode in close proximity to the burrs. v The electrolyte is then directed, under pressure, to the gap between the cathodic deburring tool and the burr. ¥ On the application of the machining current, the burr dissolves forming a controlled radius. Since the gap between the burr and the electrode is minimal, burrs are removed at high current densities. Noninsulated area Electrolyte Se y = = q Insulatio Tool feed «——.—-—-—_-—_-_- f Electrolyte Burr Workpiece (+)Electrochemical Deburring Mechanism: v When a voltage is applied between two metal electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, current flows through the electrolyte from one electrode to the other. Y Unlike the conduction of electric current in the metals in which only the electrons move (0) Anode (+) through the structure of the material, ‘ions’ CGicatbae le electrically charged groups of atoms ‘ork 1 adinaka through the electrolyte. ; Se ey Y The transfer of electrons between the ions 4 and electrodes completes the electrical me 2 Typical circuit and also brings about the surr phenomenon of metal dissolution at the positive electrode or anode (workpiece). Y Metal detached atom by atom from the anode surface appears in the main body of the electrolyte as positive ions, or as (A) Locator precipitated semi-solid of the metal hydroxide, which is more common in ' electrochemical deburring (C) Electrolyte (Passage woy)Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Advantages: Followings are the advantages of ECM Process. There is no wear in the tool because there is no contact between the tool and the workpiece. Machining is done at low voltages, compared to other processes, with high metal removal rates. Very small dimensions up to 0.05 mm can be controlled. Complicated profiles can be machined easily in a single operation. Because of the low temperature, no thermal damage occurs to the workpiece structure. Hard and brittle conductive materials can be machined. The surface finish can be maintained at 0.1 to 1.25 um R, Because of its high capital cost, ECM is only suitable for mass production work. Ser Se Se ee Labour requirements are low. Disadvantages: The electrochemical machining has the following major limitations: 1. Ahuge amount of energy is consumed (about 100 times that required for turning or drilling steel). 2. ECM can only be applied to electrically conductive workpiece materials. 3. There are difficulties in safely removing and disposing of the explosive hydrogen gas generated during machining. 4. The workpiece needs to be cleaned and oiled immediately after machining. 5. There are difficulties with handling and containing the electrolyte. which may attack the equipment. 6. The process can’t produce sharp internal or external edges. Ti The pumping of high-pressure electrolyte into the narrow machining gap gives rise to large forces acting on the tool and the workpiece.Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Applications of ECM: Complex shapes with deep cavities; Die sinking, Profiling anc contouring. Trepanning, Grinding, Drilling, Micro-machining. A AZSmM 140 mm Slee Insulating layer Sodium-nitrate solution Telescoring cover Copper-tungsten electrode Feed «ZX a 65 mm Electrolyte = Ean Copper electiode > Machined “a workpiece @ Cobalt-chrome implant 14holes 86mm 7 412 mm ©) ie (o) (¢) Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of nickel alloy of 360 HB. Note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integra: airfoils on a compressor disk. (e) Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal implant.Chemical Machining (CHM) ¥ In chemical machining, material removed by controlled chemical dissolutior using acids or alkali solutions to etch away the unwanted material leaving fina desired pattern or part. ¥ This common phenomenon occurs in chemical milling, blanking, engraving, anc chemical policing processes. 1. Chemical Milling: In this process, material removed to produce blind details o: pockets, channels, contours, or to reduce bulk weight of workpiece. 2. Chemical Blanking: In this process, material is removed to produce details o: through holes, slots, ete. 3. Chemical Engraving: In this process, material is removed to produce detail: special, precision contoured impressions or feature on workpiece. 4. Chemical Policing: In this process, a very controlled material removal is carriec out to produce fine finish or to remove burrs from workpiece using light etchings reagents.Chemical Machining (CHM) Principle of Operation of Chemical Machining: As this is a controlled dissolutiot of work material in a chemical reagent (etchant), the portion which need nc machining is to be covered by mask known as Maskantor resist. v There are two most important factors in this process etchant or resist or maskant and selection of suitable reagent or dissolving chemical or etchant. v Material removed by controlled chemical dissolution using acids or alkali solution: to etch away the unwanted material leaving final desired pattern or part. 5 p Workpiece Hanger —» Stirrer Undercut Heating CoolingChemical Machining (CHM) Followings are the common steps of Chemical Machining: 1. Clean workpiece with alkaline solution and then wash with fresh water. 2. Apply thin coating of maskant by cut and peel method. screen printing, o photoresist method. Ww . Dip the workpiece in etchant bath and let it be there for desired duration of time. = . Take the workpiece out from etchant bath and remove the maskant layer if any. . Wash the workpiece thoroughly under fresh water. 7 angle Etch factor: The etch factor is the ratio of The undereut dto the depth of atch Undercut (d) Before etching Depth of etch (Z) Undercut d wie After etching wn Etch factor =Chemical Machining (CHM) Maskant and their application: S. |Type Material Use/ Application No. 1. |Cutand |Neoprene, butyl, vinyl-based materials|Milling of aircraft. and Peel which are applied by dipping workpiece,|missile structural parts, spraying, or flow coating. Some other bee|and in chemical industries. wax are sprayed up to thickness 0.03- 0.13mm and then cut and peel an artwork. Etching depth 13mm, accuracy (£0.13 to +0.75mm). 2. |Screen Silk, stamless-steel mesh which has a Suitable for high volume Printing {stencil placed upon workpiece. production, etching depth < 1.5mm, part size: (1.2 m x 1.2m). 3. |Photoresist|Natural or manufactured resin light Used for < 1.27 mm thick sensitive coating. and < 1.5 m length requiring high corrosive etchant. Accuracy 0.025 mum.