Name: Pari Rooha

Applied psychology semester 5

Past Paper of development Psychology

2023
Q.1. Short Answers

1. Nature and Scope of Developmental Psychology

Nature (What it is and how it works):

• It is the science of human growth and change from birth to old age.
• Studies body, brain, thinking, feelings, and social behavior.
• Tries to answer: Why do children act differently at different ages? How do family,
school, and culture shape a person?
• Nature vs. nurture is a big question: How much comes from genes (nature) and
how much from environment (nurture)?

Scope (Areas it covers):

• Physical development: how the body grows, brain changes, motor skills like
walking and writing.
• Cognitive development: how children learn, think, solve problems, and
remember.
• Emotional development: how feelings change, understanding of self and others.
• Social development: making friends, relationships, understanding society rules.
• Applied uses: helps parents raise kids, helps teachers teach better, helps
counselors support children and adults, helps make laws for child protection
and education.

2. Stages of Language Development in Infancy

Language develops in a step-by-step way in the first few years.

Before words (0–12 months):

 • 0–2 months: Reflex sounds like crying, coughing, sneezing.
• 2–4 months: Cooing – happy vowel sounds like “ooo”, “aaa”, especially when
looking at parent.
• 4–6 months: Laughing, squealing, and playful sounds.
• 6–9 months: Babbling – repeating syllables like “ba-ba-ba”, “ma-ma-ma”. This
happens in all cultures.
• 9–12 months: Gestures like pointing, waving bye-bye, and understanding simple
words like “no”, “bye”. May say first word around 12 months.

First words and sentences (12–36 months):

• 12–18 months: Says a few clear words like “mama”, “dada”, “ball”, “milk”.
Uses one word for a whole idea (holophrase).
• 18–24 months: Vocabulary grows to 50+ words. Starts two-word sentences:
“more juice”, “car go”, “daddy up”.
• 2–3 years: Sentences get longer, uses grammar rules – adds “-ing”, “-s”, asks
questions. By age 3, knows about 1000 words.

3. Role of Familial and Extra-Familial Influences in Childhood

Familial influences (inside family):

• Parents: Provide love, security, discipline, and teach values. Parenting style
(strict or lenient) affects child’s confidence and behavior.
• Siblings: Teach sharing, competition, cooperation, and conflict resolution.
Older siblings often act as teachers.
• Family environment: Money situation, parents’ education, family stress or
harmony, routines, and culture at home. A peaceful home helps emotional
growth; a stressful home may cause anxiety.

Extra-familial influences (outside family):

• Peers: Friends teach social skills – how to talk, play, share, and solve fights.
Peer pressure starts in later childhood.
• School: Teachers are role models. School success or failure affects self-
esteem. School rules teach discipline.
• Media: TV, internet, social media, games show different behaviors, values, and
information. Can teach good or bad habits.
• Community and culture: Religious place, neighborhood, sports clubs, relatives
outside immediate family.
Difference table:

Familial Influence Extra-Familial Influence

Starts from birth Increases as child grows older

Deep emotional connection More about social skills

Primary values and morals taught Expands world view

Examples: parents, siblings Examples: friends, teachers, media

Both work together – a good family base helps child handle outside world better.

4. Emotional and Personality Development in Childhood

Emotional development steps:

• 0–2 years: Basic emotions – happy, sad, angry, fear. Recognizes parent’s face
and voice.
• 2–4 years: Names emotions – says “I am sad”. Shows empathy sometimes (pats
crying friend). Tantrums common.
• 4–7 years: Understands others’ feelings better. Hides own feelings sometimes.
Learns rules like “boys don’t cry” (social rules).
• 7–12 years: Complex emotions like pride, shame, guilt. Copes with stress using
strategies like talking, drawing, or sports.

Personality development:

• Temperament: Inborn style – easy child (happy, regular), difficult child (fussy,
intense), slow-to-warm-up (shy, cautious).
• Environment shapes it: A shy child with supportive parents may become
confident.
• Erikson’s stage – Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years):
o Children go to school, do tasks, get praised or criticized.
o Success makes them feel capable (industry).
o Failure or constant criticism makes them feel inferior (low confidence).
• Self-concept: Around age 8–10, child describes themselves: “I am good at
math, I have two friends, I am kind.”
5. Ethical Issues in Developmental Research

When studying children, researchers must be extra careful.

1. Informed consent: Get written permission from parents. For older children, also
get their agreement (assent) in simple words they understand.
2. No harm: Avoid tasks that frighten, embarrass, or upset the child. If study
involves sensitive topics (like family fights), provide counseling support.
3. Privacy and confidentiality: Do not share child’s name or details. Use codes for
data.
4. Right to withdraw: Child or parent can stop anytime without any problem.
5. Debriefing: After study, explain what was done and why in child-friendly
language.
6. Special groups: Extra care for children with disabilities, orphans, or from
troubled homes.
7. Long-term studies: Keep data safe for years, maintain contact respectfully.

Breaking ethics can hurt the child and make parents lose trust in science.

6. Problems and Disturbances in Adolescence

Adolescence (roughly 13–19 years) is a time of many changes, and some teens struggle.

Common problems:

1. Emotional and mood issues:

a. Mood swings are normal due to hormones.
b. But extreme sadness, lack of interest, hopelessness may be depression.
c. Anxiety about exams, looks, future.
2. Behavioral issues:
a. Arguing with parents, breaking rules, trying alcohol/drugs, skipping
school.
b. Risk-taking: fast driving, unsafe sex, dares.
3. Identity and self-esteem problems:
a. Confusion about who they are, career choice, sexual orientation.
b. Low self-esteem from bullying, body image issues (especially from social
media).
4. Social problems:
a. Peer pressure to fit in.
b. Loneliness or friendship conflicts.
 c. Family conflicts over freedom, values.
5. Eating disorders:
a. Anorexia (starving to be thin), bulimia (eating and vomiting), often in girls
but also boys.
6. Academic stress:
a. Pressure to perform, fear of failure, overwork.

Table: Internal vs. External Problems

Internalizing Problems Externalizing Problems

Depression, anxiety Breaking rules, aggression

Eating disorders Substance abuse

Self-harm, suicidal thoughts Truancy, stealing

Often quiet, withdrawn Often loud, rebellious

Early help from parents, teachers, or counselors is important to prevent long-term

issues.

Q.2. Long Answers (More Detail)

1. Define Developmental Psychology. Research Methods

Definition in detail:

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how people change

and stay the same from conception until old age. It looks at all areas of development:

• Physical: Body growth, brain development, motor skills (sitting, walking).

• Cognitive: Learning, memory, problem-solving, language, intelligence.
• Emotional: Feelings, emotional regulation, attachment.
• Social: Relationships with family, friends, society, moral understanding.

It tries to find patterns (what is common at each age) and individual differences (why
each person is unique). Key debates include nature vs. nurture, whether development
is continuous (gradual) or discontinuous (in stages), and how early experiences affect
later life.

Research Methods in detail:

1. Longitudinal Design:
a. Follow the same group over many years.
b. Example: Study 100 babies at age 1, then check at 5, 10, 15 years.
c. Advantage: Shows real change in the same people.
d. Disadvantage: Takes time, money, and people may drop out or move
away.
2. Cross-Sectional Design:
a. Study different age groups at the same time.
b. Example: Test 5-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and 15-year-olds on memory
task in 2024.
c. Advantage: Quick, cheap, no dropout.
d. Disadvantage: Cannot tell about individual change; differences may be
due to generation, not age.
3. Sequential Design:
a. Mix of both. Study several age groups and follow them for some years.
b. Example: Take 5-year-olds and 10-year-olds in 2024, test again in 2027.
c. Advantage: Separates age effects from generation effects.
d. Disadvantage: Complex and costly.
4. Observational Methods:
a. Naturalistic: Watch children in natural settings (home, playground)
without interference.
b. Structured: Bring child to lab, give specific toys or tasks, and observe.
c. Record with notes, video, or coding behavior.
5. Experimental Methods:
a. Control variables to find cause-effect.
b. Example: Group 1 gets training on sharing; Group 2 gets no training. Then
test sharing behavior.
c. Often used to test effectiveness of teaching methods or therapies.
6. Case Study:
a. Deep study of one child, family, or situation.
b. Example: Study a child with rare genetic disorder to understand
development.
c. Provides rich detail but cannot generalize to all.
7. Surveys and Interviews:
a. Ask parents or older children questions verbally or on paper.
b. Useful for studying attitudes, experiences, self-reports.
 8. Neurobiological Methods:
a. Use EEG, fMRI to see brain activity while child does tasks.
b. Shows how brain development links to behavior.

Table: Comparison of Main Methods

Method How It Works Pros Cons

Tracks
Same people, multiple
Longitudinal individual Time, cost, attrition
times over years
change

Cross- Cohort effects, no

Different ages, one time Fast, efficient
Sectional individual change

Manipulate variable, Shows cause-

Experimental Artificial setting
measure outcome effect

Natural Watch in natural Real-life Observer bias, no

Observation environment behavior control

Choosing method depends on research question, time, and resources.

2. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Erik Erikson was a psychologist who said personality develops through 8 stages across
life. Each stage has a conflict between two opposing qualities. Success leads to a
strength; failure leads to difficulty later.

Detailed stages:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0–1 year)

a. Conflict: Is my world safe and predictable?
b. Positive: Parents respond to needs (feeding, comfort) → child develops
trust, hope.
c. Negative: Needs ignored or inconsistent care → child develops mistrust,
anxiety.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddler, 1–3 years)
a. Conflict: Can I do things myself?
b. Positive: Parents allow safe choices (what to wear, eat) → child feels
autonomous, confident.
 c. Negative: Over-control or criticism → child feels ashamed, doubts
abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3–6 years)
a. Conflict: Can I explore and take charge?
b. Positive: Child plans activities, plays roles, asks questions; parents
encourage → child feels purposeful.
c. Negative: Parents punish curiosity or call it “naughty” → child feels guilty
for desires.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6–12 years)
a. Conflict: Am I competent compared to others?
b. Positive: Succeed in school, sports, arts, get praise → feels industrious,
capable.
c. Negative: Failure or constant criticism → feels inferior, incompetent.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12–18 years)
a. Conflict: Who am I and what is my place?
b. Positive: Explores roles, values, careers; settles on identity → sense of
self.
c. Negative: Unable to find clear identity → confusion, weak sense of self.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18–40 years)
a. Conflict: Can I form loving relationships?
b. Positive: Forms close friendships, romantic partnerships → intimacy.
c. Negative: Fear of commitment or rejection → isolation, loneliness.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40–65 years)
a. Conflict: Will I contribute to the next generation?
b. Positive: Raises children, mentors others, community work → generativity.
c. Negative: Self-absorbed, no meaningful contribution → stagnation.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years)
a. Conflict: Have I lived a meaningful life?
b. Positive: Looks back with satisfaction → integrity, wisdom.
c. Negative: Regrets, feeling life was wasted → despair.

Why it matters:

• Stages build on each other; success in earlier stages helps later ones.
• It is a lifelong process – growth doesn’t stop at adulthood.
• Widely used in education, counseling, and parenting guidance.

3. Neurodevelopmental Disorders & Childhood Disorders

A. Neurodevelopmental Disorders
These are conditions that start early in development (before school age) and involve
problems with brain function, affecting behavior, learning, or social skills.

Types and details:

1. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):

a. Signs: Poor eye contact, delayed speech, repetitive movements (flapping
hands), strict routines, difficulty with social cues.
b. Range: Some need lifelong support; others live independently.
c. Cause: Mix of genetic and environmental factors.
2. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):
a. Three types: Inattentive (daydreams, forgetful), Hyperactive-Impulsive
(fidgety, interrupts), Combined.
b. Starts before age 12, often continues into adulthood.
c. Treatment: Behavioral therapy, sometimes medication.
3. Specific Learning Disorders:
a. Dyslexia: Trouble reading.
b. Dysgraphia: Trouble writing.
c. Dyscalculia: Trouble with math.
d. Child has normal intelligence but struggles in one area.
4. Intellectual Disability:
a. Low IQ (below 70) and problems in daily living skills (communication,
self-care).
b. Can be mild to severe.
5. Communication Disorders:
a. Language disorder: limited vocabulary, grammar problems.
b. Speech sound disorder: can’t say certain sounds clearly.
c. Childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering).
6. Motor Disorders:
a. Developmental coordination disorder: clumsy, poor handwriting.
b. Tic disorders: sudden movements or sounds (e.g., blinking, throat
clearing).

B. Childhood Disorders (Psychological/Behavioral)

These are emotional or behavioral problems that can appear in childhood or

adolescence.

1. Anxiety Disorders:
a. Separation anxiety disorder: extreme fear when away from parents.
b. Generalized anxiety: worries about many things (school, health, future).
c. Phobias: intense fear of specific things (animals, darkness, injections).
 2. Depressive Disorders:
a. Major depression: deep sadness, loss of interest, sleep/eating changes,
thoughts of death.
b. Can occur after a loss, bullying, or family stress.
3. Disruptive Behavior Disorders:
a. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): angry, argumentative, defiant
toward adults.
b. Conduct Disorder (CD): aggressive, destroys property, lies, steals, breaks
serious rules.
4. Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders:
a. PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder): After trauma (accident, abuse,
violence) – nightmares, flashbacks, avoidance.
b. Reactive Attachment Disorder: In children with severe neglect – can’t
form healthy attachments.
5. Eating Disorders (common in teens):
a. Anorexia nervosa: sees self as fat despite being thin, restricts food.
b. Bulimia nervosa: binge eating followed by vomiting, laxatives, or over-
exercise.
c. Binge-eating disorder: eats large amounts without control.
6. Elimination Disorders:
a. Enuresis: bedwetting beyond age 5.
b. Encopresis: soiling clothes beyond age 4.

Table: Neurodevelopmental vs. Other Childhood Disorders

Aspect Neurodevelopmental Disorders Other Childhood Disorders

Can start at any age, even later

Onset Early, often before age 5
childhood

Often psychological stress,

Core cause Brain development difference
environment

Usually lifelong, but can be May be temporary, can recover

Duration
managed fully

Autism, ADHD, Learning

Examples Anxiety, Depression, ODD, PTSD
Disorders

Treatment Special education, skill training, Counseling, family therapy,

focus therapy medication
Important note: A child can have both – e.g., ADHD (neurodevelopmental) and Anxiety
(childhood disorder). Assessment by a child psychologist or psychiatrist is needed for
diagnosis and treatment plan.

2022
Q.1. Short Questions

I. Name psychosocial stages given by Erikson's for human

development?

Erik Erikson proposed 8 stages of psychosocial development that span the entire
human lifespan. Each stage presents a conflict that must be resolved for healthy
personality development:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year) - Infants learn whether the world is safe based
on caregiver reliability.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 years) - Toddlers develop independence or
feel ashamed of their actions.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) - Preschoolers learn to take initiative or feel guilty
about their desires.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) - School-age children develop competence
or feel inferior.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) - Adolescents form personal identity
or remain confused.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 years) - Young adults form intimate relationships
or feel isolated.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years) - Middle-aged adults contribute to
society or feel stagnant.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years) - Older adults reflect on life with satisfaction or
regret.

These stages are sequential, with success in earlier stages influencing later ones.

II. What do you know about physical development in the early

childhood phase?

Early childhood (ages 2-6 years) shows significant physical development:

Growth Patterns:

• Growth rate slows compared to infancy but remains steady (about 2-3 inches in
height and 4-5 pounds in weight per year).
• Body proportions change - legs lengthen, trunk slimms, giving a more adult-like
appearance.

Motor Development:

• Gross Motor Skills: Improved balance and coordination enables running,

jumping, hopping, skipping, and climbing.
• Fine Motor Skills: Better hand-eye coordination allows for drawing recognizable
shapes, using scissors, building with blocks, and self-care skills like buttoning
and zipping.

Brain Development:

• Rapid myelination speeds neural transmission.

• Brain reaches about 90% of adult size by age 6.
• Increased connectivity between brain regions supports more complex skills.

Health Considerations:

• Increased activity level requires proper nutrition and sleep.

• Vision reaches 20/20 by around age 3.
• Most children complete toilet training during this period.

III. Describe physical development and identity formation in

adolescent?

Physical Development (Puberty):

• Growth Spurt: Typically begins around age 10-12 for girls, 12-14 for boys. Height
increases rapidly (3-4 inches per year).
• Sexual Maturation: Development of primary sexual characteristics
(reproductive organs) and secondary sexual characteristics (breast
development in females, facial hair in males, voice changes).
• Brain Development: Prefrontal cortex (responsible for judgment, impulse
control) continues developing into mid-20s, while limbic system (emotional
center) matures earlier, explaining increased emotionality and risk-taking.
 • Body Image Concerns: Many adolescents become preoccupied with physical
appearance, leading to potential self-esteem issues.

Identity Formation:

• According to Erikson, adolescents face the crisis of Identity vs. Role Confusion.
• Identity Exploration: Teens experiment with different roles, values, beliefs, and
relationships to answer "Who am I?"
• Identity Achievement: Successful resolution leads to clear sense of self,
values, and direction.
• Identity Diffusion/Confusion: Unsuccessful resolution leads to uncertainty
about self and future.
• Factors influencing identity: family values, peer relationships, cultural
background, school experiences, media exposure.

IV. What are the various problems and disturbances which are faced by
the adolescents in adolescence phase?

Adolescents encounter multiple challenges during this transitional period:

Psychological/Emotional Problems:

• Mood Disorders: Depression (persistent sadness, loss of interest) and anxiety

disorders affecting approximately 20% of teens.
• Eating Disorders: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder,
often related to body image concerns.
• Self-Harm and Suicidal Thoughts: Some adolescents engage in cutting or have
suicidal ideation as coping mechanisms.

Behavioral Problems:

• Substance Abuse: Experimentation with alcohol, tobacco, and drugs,

potentially leading to addiction.
• Risky Behaviors: Reckless driving, unprotected sex, dangerous dares related to
immature prefrontal cortex development.
• Delinquency: Rule-breaking, truancy, vandalism, or more serious illegal
activities.

Social and Relationship Issues:

• Peer Pressure: Conformity to group norms, sometimes against personal values.

 • Bullying: Both traditional and cyberbullying affecting mental health.
• Family Conflict: Increased arguments with parents over independence, values,
and responsibilities.

Academic and Future Concerns:

• Academic Pressure: Stress related to exams, college admissions, and career

choices.
• Identity Confusion: Uncertainty about sexual orientation, career path, religious
beliefs, or personal values.

V. How do people in early adulthood adjust with the occupational and

familiar challenges?

Early adulthood (approximately 20-40 years) involves significant adjustments in work

and family domains:

Occupational Adjustments:

• Career Establishment: Choosing a career path, gaining employment,

developing professional skills, and advancing in the workplace.
• Work-Life Balance: Managing time between career demands and personal life,
avoiding burnout.
• Financial Management: Learning to budget, save, and handle financial
responsibilities independently.
• Adaptation Strategies: Seeking mentorship, continuing education, developing
workplace relationships, and learning from failures.

Family and Relationship Adjustments:

• Intimate Relationships: Forming committed partnerships, marriage, or long-

term cohabitation (Erikson's Intimacy vs. Isolation stage).
• Parenting: Adjusting to roles as parents, balancing child-rearing with other
responsibilities.
• Extended Family: Navigating relationships with aging parents and in-laws,
sometimes becoming part of the "sandwich generation" caring for both children
and parents.
• Adaptation Strategies: Communication skills development, conflict resolution,
time management, seeking social support, and maintaining individual identity
within relationships.
VI. Define Gerontology? What challenges are faced by elderly?

Definition of Gerontology:

Gerontology is the multidisciplinary scientific study of aging, including the biological,

psychological, social, and environmental aspects of growing old. It examines normal
aging processes (as opposed to geriatrics, which focuses on diseases of aging).

Challenges Faced by the Elderly:

Physical Health Challenges:

• Chronic Conditions: Arthritis, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, and

hypertension become more common.
• Sensory Decline: Reduced vision (cataracts, macular degeneration), hearing
loss, decreased taste and smell sensitivity.
• Mobility Issues: Reduced balance, strength, and flexibility increasing fall risk.

Psychological Challenges:

• Cognitive Decline: Normal age-related memory changes or more severe

conditions like Alzheimer's disease and other dementias.
• Mental Health Issues: Depression, anxiety, and loneliness, particularly after
loss of spouse or friends.
• Adapting to Change: Coping with retirement, physical limitations, and changing
social roles.

Social and Economic Challenges:

• Social Isolation: Reduced social networks due to retirement, mobility issues, or

loss of peers.
• Financial Stress: Fixed incomes, rising healthcare costs, and potential
dependency on others.
• Ageism: Societal stereotypes and discrimination based on age affecting
opportunities and self-perception.

Environmental Challenges:

• Housing Issues: Homes may become difficult to navigate, requiring

modifications.
• Transportation Limitations: Reduced ability to drive limiting independence.
Q.2. Long Questions (More Detail)

I. Define developmental psychology? What do you know about its

scope?

Definition of Developmental Psychology:

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes,

growth, and continuity that occur throughout the human lifespan—from conception to
death. It examines how and why people change physically, cognitively, emotionally,
and socially over time, while also investigating factors that contribute to stability in
development. This field seeks to understand both universal patterns of development
and individual differences.

Comprehensive Scope of Developmental Psychology:

1. Lifespan Perspective:
a. Studies development across all life stages: prenatal, infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
b. Recognizes that development continues throughout life, not just in
childhood.
2. Multiple Domains of Development:
a. Physical Development: Biological changes including genetics, prenatal
development, brain maturation, motor skills, aging processes, and
physiological changes.
b. Cognitive Development: Changes in thinking, intelligence, memory,
problem-solving, language acquisition, moral reasoning, and information
processing.
c. Emotional Development: Formation of emotions, emotional regulation,
temperament, attachment, personality development, and self-concept.
d. Social Development: Formation of relationships, social skills, moral
development, gender role development, and cultural socialization.
3. Key Theoretical Issues:
a. Nature vs. Nurture: How biological factors (genetics, maturation)
interact with environmental factors (family, culture, education).
b. Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Whether development is gradual
(continuous) or occurs in distinct stages (discontinuous).
c. Stability vs. Change: Whether early characteristics persist or change
over time.
 d. Active vs. Passive: Whether individuals actively shape their development
or are passively shaped by environment.
4. Research Methods:
a. Longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential designs.
b. Experimental, observational, and correlational approaches.
c. Neuroimaging and physiological measurements.
5. Applied Areas:
a. Educational Applications: Curriculum development, teaching methods,
special education.
b. Clinical Applications: Child therapy, family counseling, geriatric
psychology.
c. Parenting and Family Guidance: Child-rearing practices, parent
education.
d. Social Policy: Informing laws related to child welfare, education, aging,
and family support.
e. Organizational Settings: Workplace development, career counseling,
retirement planning.
6. Interdisciplinary Connections:
a. Links with biology (neuroscience, genetics), sociology (family studies,
demography), education, medicine, and anthropology.

II. Define Piaget theory of cognitive development? What are its

important stages?

Definition of Piaget's Theory:

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive framework explaining

how children actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment.
He proposed that cognitive development occurs through the processes of assimilation
(incorporating new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying
schemas to fit new information). According to Piaget, children progress through four
invariant, universal stages of cognitive development, each characterized by
qualitatively different ways of thinking.

Detailed Explanation of Piaget's Four Stages:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):

a. Key Feature: Intelligence is demonstrated through sensory and motor
activities.
b. Substages (6 total): Reflexes (0-1 month), primary circular reactions (1-4
months), secondary circular reactions (4-8 months), coordination of
 secondary schemes (8-12 months), tertiary circular reactions (12-18
months), and mental representation (18-24 months).
c. Major Accomplishments:
i. Development of object permanence (understanding objects exist
when not visible), typically around 8 months.
ii. Intentional/goal-directed behavior emerges.
iii. Beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of this stage.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):
a. Key Feature: Use of symbols (language, mental images) to represent
objects and experiences.
b. Characteristics:
i. Egocentrism: Inability to see things from another's perspective
(Three Mountain Task).
ii. Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation while ignoring
others.
iii. Lack of Conservation: Not understanding that quantity remains
the same despite changes in appearance (water glass
experiment).
iv. Animistic Thinking: Believing inanimate objects have feelings or
intentions.
v. Irreversibility: Inability to mentally reverse actions.
c. Advances: Rapid language development, imaginative play, use of
symbols in drawing and pretend play.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years):
a. Key Feature: Logical thinking about concrete objects and events.
b. Major Accomplishments:
i. Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same
despite perceptual changes.
ii. Reversibility: Ability to mentally reverse actions.
iii. Classification: Ability to group objects by categories and
subcategories.
iv. Seriation: Ability to arrange objects in order by size, weight, etc.
v. Decentration: Ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation.
vi. Reduced egocentrism.
c. Limitation: Thinking is tied to concrete, observable realities; difficulty
with abstract or hypothetical concepts.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and beyond):
a. Key Feature: Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.
b. Characteristics:
i. Abstract Thinking: Can contemplate concepts like justice,
freedom, morality.
 ii. Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: Can systematically test
hypotheses (scientific reasoning).
iii. Propositional Thought: Can evaluate logical propositions without
concrete examples.
iv. Future Orientation: Can plan for long-term future, consider
possibilities.
v. Metacognition: Ability to think about one's own thinking.
c. Not all adults reach this stage fully, especially in all domains of
thinking.

Criticisms and Contemporary Views:

• Piaget underestimated younger children's abilities (shown by newer research

methods).
• Development may be more continuous than stage-like.
• Greater emphasis now on social and cultural influences (Vygotsky's
sociocultural theory).
• However, Piaget's stage sequence remains broadly supported and influential in
education worldwide.

III. What do you know about physical, cognitive and language

development in Infancy?

Physical Development in Infancy (0-2 years):

Rapid Growth:

• Birth weight typically doubles by 5 months and triples by 12 months.

• Length increases by about 50% in first year.
• Head circumference grows rapidly to accommodate brain development.

Brain Development:

• Neuronal Growth: Billions of neurons form, with synaptic connections

increasing dramatically (synaptic blooming).
• Myelination: Insulation of neural pathways speeds transmission, beginning with
sensory areas then motor areas.
• Brain Plasticity: High capacity for reorganization in response to experience.
• Critical Periods: Specific time windows for optimal development of certain
skills (like vision).
Motor Development:

• Follows cephalocaudal (head to toe) and proximodistal (center to extremities)

patterns.
• Gross Motor Milestones:
o 2 months: Lifts head when on stomach
o 4 months: Rolls over
o 6 months: Sits without support
o 9 months: Crawls
o 12 months: Stands alone, may walk
o 15 months: Walks independently
o 24 months: Runs, climbs stairs with help
• Fine Motor Milestones:
o 3 months: Grasps objects placed in hand
o 6 months: Transfers objects between hands
o 9 months: Pincer grasp (thumb and forefinger)
o 12 months: Builds tower of two blocks
o 18 months: Scribbles spontaneously
o 24 months: Turns pages of book, uses spoon

Sensory Development:

• Vision improves from 20/600 at birth to near 20/20 by 2 years.

• Hearing is functional at birth, with preference for human voices, especially
mother's.
• Taste preferences influenced by prenatal and early postnatal experiences.

Cognitive Development in Infancy (Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage):

Six Substages:

1. Reflexive Schemes (0-1 month): Exercises innate reflexes (sucking, grasping).

2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Repeats pleasurable actions
centered on own body (thumb sucking).
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): Repeats actions to produce
interesting effects in environment (shaking rattle).
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12 months): Combines actions to
achieve goals (moving obstacle to reach toy).
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Experiments to discover new
properties of objects (dropping spoon from different heights).
6. Mental Representation (18-24 months): Develops symbolic thought, can solve
problems mentally before acting.
Key Cognitive Achievements:

• Object Permanence: Understanding objects exist when not visible, developing

gradually throughout stage.
• Causality: Understanding cause-effect relationships.
• Intentionality: Purposeful, goal-directed behavior.
• Deferred Imitation: Ability to imitate actions observed earlier.
• Symbolic Play: Using objects to represent other objects (banana as telephone).

Language Development in Infancy:

Prelinguistic Stage (0-12 months):

• 0-2 months: Reflexive sounds (crying, coughing, sneezing).

• 2-4 months: Cooing - vowel-like sounds ("oooh," "aaah"), especially during
positive interaction.
• 4-6 months: Laughter, playful vocalizations.
• 6-9 months: Babbling - repetitive consonant-vowel combinations ("bababa,"
"mamama").
• 9-12 months: Variegated babbling with varied sounds, gestures (pointing,
waving), comprehension of common words ("no," "bye-bye"), and first words
may appear.

Linguistic Stage (12+ months):

• 12-18 months: Holophrastic period - single words convey complete ideas

("milk" means "I want milk"). Vocabulary of about 50 words by 18 months.
• 18-24 months: Vocabulary spurt - rapid word learning (1-3 new words daily).
Two-word utterances emerge ("more cookie," "daddy go"). Beginning of
grammar.
• 24-30 months: Telegraphic speech - short sentences with key content words but
missing function words ("me want ball now").
• 30-36 months: Longer sentences, grammatical morphemes appear (-ing, -s, -
ed), questions formed, basic grammar rules internalized.

Factors Influencing Language Development:

• Child-Directed Speech: Higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, simplified

grammar helps infant learn.
• Responsive Caregiving: Prompt, appropriate responses to vocalizations
encourage language.
 • Reading and Conversation: Exposure to rich language environment accelerates
development.
• Bilingual Exposure: Infants can distinguish between multiple languages from
early months.

Individual Differences:

• While sequence is universal, timing varies widely (first words typically 10-15
months but range from 8-20 months is normal).
• Girls often develop language slightly earlier than boys on average.
• Temperament influences language interaction patterns.

2021
Q.1. Give short answers of the following:

I. Differentiate between Growth, Maturation and Development?

Growth refers to quantitative, physical changes—measurable increases in size,

height, weight, or number of cells.

Maturation refers to biological unfolding of genetic plans—natural, predetermined

changes in body and nervous system (like puberty or brain development) that enable
skills to emerge.

Development is a broader, qualitative process encompassing orderly, progressive

changes in structure, thinking, behavior, and personality across the lifespan, resulting
from both maturation and learning.

Growth Maturation Development

Physical increase Biological readiness Overall progress

Measurable (inches, Includes cognitive, social,

Innate, genetic
kg) emotional

Stops after certain age Unfolds automatically Lifelong process

Example: puberty Example: learning to reason

Example: height gain
onset morally
II. Name stages of cognitive development given by Piaget?

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years) – learning through senses and actions.

2. Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) – use of symbols, language, egocentric
thinking.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) – logical thinking about concrete
objects.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) – abstract, hypothetical, scientific
reasoning.

III. Difference between pre-conventional morality and conventional

morality?

According to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development:

Pre-conventional Morality (typical of children) is based on external consequences—

obeying rules to avoid punishment or gain personal rewards (“I won’t steal because I
might get caught”).

Conventional Morality (typical of adolescents and adults) is based on social norms

and laws—doing what is expected by society, maintaining relationships, and following
laws to be seen as a good person (“I won’t steal because it’s against the law and people
will think I’m bad”).

Pre-conventional Morality Conventional Morality

Self-centered Society-centered

Avoid punishment, seek reward Gain approval, follow rules

Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships

Stage 2: Individual Interest Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order

IV. What are the major domains of human development?

Human development is studied across four major domains:

1. Physical Development – changes in body, brain, senses, motor skills, and

health.
2. Cognitive Development – changes in thinking, memory, problem-solving,
language, and intelligence.
3. Emotional Development – changes in feelings, emotional understanding, self-
concept, and personality.
4. Social Development – changes in relationships, social skills, moral
understanding, and cultural adaptation.

These domains are interconnected and influence each other throughout life.

V. What is the concept of zone of proximal development?

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is a concept by psychologist Lev Vygotsky. It

refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they
can do with guidance or help from a more knowledgeable person (teacher, peer,
parent).

• Lower limit: Tasks the child can do alone.

• Upper limit: Tasks the child can achieve only with support.
• ZPD: The range between these limits where learning happens most effectively
through scaffolding (temporary support).

Example: A child can solve easy math alone but can solve harder problems with a
teacher’s hints—that harder range is the ZPD.

VI. What is the infant "rooting reflex"?

The rooting reflex is an automatic, innate response seen in newborns. When the
baby’s cheek or corner of the mouth is gently stroked, the baby turns its head toward
the touch and opens its mouth, “rooting” for a nipple to begin feeding.

• Purpose: Helps the baby find the breast or bottle for feeding.
• Timing: Present at birth; usually disappears by about 4 months as voluntary
feeding behaviors develop.
 • Significance: Its presence indicates healthy neurological development;
absence may require medical check-up.

Q.2. Give brief answers of the followings.

I. Define gerontology? What are the physical changes occur at

adulthood?

Definition of Gerontology:

Gerontology is the scientific study of aging, old age, and the elderly. It is a
multidisciplinary field that examines the biological, psychological, social, and
environmental aspects of aging, focusing on both normal aging processes and the
challenges faced by older adults. It differs from geriatrics, which is the medical
treatment of diseases in old age.

Physical Changes in Adulthood:

Physical changes occur gradually throughout adulthood, becoming more noticeable in

middle and late adulthood.

Early Adulthood (20s–30s):

• Peak physical condition: maximum strength, stamina, sensory sharpness.

• Reproductive capacity at peak.
• Brain fully matures by mid-20s.

Middle Adulthood (40s–60s):

• Appearance: Wrinkles, gray hair, thinning hair, possible weight gain.

• Senses: Vision declines (presbyopia – difficulty focusing on close objects),
hearing may weaken (especially high-frequency sounds).
• Strength & Metabolism: Muscle mass decreases, metabolism slows, bones
may lose density.
• Health: Increased risk of chronic conditions (hypertension, diabetes, arthritis).
• Reproductive Changes: Menopause in women (late 40s–early 50s); gradual
decline in testosterone in men.

Late Adulthood (65+ years):

 • Height: May decrease slightly due to spinal compression.
• Mobility: Joint stiffness, reduced balance, slower reaction time.
• Organ Systems: Cardiovascular, respiratory, and immune systems become less
efficient.
• Sensory Decline: More pronounced vision/hearing loss, reduced taste/smell.
• Sleep Patterns: More frequent waking, lighter sleep.

These changes vary widely based on genetics, lifestyle, diet, exercise, and healthcare
access.

II. Define psychosexual stages given by Freud?

Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory proposes that personality develops through five
childhood stages where sexual energy (libido) focuses on different body parts
(erogenous zones). Fixation at any stage due to excessive gratification or deprivation
can lead to specific adult personality traits.

Five Psychosexual Stages:

1. Oral Stage (0–1 year):

a. Pleasure center: Mouth (sucking, biting).
b. Primary conflict: Weaning.
c. Fixation can lead to oral-dependent (gullible, dependent) or oral-
aggressive (sarcastic, smoking, overeating) personality.
2. Anal Stage (1–3 years):
a. Pleasure center: Anus (withholding/expelling feces).
b. Primary conflict: Toilet training.
c. Fixation can lead to anal-retentive (orderly, obsessive, stingy) or anal-
expulsive (messy, reckless, destructive) traits.
3. Phallic Stage (3–6 years):
a. Pleasure center: Genitals.
b. Key conflicts: Oedipus complex (boys’ attraction to mother, rivalry with
father) and Electra complex (girls’ attraction to father).
c. Resolution leads to identification with same-sex parent; failure leads to
sexual identity issues.
4. Latency Stage (6–puberty):
a. Libido is suppressed; sexual energy redirected to social and intellectual
skills (school, friendships, hobbies).
b. Period of relative calm psychosexually.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onward):
 a. Libido reawakens, directed toward peers for heterosexual intercourse.
b. Mature sexual relationships; earlier unresolved conflicts may cause
difficulties in intimacy.

Freud believed early childhood experiences in these stages fundamentally shape

adult personality.

III. What do you know about social, familiar and occupational

adjustments occur at middle adulthood?

Middle adulthood (approximately 40–65 years) involves significant adjustments in

social, family, and occupational domains, often described as a time of generativity vs.
stagnation (Erikson’s stage).

Social Adjustments:

• Friendships: Social networks may become smaller but deeper; focus on

meaningful, supportive relationships.
• Community Involvement: Increased interest in community service, mentoring,
volunteering (generativity).
• Leisure: More time for hobbies, travel, and personal interests as child-rearing
responsibilities lessen.
• Coping with Loss: Begins to experience loss of parents, peers, or siblings,
prompting reflection on mortality.

Family Adjustments:

• Parenting Changes: Transition to empty nest syndrome when children leave

home—can bring freedom, loneliness, or marital re-evaluation.
• Grandparenting: New role offering joy, legacy, and sometimes caregiving
responsibilities.
• Marital Relationship: May experience renewal or increased conflict; some
couples divorce (“gray divorce”), others grow closer.
• Sandwich Generation: Many care for aging parents while still supporting adult
children, creating financial and emotional strain.
• Sibling Relationships: May become closer as parents age or die.

Occupational Adjustments:

• Career Peak: For many, this is a time of highest position, responsibility, and
earnings.
 • Job Satisfaction: Can increase with expertise, or decrease due to burnout,
boredom, or age discrimination.
• Career Change: Some reconsider career paths, seek more meaningful work, or
plan for retirement.
• Mentoring: Often shift from ambition to guiding younger colleagues (generativity
at work).
• Pre-retirement Planning: Financial planning, exploring post-retirement
activities, gradually reducing work involvement.

Successful adjustment involves balancing these areas, contributing to younger

generations, and finding purpose beyond oneself—key to avoiding stagnation and
achieving generativity.

2020
Q.1. Give short answers of the following:

1. Narrate in detail the challenges faced by adults in middle adulthood.

Middle adulthood (ages 40–65) brings multiple interrelated challenges:

Physical Challenges:

• Biological Aging: Declining vision (presbyopia), hearing loss, reduced stamina,

slower metabolism, greying hair, wrinkles, and weight gain.
• Health Risks: Increased vulnerability to chronic illnesses like hypertension,
diabetes, arthritis, heart disease, and some cancers.
• Reproductive Changes: Menopause in women (hot flashes, emotional shifts),
andropause (gradual testosterone decline) in men.

Psychological & Emotional Challenges:

• Midlife Crisis: Reflection on life achievements vs. unmet goals, often causing
anxiety, regret, or desire for radical change.
• Erikson’s Generativity vs. Stagnation: Struggle to contribute to future
generations (through parenting, mentoring, community work) versus feeling
unproductive and stagnant.
• Cognitive Changes: Some slowing in processing speed, though crystallized
intelligence (knowledge/experience) remains strong.
Social & Family Challenges:

• Sandwich Generation: Simultaneously caring for aging parents and supporting

young adult children financially/emotionally.
• Empty Nest: Adjusting to life after children leave home—can bring marital strain
or opportunity for renewal.
• Relationship Changes: Marital satisfaction may dip or improve; some face
“gray divorce.”
• Workplace Challenges: Age discrimination, career plateau, job burnout, or
pressure to retire.

Financial & Occupational Challenges:

• Retirement Planning: Saving enough, managing investments, deciding when to

retire.
• Career Reevaluation: Some seek more meaningful work; others face
unemployment or underemployment.

Successfully navigating these challenges involves adapting to changes, focusing on

health, nurturing relationships, and finding purpose.

II. What do you know about identity formation in adolescents?

Identity formation is the central psychosocial task of adolescence (Erikson’s Identity

vs. Role Confusion stage). It involves exploring and committing to a coherent sense of
self across various domains:

Key Processes:

• Exploration: Trying out different roles, values, beliefs, relationships, and careers
(“Who am I?”).
• Commitment: Making decisions about personal identity, ideology, and life
direction.

Identity Statuses (Marcia’s extension):

1. Identity Achievement: Exploration followed by commitment (healthy outcome).

2. Identity Foreclosure: Commitment without exploration (often adopting parental
values unquestioned).
3. Identity Moratorium: Active exploration without yet committing (common in
late teens).
 4. Identity Diffusion: No exploration or commitment (apathetic, confused).

Influencing Factors:

• Peers: Provide social comparison and feedback.

• Family: Values and attachment style shape exploration safety.
• Culture & Society: Traditions, media, and social expectations guide options.
• School & Activities: Opportunities to test abilities and interests.

A resolved identity provides direction, self-esteem, and readiness for adult intimacy.

III. As per Erickson's perspective which stage of development and

crisis follows in early adulthood? From your societal perspective
justifies it.

According to Erikson, the stage following adolescence is Intimacy vs. Isolation

(approximately ages 18–40).

Crisis Description:

• Intimacy: Ability to form close, committed, loving relationships with friends,

romantic partners, and family.
• Isolation: Fear of commitment, emotional distance, loneliness, and self-
absorption.

Societal Justification:

From a societal perspective, this stage aligns with social expectations and structural
transitions in early adulthood:

1. Cultural Norms: Most societies expect young adults to marry, form

partnerships, and start families. Success in intimacy ensures stable family units,
which are foundational for social continuity.
2. Economic Interdependence: Partnerships allow resource sharing, dual
incomes, and division of labor, increasing household stability and economic
productivity.
3. Social Support Networks: Intimate relationships and friendships provide
emotional and practical support, reducing societal burdens on mental health
and welfare systems.
4. Child-Rearing: Intimate partnerships typically create the environment for raising
the next generation, directly linking to societal reproduction and socialization.
Thus, societal structures (marriage laws, housing policies, workplace benefits) are
designed to facilitate and reward successful intimacy, while isolation often leads to
higher social and healthcare costs.

IV. Why adolescence is known as period of storm and stress.

Adolescence is termed a period of “storm and stress” due to three major areas of
heightened turmoil:

1. Emotional Storm:
a. Mood Swings: Rapid, intense emotional shifts due to hormonal changes
and brain remodeling (limbic system develops faster than prefrontal
cortex).
b. Conflict with Parents: Increased arguments over autonomy, rules, and
values as teens seek independence.
c. Heightened Sensitivity: Extreme reactivity to social evaluation, criticism,
or rejection.
2. Behavioral Stress:
a. Risk-Taking: Increased sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviors
(reckless driving, substance use, unsafe sex) linked to developing brain.
b. Rule-Breaking: Testing boundaries and authority figures.
3. Social Storm:
a. Peer Pressure: Intense need for peer acceptance can lead to conformity,
bullying, or social anxiety.
b. Identity Crisis: Confusion over self-image, future roles, and social
belonging.

While not universal, this pattern is common enough across cultures to characterize
adolescence as a turbulent transition from childhood to adulthood.

V. What are secondary sex characteristics?

Secondary sex characteristics are physical traits that appear during puberty which
distinguish between males and females but are not directly part of the reproductive
system.

In Males:

• Facial and body hair growth (beard, chest hair)

 • Deepening of voice (larynx enlargement)
• Broadening of shoulders
• Increased muscle mass
• Adam’s apple prominence

In Females:

• Breast development
• Widening of hips
• Growth of underarm and pubic hair
• Redistribution of body fat (to hips, thighs, breasts)

Function:

These characteristics signal sexual maturity to potential mates and are driven by sex
hormones (testosterone in males, estrogen in females). They emerge during puberty as
part of biological maturation.

Q.3. Give brief answers of the followings.

I. Why adolescence is termed as period of storm and stress, discuss

with reference to identity crisis? Illustrate in detail Kohlberg's stages of
moral development by highlighting the stage of moral reasoning during
adolescence. (10)

Adolescence as Storm & Stress with Identity Crisis:

The term “storm and stress” captures the emotional, social, and behavioral turbulence
of adolescence, largely fueled by identity crisis (Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion).

• Internal Conflict: Teens grapple with “Who am I?”—experimenting with roles,

values, beliefs, and social identities. This exploration causes anxiety, self-doubt,
and mood swings.
• Social Pressure: Conflicting messages from parents, peers, media, and culture
intensify confusion. Fear of choosing the “wrong” identity creates stress.
• Behavioral Manifestations: Identity diffusion may lead to apathy or rebellion;
foreclosure may cause rigid conformity; moratorium may result in erratic
 experimentation. This quest for self-definition explains the emotional volatility
and risk-taking characteristic of adolescent “storm.”

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development:

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning, each with two stages:

1. Preconventional Level (Childhood):

a. Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment Orientation: Avoids breaking rules to
evade punishment.
b. Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange: Follows rules only if it serves self-
interest; “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”
2. Conventional Level (Adolescence & Most Adults):
a. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: “Good boy/girl”
orientation—seeks approval, maintains trust, values being “nice.”
b. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: Obeys laws, respects authority,
believes in fixed rules for societal order.
3. Postconventional Level (Few Adults Reach This):
a. Stage 5: Social Contract & Individual Rights: Recognizes flexible laws
based on social utility; values democracy and majority welfare.
b. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Follows self-chosen ethical
principles (justice, equality) even if they conflict with laws.

Moral Reasoning in Adolescence:

Most adolescents reason at the Conventional Level, especially Stage 3 (“good

relationships”) and moving into Stage 4 (“law and order”).

• They make moral judgments based on social conformity, peer approval, and
maintaining harmony.
• Their sense of morality shifts from parental authority to broader societal norms.
• This explains why teens are highly sensitive to peer opinions and social
rejection—their moral compass is tied to being accepted by their group.
However, some older teens may begin questioning societal conventions, transitioning
toward Postconventional reasoning.

II. What do you about developmental stages in prenatal phase? (10)

The prenatal phase lasts approximately 38 weeks from conception to birth and is
divided into three main stages:

1. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2):

 • Begins at conception (sperm fertilizes egg → zygote).
• Day 1–4: Zygote divides through mitosis while traveling down fallopian tube.
• Day 5–9: Forms blastocyst (hollow cell ball) that implants into uterine wall.
• Day 10–14: Implantation completes; cells differentiate into placenta and
embryo.
• Over 60% of zygotes fail to implant or are rejected naturally.

2. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8):

• Most critical period for structural formation; all major organs begin developing.
• Week 3–4: Neural tube forms (becomes brain/spinal cord); heart begins beating.
• Week 5–8: Limbs, facial features, eyes, ears form; organogenesis (organ
formation) occurs.
• Embryo is most vulnerable to teratogens (harmful substances like alcohol,
drugs, infections) which can cause major birth defects.
• By week 8, embryo is about 1 inch long, with recognizable human shape.

3. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–38):

• Period of growth and refinement.

• Weeks 9–12: Organs continue developing; sex differentiation occurs; fetus can
move (though mother cannot feel it yet).
• Second Trimester (Weeks 13–24): Rapid growth; mother feels quickening (fetal
movements); vernix (protective coating) and lanugo (fine hair) appear.
• Third Trimester (Weeks 25–38): Brain develops rapidly; lungs mature; fat
accumulates for temperature regulation; fetus positions head-down for birth.
• Viability: By week 24, survival outside womb may be possible with intensive
medical care.

Key Influences on Prenatal Development:

• Teratogens: Substances causing harm (alcohol → FASD, nicotine → low birth

weight, rubella → blindness/deafness).
• Maternal Health: Nutrition, stress, age, and chronic conditions affect
development.
• Genetic Factors: Chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Down syndrome) can arise.

III. What are challenges faced by elderly? What do you know about
death and bereavement? (10)

Challenges Faced by the Elderly:

Physical Challenges:

• Chronic illnesses (arthritis, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis).

• Sensory decline (vision, hearing, taste).
• Reduced mobility, balance issues, higher fall risk.
• Weakened immune system.

Cognitive & Emotional Challenges:

• Memory decline (normal aging vs. dementia).

• Depression, anxiety, loneliness (especially after loss of spouse/friends).
• Coping with retirement and changing identity.

Social & Economic Challenges:

• Social Isolation: Reduced social networks, limited transportation.

• Financial Stress: Fixed income, rising healthcare costs.
• Ageism: Discrimination in employment, healthcare, media.
• Dependency: Need for assistance with daily activities.

Environmental Challenges:

• Unsuitable housing (stairs, poor lighting).

• Difficulty accessing services.

Death and Bereavement:

Death in Late Adulthood:

• Elderly often confront their own mortality and experience multiple losses
(spouse, siblings, friends).
• End-of-Life Issues: Advance directives, palliative care, hospice, dignity in dying.
• Erikson’s Final Stage: Integrity vs. Despair—reflecting on life with acceptance
or regret.

Bereavement Process (Grieving):

• Stages of Grief (Kübler-Ross model): Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression,

Acceptance (not linear).
• Dual Process Model (Stroebe & Schut): Alternating between loss-oriented
(sadness) and restoration-oriented (adapting to new life) coping.
• Complicated Grief: Intense, prolonged grief impairing daily functioning.

Cultural & Individual Variations:

 • Rituals (funerals, mourning periods) vary across cultures.
• Social support, religious beliefs, and personality influence adjustment.
• Bereavement Outcomes: Can lead to growth (post-traumatic growth) or decline
(health deterioration).

2019
Q.1. Short Answers

1. Differentiate between fine motor skills and gross motor skills.

Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills

Involve small muscle movements Involve large muscle movements

Focus on strength, balance, and

Focus on precision and dexterity
coordination

Examples: writing, buttoning, using Examples: walking, jumping, throwing a

scissors ball

Develop later than gross motor skills Develop earlier than fine motor skills

Require hand-eye coordination Require whole-body coordination

Important for self-care and school tasks Important for play, sports, and mobility

2. Differentiate between accommodation and assimilation.

Assimilation Accommodation

Fitting new information into existing Changing existing schemas to fit new
mental schemas information

Example: Child learns cow is different

Example: A child sees a cow and calls it
from dog and creates a new “cow”
“dog” (using existing “dog” schema)
schema

Does not alter existing understanding Alters or expands existing understanding

 Restores cognitive equilibrium after
Maintains cognitive equilibrium
conflict

Occurs when faced with new, conflicting

More common in early learning
experiences

3. How fluid intelligence is different as compared to crystallized

intelligence?

Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence

Ability to solve novel problems, think Accumulated knowledge, facts, and skills
abstractly, and reason quickly learned through experience

Peaks in early adulthood and declines Increases or remains stable throughout

with age adulthood

Involves processing speed and working Involves recall and application of learned
memory information

Example: Solving a puzzle you’ve never Example: Vocabulary, historical facts,

seen before professional expertise

Influenced by biological factors and Influenced by education, culture, and

brain health lifelong learning

4. What is meant by sandwich generation? Explain it.

The sandwich generation refers to middle-aged adults (typically in their 40s–60s) who
are “sandwiched” between caring for their aging parents and supporting their own
children (who may be young adults still at home or in college). They face dual caregiving
responsibilities—financial, emotional, and practical—often while managing their
careers and personal lives, leading to significant stress and time pressure. This
situation is common in modern societies due to increased life expectancy and delayed
independence of young adults.
5. Briefly describe occupational and family adjustment in middle
adulthood.

Occupational Adjustment:

• Career Plateau: Many reach peak positions but may face stagnation or reduced
promotion opportunities.
• Mentoring Shift: Shift from ambition to guiding younger colleagues
(generativity).
• Job Satisfaction: May increase with expertise or decrease due to burnout.
• Pre-retirement Planning: Financial planning, exploring post-retirement roles,
considering early retirement.

Family Adjustment:

• Empty Nest: Children leave home, leading to marital re-evaluation or newfound

freedom.
• Sandwich Generation: Caring for aging parents while supporting adult children.
• Grandparenting: New role offering joy and sometimes caregiving duties.
• Marital Changes: Relationships may deepen or face new strains (“gray
divorce”).

6. What are stereotypes related to Aging?

• Cognitive Decline: Belief that all older adults are forgetful or senile.
• Physical Frailty: Assumption they are weak, sickly, or dependent.
• Technological Incompetence: Stereotype that they cannot use modern
technology.
• Social Isolation: Belief they are lonely, disconnected, and uninterested in social
activities.
• Rigidity: View that they are stubborn, resistant to change, or conservative.
• Sexuality: Myth that they lose interest in or capacity for intimate relationships.

These stereotypes contribute to ageism, affecting employment, healthcare, and social

inclusion of the elderly.

Q.3. What are environmental factors that affect pregnancy and child birth. (10)
Environmental factors during pregnancy can significantly influence fetal development,
birth outcomes, and maternal health. These include:

1. Teratogens (Harmful Substances):

• Alcohol: Can cause Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) leading to

physical abnormalities, intellectual disability, and behavioral issues.
• Tobacco/Smoking: Linked to low birth weight, preterm birth, stillbirth, and
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).
• Illicit Drugs: Cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines increase risk of birth
defects, withdrawal symptoms in newborns, and developmental delays.
• Prescription/Over-the-Counter Medications: Some (like Accutane, certain
antidepressants) can be harmful; medical consultation is essential.

2. Maternal Nutrition:

• Malnutrition: Deficiencies in folic acid (neural tube defects), iron (anemia),

calcium (bone development), and protein (low birth weight).
• Obesity: Increases risk of gestational diabetes, hypertension, and cesarean
delivery.
• Food Safety: Avoidance of listeria (in unpasteurized dairy), mercury (in certain
fish), and toxoplasmosis (in undercooked meat).

3. Physical Environment:

• Air Pollution: Exposure to pollutants (lead, carbon monoxide, particulate

matter) linked to preterm birth and low birth weight.
• Chemical Exposure: Pesticides, industrial chemicals (PCBs), and household
toxins may affect fetal development.
• Radiation: High levels (X-rays, radiation therapy) can cause birth defects or
miscarriage.

4. Maternal Health & Lifestyle:

• Chronic Conditions: Diabetes, hypertension, thyroid disorders must be

managed to prevent complications.
• Infections: Rubella, Zika virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and sexually transmitted
infections can cause serious birth defects.
• Stress: High maternal stress elevates cortisol, potentially affecting fetal brain
development and increasing risk of preterm birth.
• Physical Activity: Moderate exercise is beneficial; extreme exertion or trauma
poses risks.
5. Socioeconomic Factors:

• Access to Healthcare: Prenatal care reduces risks; lack of care correlates with
poorer outcomes.
• Income & Education: Lower socioeconomic status often means poorer
nutrition, higher stress, and limited medical resources.
• Social Support: Emotional and practical support from partner, family, and
community improves maternal well-being and birth outcomes.

6. Workplace Hazards:

• Prolonged standing, heavy lifting, exposure to chemicals, or extreme stress in

certain occupations may increase pregnancy risks.

Prevention involves prenatal care, health education, avoiding harmful substances, and
supportive environments.

Q.4. Mention information processing approaches related to child development.

(10)

The information processing approach views the human mind as a computer-like

system that processes information through encoding, storage, and retrieval. It focuses
on how children perceive, manipulate, and remember information. Key models and
concepts include:

1. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Multi-Store Model):

• Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory input (<1 second).

• Short-Term Memory (STM)/Working Memory: Limited capacity (7±2 items) and
duration (~20 seconds) without rehearsal.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, permanent storage through
encoding and retrieval.

2. Working Memory (Baddeley & Hitch Model):

• Central Executive: Controls attention and coordinates subsystems.

• Phonological Loop: Processes verbal/auditory information.
• Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual/spatial information.
• Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across subsystems into coherent
episodes.

3. Developmental Changes in Processing:

 • Attention: Infants show orienting responses; older children develop sustained,
selective, and divided attention.
• Memory:
o Automatization: Repetition makes tasks automatic, freeing cognitive
resources.
o Strategies: Use of rehearsal (repeating), organization (grouping), and
elaboration (linking new info to existing knowledge) improves with age.
o Metamemory: Understanding of one’s own memory processes develops
during middle childhood.
• Processing Speed: Increases dramatically from infancy through adolescence
due to brain maturation (myelination, neural pruning).
• Cognitive Flexibility: Ability to switch between tasks or perspectives improves
with prefrontal cortex development.

4. Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory:

• Children use multiple strategies simultaneously for problem-solving; over time,

more efficient strategies dominate through experience.

5. Connectionist (Neural Network) Models:

• Knowledge is stored in networks of interconnected nodes; learning strengthens

connections through practice.

6. Applications to Education:

• Scaffolding: Breaking tasks into manageable steps.

• Mnemonics: Memory aids (e.g., acronyms, visual imagery).
• Direct Instruction: Teaching specific cognitive strategies.

This approach helps explain individual differences in learning, developmental disorders

(e.g., ADHD, dyslexia), and informs teaching methods.

Q.5. Write note on the following (5+)

a. Social cognitive theory

Social Cognitive Theory, developed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes learning through

observation, imitation, and modeling within a social context. Key concepts:

1. Observational Learning: Individuals learn by watching others (models) and the

consequences of their actions.
 2. Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior, personal factors (cognition, emotions), and
environmental influences interact bidirectionally.
3. Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations; affects
motivation, effort, and persistence.
4. Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning from seeing others rewarded or punished.
5. Modeling Processes: Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation.
Applied in education (teacher modeling), therapy (behavior modification), and media
studies (effects of violent content).

b. Ecological system

Ecological Systems Theory, proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, examines

development within interconnected environmental systems:

1. Microsystem: Immediate environment (family, school, peers) with direct

interactions.
2. Mesosystem: Connections between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher
communication).
3. Exosystem: Indirect influences (parent’s workplace, community services).
4. Macrosystem: Cultural values, laws, customs, and societal ideologies.
5. Chronosystem: Changes over time (historical events, life transitions).
This theory highlights how multiple layers of context shape development, informing
policies in education, childcare, and family support.

c. Learning theory

Learning Theory encompasses several perspectives explaining how behavior changes

through experience:

1. Behaviorism (Classical & Operant Conditioning):

a. Classical (Pavlov, Watson): Learning by association (stimulus-
response).
b. Operant (Skinner): Learning through consequences (reinforcement
increases behavior, punishment decreases it).
2. Social Learning (Bandura): Learning through observation and imitation (links to
Social Cognitive Theory).
3. Cognitive Learning Theories: Focus on mental processes in learning (insight,
problem-solving, memory).
4. Constructivism (Piaget, Vygotsky): Learners actively construct knowledge
through interaction with environment.
Applied in education (classroom management, instructional design), therapy
(behavioral modification), and parenting (reward systems).
Ya bus ak guess hy
Developmental Psychology Guess Paper

Time: 3 Hours

Total Marks: 60

Section A – Short Questions

(Answer any 6 questions. Each question carries 5 marks.)

1. Differentiate between growth, maturation and development.

2. Name and briefly explain Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
3. What is the “rooting reflex” in infants?
4. Describe the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).
5. What are the major domains of human development?
6. How is fluid intelligence different from crystallized intelligence?
7. What are secondary sex characteristics?
8. What is meant by the “sandwich generation”?
9. List three stereotypes related to aging.

Section B – Long Questions

(Answer any 3 questions. Each question carries 10 marks.)

1. Define developmental psychology and explain its scope.

2. Describe Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages of human development.
3. Explain Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, focusing on moral reasoning in
adolescence.
4. Discuss the environmental factors that affect pregnancy and childbirth.
5. What are the physical, cognitive and social challenges faced during middle
adulthood?
6. Explain Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory with examples.
Note: This guess paper is compiled from the topics and questions we have covered.
Each question reflects key concepts commonly emphasized in developmental
psychology examinations.