Mohsin Iban Hossain

AIUB, Computer Graphics Notes

 Table of Contents
Sl. No Topic Pages
1 Introduction to Computer Graphics 03-11
2 Practice Questions 11-16
3 Scan Conversation 17-19
4 DDA Practice Questions 20-22
5 Bresenham's Mid-Point Line Algorithm 23-28
6 Bresenham's Midpoint Circle Algorithm 29-34
7 MCQ Practice 35-45
 Pixel
 A pixel is the smallest part of a picture, holding color and brightness.
 Pixels are arranged in a grid, and more pixels mean a clearer image (higher resolution).
 Image size = width × height in pixels, affected by Pixels Per Inch (PPI).
 Pictures appear when pixels combine with different colors.

Fig-1 (a): Image Fig-1 (b): Pixel Representa on

Graphics Images

 There are two types of graphics image:

1. Raster Image
2. Vector Image

Fig-2: Graphics Images

 Raster Image

 Bitmap structure: Images are made of pixels in a grid.

 Fixed color: Each pixel holds one color.
 Resolution-dependent: Scaling up results in pixilation.
 Best for: Photos and detailed images.
 Common formats: JPEG, PNG, GIF, BMP, TIFF.
 Examples: Digital photos, scanned images, screenshots.

Vector Image

 Vector graphics: Made of mathematical equations, not pixels.

 Resolution-independent: Can be resized without losing quality.
 Best for: Logos, illustrations, and text-based graphics.
 Common formats: SVG, AI, EPS, PDF.
 Examples: Company logos, icons, infographics.

Formation of Raster Image & Vector Image

Raster Image Vector Image

 Grid Structure: Raster images are made of a  Vector images use math: Made of
grid of pixels, like a mosaic. points, lines, and curves.
 Color (RGB Model): Each pixel gets a color  Scalable & sharp: No pixilation when
from Red, Green, and Blue (0-255 each). resized.
 Resolution & Detail:  Color & fill: Supports solid colors,
 More pixels = sharper image.
gradients, and patterns.
 fewer pixels = pixilation when enlarged.
Display on Screen:
 Display on Screen: Pixels light up in colors,  Rasterization (Vector to raster)
 Mapped with display pixel coordinate.
and the eye blends them into a smooth image.
 Color Model

 A color model is a mathematical representation of colors used in digital images, defining

how colors are created and stored in a computer.

 Common models: RGB (Red, Green, Blue) & CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black).
 Colors are represented through color space, defining the range of possible colors.

Fig-3 (a): RGB Color Space Fig-3 (b): CMY Color Space

RGB Color Model

Definition:

The RGB color model is an additive color model where colors are created by mixing three
primary colors—Red (R), Green (G), and Blue (B)—at varying intensity levels from 0 (lowest)
to 1 (highest).
Key Points:

 The RGB model is based on an addi ve process, star ng with black and adding light.
 Different intensity combina ons of R, G, and B produce various colors.
 The RGB color space forms a cube, where each color is represented by coordinates (r, g, b).
 Example color coordinates:
o Black → (0,0,0)
o White → (1,1,1)
o Yellow → (1,1,0)
o Gray (midway) → (0.7,0.7,0.7)

CMY Color Model

Definition:

The CMY color model is a subtractive color model that defines colors using three primary
colors—Cyan (C), Magenta (M), and Yellow (Y). It is complementary to the RGB model.

Key Points:

 The CMY model uses a subtrac ve process, star ng with white and removing colors.
 Removing red leaves cyan, removing green leaves magenta, and removing blue leaves yellow.
 The CMY color space is represented using (C, M, Y) coordinates.
 Example: Subtrac ng red from white results in cyan (combina on of green and blue).
Conversion Formula between the two-color models

RGB to CMY Conversion

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒓. 𝑹
𝑪=𝟏−
𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒓. 𝑮
𝑴=𝟏−
𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒓. 𝑩
𝒀=𝟏−
𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎

CMY to RGB Conversion

𝑹 = (𝟏 − 𝑪) ∗ 𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎

𝑮 = (𝟏 − 𝑴) ∗ 𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎

𝑩 = (𝟏 − 𝒀) ∗ 𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟎
 Color Representation Techniques

Definition:

In digital image processing, different methods are used to store and access pixel color
information. Two common methods are Direct Coding and Lookup Tables (LUTs).

Direct Coding:
 Each pixel is allocated a fixed amount of storage space for its color.
 Example: 3-bit representa on (1 bit per primary color: R, G, B).
 Each primary can be 0 (off) or 1 (on), allowing 8 possible colors (corners of the RGB
color cube).

Direct Coding Example: Color Palette

 3-bit RGB:
o Uses 1 bit per primary color (R, G, B).
o Each component is either on (1) or off (0).
o Results in 8 colors: (2 ) = 8
 6-bit RGB:
o Uses 2 bits per primary color.
o Each component has 4 intensity levels (22= 4).
o Results in 64 colors: (2 ) = 64
 General Formula:

Total Colors = (2 ) [where n is the number of bits per primary color.]

 LookUp Table (LUT)

 A Lookup Table (LUT) is an indirect method of storing color information where pixel
values do not directly encode colors but act as indices pointing to a predefined table of colors.

How LUT Works:

1. Each pixel stores an index value instead of actual color informa on.
2. The index references a color entry in the lookup table.
3. The lookup table contains predefined color values, usually in RGB format.
4. When displaying the image, the system maps the pixel indices to the actual color values
stored in the table.

Advantages of LUT:

 Efficient memory usage: Instead of storing full RGB values for every pixel, LUTs allow
storing only index values, reducing storage requirements.
 Flexible color mapping: Easily modify colors by upda ng the table without changing the
pixel data.
 Useful for limited color displays: Common in systems with 8-bit color depth, where 256
colors are stored in a LUT.

Example of LUT Usage:

 8-bit LUT system:

o Each pixel holds an 8-bit index (0-255).
o The lookup table stores 256 RGB color values.
o The system uses the pixel index to retrieve the corresponding RGB color.

Fig-4: Lookup table

 Printing
 A printer deposits color pigments onto paper to create colors.
 Uses cyan, magenta, and yellow to control red, green, and blue light.
 Pigments remain as tiny dots rather than blending in some methods.
 Halftone technique creates shades and gradients using varying dot sizes and spacing.
 Commonly used in printing, newspapers, and comics.

Halftone Technique
 Halftone is the technique that simulates continuous tone imagery using dots.
 Dots can be varied either
o in size
o in shape or
o in spacing
 Halftone generates a gradient like effect.

Halftone Image
 Halftone image consists of discrete dots, not continuous tones.
 Dots blur together from a distance, creating an illusion of continuous shapes.
 Dots are arranged at a 45° screen angle to the horizon.
 Dot size is inversely proportional to the intensity level.

Practice Questions

Problem1: Explain how the equations 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 can be used to create a vector

image?

 The equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 represents a straight line. To create a vector image, plot the line on
a coordinate plane, and each point on the line corresponds to a 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = ⟨𝑥, 𝑥 + 3⟩,
representing the position on the line.
Or, the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 represents a straight line with a slope of 1 and a y-intercept of 3. To
create a vector image:

1. Graphical Representation: Plot the equation on a coordinate plane, where the x-axis
and y-axis represent the horizontal and vertical components, respectively. Each point on
the line corresponds to a vector from the origin (0, 0) to the point (x, y), forming a vector
field along the line.
2. Vector Equation: A vector image can be created by treating the points on the line as
vectors. For any point (x, y), the vector can be represented as 𝑣 = ⟨𝑥, 𝑥 + 3⟩, which is

a sequence of vectors along the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3

Problem2: Show mathematically how you can create a different color Palettes

 To mathematically create different color palettes, we use the formula:

Total Color = (2 ) [where n is the number of bits per primary color.]

Varying Bit Depths for Different Palettes

 3-bit RGB (𝒏 = 𝟏):

Total Color Palettes = (2 ) = 8 colors

 6-bit RGB(𝒏 = 2):

Total Color Pale es = (2 ) = 𝟔𝟒 colors

Problem3: write down the purpose of the following functions

Function/Parameter Purpose
glutDisplayFunc(display);
Registers the display function as the display callback, which is
called whenever the window needs to be redrawn.
scene in (a);
Represents the scene or graphical content that is being rendered in
part (a) of the program.

gluOrtho2D(l, r, b, t);
Defines a 2D orthographic projection with left (l), right (r), bottom
(b), and top (t) clipping boundaries.

GL_LINE
Used in OpenGL to specify that a shape should be drawn as a line or a
series of connected line segments.
Parameters defining the left (l) and bottom (b) boundaries of the
l and b in (c)
viewport or coordinate system in part (c) of the program.

OR

Function/Parameter Purpose
glutDisplayFunc(display); Sets the display callback function.
scene in (a); likely refers to rendering objects.
gluOrtho2D(l, r, b, t); Sets a 2D orthographic projec on.
GL_LINE Used to draw lines in OpenGL.
l and b in (c) l (le ) and b (bo om) set the viewport limits.
  Problem4: Suppose you need to design the given image using glut. Write the
code to represent the image only showing the vertex plotting part using the
given sample. You must show all the elements given in the samples.

Sample:
glBegin(PRIMITIVE);
glVertex2f(x1, y1);
glVertex2f(x2, y2);
glVertex2f(x3, y3);
...
...
glEnd();

Ans:
// Draw the square using GL_QUADS
glColor3f(0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f); // Gray color
glBegin(GL_QUADS); // PRIMITIVE is GL_QUADS
glVertex2f(-0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.5f, 0.5f);
glVertex2f(-0.5f, 0.5f);
glEnd();

// Draw a triangle using GL_ LINE_LOOP

glColor3f(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f); // Black color
glBegin(GL_LINE_LOOP);
glVertex2f(-0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(-0.5f, 0.3f);
glEnd();

// Draw a diagonal line using GL_LINES

glColor3f(1.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f); // White color
glLineWidth(0.5f);
glBegin(GL_LINES);
glVertex2f(-0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.5f, 0.5f);
glEnd();
  Problem5: Suppose you need to design the given image using glut. Write the
code to represent the image only showing the vertex plotting part using the
given sample. You must show all the elements given in the samples.

Sample:
glBegin(PRIMITIVE);
glVertex2f(x1, y1);
glVertex2f(x2, y2);
glVertex2f(x3, y3);
...
...
glEnd();

Ans:
// Draw the square using GL_QUADS
glColor3f(0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f); // Gray color
glBegin(GL_QUADS); // PRIMITIVE is GL_QUADS
glVertex2f(-0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.5f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.5f, 0.5f);
glVertex2f(-0.5f, 0.5f);
glEnd();

// Draw a triangle using GL_LINE_LOOP

glColor3f(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f); // Black color
glBegin(GL_LINE_LOOP);
glVertex2f(0.5f, 0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.0f, 1.0f);
glVertex2f(-0.5f, 0.5f);
glEnd();

// Draw a diagonal line using GL_LINES

glColor3f(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f); // White color
glLineWidth(0.5f);
glBegin(GL_LINES);
glVertex2f(0.0f, -0.5f);
glVertex2f(0.0f, 1.0f);
glEnd();
 Common OpenGL Primitives
 When calling glBegin(PRIMITIVE);WE need to replace PRIMITIVE with one of the
following:

Primitive Description
GL_POINTS Draws individual points
GL_LINES Draws separate line segments (every two vertices form a line)
GL_LINE_STRIP Draws a connected sequence of lines
GL_LINE_LOOP Same as GL_LINE_STRIP but connects the last vertex to the first
GL_TRIANGLES Draws separate triangles (every three vertices form a triangle)
GL_TRIANGLE_STRIP Connected triangles that share vertices
GL_TRIANGLE_FAN Like GL_TRIANGLE_STRIP, but with a shared center vertex
GL_QUADS Draws separate quadrilaterals (four vertices per quad)
GL_QUAD_STRIP A connected strip of quadrilaterals
GL_POLYGON Draws a filled convex polygon
 Scan Conversation
 Scan Conversion is the process of converting geometric shapes (such as lines, triangles, and
polygons) into a set of pixels that can be displayed on a screen. It is a key step in rasterization,
ensuring that vector-based graphics are properly mapped to a raster display.

Scan Conversion in Rasterization

 Final step of rasterization – Converts geometric shapes into pixels.
 Occurs after clipping in the rendering pipeline.
 Used in all graphics packages at the end of rendering.
 Maps triangles to pixels on the screen.
 Considers lighting and shading, but focus is on, line scan conversion algorithms.

Rasterization
 Rasterization is the process of converting vector graphics (shapes) into a raster image
(pixels) for display, printing, or storage.

Incremental Algorithm
 Incremental Algorithm is a line drawing method that starts from the initial pixel and
progresses step by step to the final pixel.

 Special Cases in Line Drawing:

 Horizontal Line: Increment x by 1 to get the next pixel.
 Vertical Line: Increment y by 1 to get the next pixel.
 Diagonal Line: Increment both x and y by 1 to get the next pixel.
 General Case: Increment x by 1 and choose the pixel closest to the line.
 Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA)
 DDA is a graphics algorithm for interpolating points to rasterize lines, triangles, and
polygons.

Formula

if M< 1 if M >1

𝟏
 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟏  𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 + )
𝒎

 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒎)  𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟏

if M=1

 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟏

 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟏
 Practice Problem
 Problem1: Use the DDA algorithm to determine the pixel positions for the
given line segment from (x₁, y₁) to (x₂, y₂) as shown in the graph.

 Is given,
X1= 2 Y1= 3
X2 = 6 Y2 = 8

We Know,

𝑚= = = 1.25 > 1

if 𝒎 > 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏,
𝟏
 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 + )
𝒎
 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟏
𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒚𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒕

2 3 (𝑥 + ) = (2+
.
) = 2.8 𝑦 +1=3+1=4 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(2.8) = 3 4

2.8 4 (𝑥 + ) = (2.8+
.
) = 3.6 𝑦 +1=4+1=5 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(3.6) = 4 5

3.6 5 4.4 6 4 6
4.4 6 5.2 7 5 7
5.2 7 6 8 6 8
  Problem2: Use the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm to find
and plot the intermediate points for the line segment between (2,3) & (8,6).

 Is given,
X1= 2 Y1= 3
X2 = 8 Y2 = 6

We Know,

𝑚= = = 0.5 < 1

if 𝒎 < 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏,
 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟏
 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒎)
𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒚𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒕

2 3 (𝑥 + 1) = (2+1) = 3 (𝑦 + 𝑚) = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 3 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(3.5) = 4

3 3.5 (𝑥 + 1) = (3+1) = 4 (𝑦 + 𝑚) = 3.5 + 0.5 = 4 4 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(4) = 4

4 4 5 4.5 5 5
5 4.5 6 5 6 5
6 5 7 5.5 7 6
7 5.5 8 6 8 6

We See the Staircase (Jagged) Effect The actual straight line is smooth, but due to pixel
approxima on, it appears jagged on a digital display
  Problem3: Use the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm to find and
plot the intermediate points for the line segment between A= (2,2) & B= (2,7).

 Is given,
X1= 2 Y1= 2
X2 = 2 Y2 = 7

We Know,

𝑚= = = = 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

So Theoretically,
DDA does not allow vertical lines.
it works with special adjustments to handle them.

Special Adjustments,
A= (2,2), B= (2,7)
≫ ∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐 − 𝟐 = 𝟎
≫ ∆𝒚 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟕 − 𝟐 = 𝟓
≫ 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑 = 𝟓 [largest value between ∆x & ∆y]

∆𝒙 𝟎
≫ 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 x = = =𝟎
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝟓
∆𝒚 𝟓
≫ 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 y = = =𝟏
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝟓

𝒙𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒚𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒚𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒕

2 2 2+0 = 2 2+1 = 3 2 3

2 3 2+0 = 2 3+1 = 4 2 4
2 4 2 5 2 5
2 5 2 6 2 6
2 6 2 7 2 7

Table: Intermediate Points Calculated Using DDA Fig: DDA Line Plot for A (2,2) to B (2,7)
 Bresenham's Mid-Point Line Algorithm
 Type: Incremental line drawing algorithm.
 Purpose: Approximates a straight line between two points.
 Approach: Uses decision parameter to choose the next pixel.
 Efficiency: Avoids floating-point calculations.
 Initial Decision Parameter: Based on midpoint between two candidate pixels.
 Update: Decision parameter updated incrementally.
 Best For: Lines with gentle slope (0 ≤ m ≤ 1); can be adapted for other slopes.

Derivation of Bresenham's Midpoint Line Drawing Algorithm

 We Know,
 Line Equation:
 The general line equa on between two points is:
≫ 𝐲 = 𝐦𝐱 + 𝐜 𝐨𝐫 ≫ 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛𝐲 + 𝐂 = 𝟎
 But for computer graphics, we use the implicit form: 𝐟(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐝𝐲 ⋅ 𝐱 − 𝐝𝐱 ⋅ 𝐲 + 𝐜

𝐝𝐲
≫𝐲= 𝒙+𝐜
𝒅𝒙
≫ 𝐝𝐲. 𝐱 − 𝐝𝐱. 𝐲 + 𝐝𝐱. 𝐜 = 𝟎
Where:
𝐚 = 𝐝𝐲;
𝐛 = −𝐝𝐱;
𝐂 = 𝐝𝐱. 𝐜;

 This function has the property:

 f(x,y) = 0 on the line,

 f(x,y) < 0 below the line,

 f(x,y) > 0 above the line.
 Decision Making Using Midpoint
≫ 𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭: Start and end points: 𝑥 , 𝑦 , (𝑥 , 𝑦 )

≫We step along x, from xp to x1 deciding between two pixels:

 𝐄 (𝐄𝐚𝐬𝐭): (𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 )
 𝐍𝐄 (𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐡_𝐄𝐚𝐬𝐭): (𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 + 1)

1
𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 +
2

f(m) = Decision Making parameter

1
Or 𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑓(𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 + )
2

Calculation for East (d<=0) Calculation for North-East (d>0)

𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘, 1
1 𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 +
2
𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 + 1
2
1 ≫ 𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 + + 𝟏
2
≫ 𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 + 3 1
2 ≫ ∆𝑑 = 𝑓 𝒙𝒑 + 2, 𝒚𝒑 + − 𝒇 𝒙𝒑 + 1, 𝒚𝒑 +
1 1 2 2
≫ ∆𝑑 = 𝑓 𝒙𝒑 + 2, 𝒚𝒑 + − 𝒇 𝒙𝒑 + 1, 𝒚𝒑 +
=a+b
2 2
=a = 𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙
= 𝒅𝒚 ≫ 2 × ∆𝑑 = 2(𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥)
≫ 2 × ∆𝑑 = 2𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑁𝐸 = 2(𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥)
𝑑𝐸 = 2𝑑𝑦

𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑬 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬

𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)

 Initial Decision Parameters

𝒊𝒇,
1
𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝟎 +
2
≫ 𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
1
≫ 𝑑 = 𝑓 𝒙𝟎 + 1, 𝒚𝟎 +
2
𝟏
= 𝑎(𝒙𝟎 + 𝟏) + 𝒃 𝒚𝟎 + +𝒄
𝟐
𝒃
= 𝑎 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒃 𝒚 𝟎 + 𝒄 + 𝒂 + ∵ 𝑎 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒃 𝒚 𝟎 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
𝟐
𝒃
=𝟎+𝒂+
𝟐
𝒃
≫ 2 × 𝑑 = 2(𝒂 + )
𝟐
𝑑 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏

𝒅𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙

 Problem1: Using Bresenham’s Midpoint Line Algorithm, draw a line from point
(2, 3) to point (10, 6). Show all steps including the initial decision parameter and
how it is updated at each step. Plot the pixels selected by the algorithm.
 Is given,
X0 = 02 Y0 = 3
X1 = 10 Y1 = 6

Step 1: Calculate Differences Step 2: Ini al Decision Parameter

𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
≫ dx = x1 − x0 = 10 − 2 = 8 𝒅𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙
≫ dy = y1 − y0 = 6 − 3 = 3 = 2×3−8

= −2 ≤ 0 → (3,3)
Step 3: Find the Next Pixel Values
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑬 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬
3.1 3.2
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = −𝟐 + 𝟐𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟒 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)
= −𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟑 = 𝟒 + 𝟐(𝟑 − 𝟖)
𝑁𝐸 𝐸
=𝟒>0 (4,4) = −𝟔 ≤ 0 → (5,4)
 3.3 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑬 3.4 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑬
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = −𝟔 + 𝟐𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟎 + 𝟐𝒅𝒚
= −𝟔 + 𝟐 × 𝟑 =𝟎+𝟐×𝟑
𝐸 𝑁𝐸
= 𝟎 ≤ 0 → (6,4) =𝟔>0 (7,5)

3.5 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬 3.6 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑬

𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟔 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙) 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = −𝟒 + 𝟐𝒅𝒚
= 𝟔 + 𝟐 × (𝟑 − 𝟖) = −𝟒 + 𝟐 × 𝟑
𝐸 𝑁𝐸
= −𝟒 ≤ 0 → (8,5) =𝟐>0 (9,6)

3.7 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬 Final Pixels Plo ed:

𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟐 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙) (2,3), (3,3), (4,4), (5,4), (6,5),
= 𝟐 + 𝟐 × (𝟑 − 𝟖) (7,5), (8,5), (9,6), (10,6)
𝐸
= −𝟖 ≤ 0 → (10,6)

 Problem2: Using Bresenham’s Midpoint Line Algorithm, draw a line from point
(1, 1) to point (7, 6). Show all steps including the initial decision parameter and how
it is updated at each step. Plot the pixels selected by the algorithm.
 Is given,
X0 = 1 Y0 = 1
X1 = 7 Y1 = 6

Step 1: Calculate Differences Step 2: Ini al Decision Parameter

≫ dx = x1 − x0 = 7 − 1 = 6 𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
≫ dy = y1 − y0 = 6 − 1 = 5 𝒅𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙
≫ dy − dx = 5 − 6 = −1 = 2×5−6
≫ 2(dy − dx) = 2(−1) = −2 =4>0 (2,2)
Step 3: Find the Next Pixel Values
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬
3.1 3.2
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟒 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙) 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟐 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)
=𝟒−𝟐 =𝟐−𝟐
𝑁𝐸 𝐸
=𝟐>0 (3,3) = 𝟎 ≤ 0 → (4,3)
 3.3 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑬 3.4 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟎 + 𝟐𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)
=𝟎+𝟐×𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐
𝑁𝐸 𝑁𝐸
= 𝟏𝟎 > 0 (5,4) =𝟖>0 (6,5)

3.5 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬

Final Pixels Plo ed:
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟖 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)
(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,3), (5,4), (6,5), (7,6)
=𝟖−𝟐
𝑁𝐸
=𝟔>0 (7,6)

 Problem3: Using Bresenham’s Midpoint Line Algorithm, draw a line from point
(2, 1) to point (2, 7). Show all steps including the initial decision parameter and how
it is updated at each step. Plot the pixels selected by the algorithm.
 Is given,
X0 = 2 Y0 = 1
X1 = 2 Y1 = 7

Step 1: Calculate Differences

≫ dx = x1 − x0 = 2 − 2 = 0
≫ dy = y1 − y0 = 7 − 1 = 6

Since 𝑑𝑥 = 0, this is a ver cal line.

So, Vertical lines aren't handled normally in Bresenham’s algorithm because dx = 0, so x doesn't
change. The algorithm relies on x-increment to update the decision parameter, which doesn't
work for vertical lines. Special handling is required.
  Problem4: Using Bresenham’s Midpoint Line Algorithm, draw a line from point
(9, 5) to point (15, 13). Show all steps including the initial decision parameter and
how it is updated at each step. Plot the pixels selected by the algorithm.
 Is given,
X0 = 09 Y0 = 05
X1 = 15 Y1 = 13

Step 1: Calculate Differences Step 2: Ini al Decision Parameter

≫ dx = x1 − x0 = 15 − 9 = 6 𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
≫ dy = y1 − y0 = 13 − 5 = 8 𝒅𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙
≫ dy − dx = 8 − 6 = 2 = 2×8−6
≫ 2(dy − dx) = 2(2) = 4 = 10 > 0 (10,6)
Step 3: Find the Next Pixel Values
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬
3.1 3.2
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙) 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)
= 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟒
𝑁𝐸 𝑁𝐸
= 𝟏𝟒 > 0 (11,7) = 𝟏𝟖 > 0 (12,8)

3.3 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬 3.4 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬

𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙) 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙)
= 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒
𝑁𝐸 𝑁𝐸
= 𝟐𝟐 > 0 (13,9) = 𝟐𝟔 > 0 (14,10)

3.5 𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝒅𝑵𝑬

Final Pixels Plo ed:
𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟐𝟔 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒙) (9,5), (10,6), (11,7), (12,8), (13,9), (14,10), (15,11)
= 𝟐𝟔 + 𝟒
𝑁𝐸
= 𝟑𝟎 > 0 (15,11)

This is the output of Bresenham’s algorithm for this line. The algorithm ensures that the line is as close as
possible to the true line while using only integer arithmetic.
 Derivation of Bresenham's Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm
 We Know,
 Circle Equation:
 The general Circle equa on:
≫ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐
 𝐟(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝑹𝟐

8-fold Symmetry

Decision Making Using Midpoint

≫Input: Start point (𝑥 , 𝑦 )

≫We step along x, from xp to x1 deciding between two pixels:

 𝐄 (𝐄𝐚𝐬𝐭): (𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝐲𝒑 )
 S𝐄 (South_𝐄𝐚𝐬𝐭): (𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 − 1)

1
𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 1, 𝒚𝒑 −
2

f(m) = Decision Making parameter

1
Or 𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑓(𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 − )
2
1 𝟐
𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 1 + ( 𝒚𝒑 − ) − 𝑹 𝟐
2
 Calculation for East (d<0) Calculation for South-East (d>=0)

𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
1 𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 − 1
2 𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 −
1 2
≫ 𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 − 1
2 ≫ 𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝒑 + 𝟏 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝒑 − − 𝟏
1 𝟐 2
= 𝒙𝒑 + 2 + ( 𝒚𝒑 − ) − 𝑹𝟐
2 𝟐
3
)
≫ ∆𝑑 = 𝑓(𝒎𝒊𝒅𝑬 − 𝒇(𝑚) = 𝒙𝒑 + 2 + ( 𝒚 𝒑 − ) − 𝑹𝟐
2
= 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑
≫ ∆𝑑 = 𝑓(𝒎𝒊𝒅𝑺𝑬 ) − 𝒇(𝒎 )
≫ ℎ + ∆𝑑 = 2𝑥 + 3 + ℎ = 𝟐(𝒙𝒑 − 𝒚𝒑 ) + 𝟓
ℎ = 2𝑥 + 3 + ℎ
≫ ℎ + ∆𝑑 = 2(𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + 5 + ℎ
ℎ = 2(𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + 5 + ℎ
𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑

𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐(𝒙𝒑 − 𝒚𝒑 ) + 𝟓

Initial Decision Parameters

𝒊𝒇,
1
𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝟏, 𝒚𝟎 −
2
≫ 𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
1
≫ 𝑑 = 𝑓 𝒙𝟎 + 1, 𝒚𝟎 −
2
1
= 𝑓 (0 + 1), (𝐑 − )
2
1 𝟓
= 1 + (𝑅 − ) − 𝑅 = − 𝑹
2 𝟒
1 5 1
≫ 𝑑 − = −𝑅−
4 4 4
ℎ =1−𝑅

𝒉𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝑹
≫SO, 8-fold Symmetry are:

 Problem1: Using Bresenham’s Midpoint Circle Algorithm, For the given

equations of circle (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 49
a. Find the center of the circle
b. Find the radius of the circle
c. Initial coordinate
d. Coordinate for Octant 2
e. Find the coordinates for the other 7 octants.
(a) (b)
≫is given, ≫is given,
≫ (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 49 ≫ (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 49
≫ (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 7 ≫ (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 7

So, center (x,y) = (0,0) So, radius (r) = 7

(c)
≫is given,
≫ (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 49
≫ (𝑥) +(𝑦) = 7

So, initial coordinate = ( 0, 𝑟)

= (0,7)
 (d)
Step 1: Ini al Decision Parameter
𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
𝒉𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝑹
=1−7

= −6 < 0 → (1,7)

Step 2: Find the Next Pixel Values

𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑 𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑

2.1 2.2
= −𝟔 + 𝟐 × 𝟎 + 𝟑 = −𝟑 + 𝟐 × 𝟏 + 𝟑
𝐸 𝑆𝐸
= −𝟑 < 0 → (2,7) =𝟐≥0 (3,6)

2.3 𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐(𝒙𝒑 − 𝒚𝒑 ) + 𝟓 2.4 𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑

= 𝟐 + 𝟐(𝟐 − 𝟕) + 𝟓 = −𝟑 + 𝟐 × 𝟑 + 𝟑
𝐸 𝑆𝐸
= −𝟑 < 0 → (4,6) =𝟔≥0 (5,5)

𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐(𝒙𝒑 − 𝒚𝒑 ) + 𝟓

2.5 = 𝟔 + 𝟐(𝟒 − 𝟔) + 𝟓
𝑆𝐸
=𝟕≥0 (6,4) [(𝑥 > 𝑦)]

(e)
Octant 2 Octant 6 Octant 1 Octant 5 Octant 3 Octant 7 Octant 4 Octant 8
(0,7) (-0,-7) (7,0) (-7,-0) (-0,7) (0,-7) (-7,0) (7,-0)
(1,7) (-1,-7) (7,1) (-7,-1) (-1,7) (1,-7) (-7,1) (7,-1)
(2,7) (-2,-7) (7,2) (-7,-2) (-2,7) (2,-7) (-7,2) (7,-2)
(3,6) (-3,-6) (6,3) (-6,-3) (-3,6) (3,-6) (-6,3) (6,-3)
(4,6) (-4,-6) (6,4) (-6,-4) (-4,6) (4,-6) (-6,4) (6,-4)
(5,5) (-5,-5) (5,5) (-5,-5) (-5,5) (5,-5) (-5,5) (5,-5)
  Problem2: Using Bresenham’s Midpoint Circle Algorithm, For the given
equations of circle (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 49
a. Find the center of the circle
b. Find the radius of the circle
c. Initial coordinate
d. Coordinate for Octant 2
e. Find the coordinates for the other 7 octants.

(a) (b)
≫is given, ≫is given,
≫ (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 49 ≫ (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 49
≫ (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 7 ≫ (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 7

So, center (x,y) = (-2,3) So, radius (r) = 7

(c)
≫is given,
≫ (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 49
≫ (𝑥 + 2) +(𝑦 − 3) = 7
𝑆𝑜, 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (0, 𝑟 ) = (0,7)

So, initial coordinate after shifting = ( 0 + 𝑥, 𝑟 + 𝑦)

= (0 + (−2),7 + 3)
= (−2,10)

(d)
Step 1: Ini al Decision Parameter

Let say, initial coordinate = (0,7)

𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘,
𝒉𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝑹
=1−7

= −6 < 0 → (1,7)
Step 2: Find the Next Pixel Values

𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑 2.2

𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑
2.1
= −𝟔 + 𝟐 × 𝟎 + 𝟑 = −𝟑 + 𝟐 × 𝟏 + 𝟑
𝐸 𝑆𝐸
= −𝟑 < 0 → (2,7) =𝟐≥0 (3,6)

2.3 𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐(𝒙𝒑 − 𝒚𝒑 ) + 𝟓 2.4 𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟑

= 𝟐 + 𝟐(𝟐 − 𝟕) + 𝟓 = −𝟑 + 𝟐 × 𝟑 + 𝟑
𝐸 𝑆𝐸
= −𝟑 < 0 → (4,6) =𝟔≥0 (5,5)

𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 + 𝟐(𝒙𝒑 − 𝒚𝒑 ) + 𝟓

2.5 = 𝟔 + 𝟐(𝟒 − 𝟔) + 𝟓
𝑆𝐸
=𝟕≥0 (6,4) [(𝑥 > 𝑦)]

(e)
Octant 2 Octant 6 Octant 1 Octant 5 Octant 3 Octant 7 Octant 4 Octant 8
(0,7) (-0,-7) (7,0) (-7,-0) (-0,7) (0,-7) (-7,0) (7,-0)
(1,7) (-1,-7) (7,1) (-7,-1) (-1,7) (1,-7) (-7,1) (7,-1)
(2,7) (-2,-7) (7,2) (-7,-2) (-2,7) (2,-7) (-7,2) (7,-2)
(3,6) (-3,-6) (6,3) (-6,-3) (-3,6) (3,-6) (-6,3) (6,-3)
(4,6) (-4,-6) (6,4) (-6,-4) (-4,6) (4,-6) (-6,4) (6,-4)
(5,5) (-5,-5) (5,5) (-5,-5) (-5,5) (5,-5) (-5,5) (5,-5)

After shifting by (-2, 3)

Octant 2 Octant 6 Octant 1 Octant 5 Octant 3 Octant 7 Octant 4 Octant 8

(-2,10) (-2,-4), (5,3), (-9,3), (-2,10), (-2,-4), (-9,3), (5,3),

(-1,10) (-3,-4), (5,4), (-9,2), (-3,10), (-1,-4), (-9,4), (5,2),
(0,10) (-4,-4), (5,5), (-9,1), (-4,10), (0,-4), (-9,5), (5,1),
(1,9) (-5,-3), (4,6), (-8,0), (-5,9), (1,-3), (-8,6), (5,0),
(2,9) (-6,-3), (4,7), (-8,-1), (-6,9), (2,-3), (-8,7), (4,-1),
(3,8) (-7,-2) (3,8), (-7,-2) (-7,8) (3,-2) (-7,8) (3,-2)
 MCQ Practice
1. Assigned colors for all three ver ces in an OpenGL causes which of the following?

A. Change of overall color of the shape

B. Change in the color at the center of the shape
C. Creating an illusion of colors
D. Creating a shading like effect

2. In coloring, the technique that uses a storage approach to iden fy the color codes is known as:

A. Direct Coding
B. Lookup Table
C. Rasterization
D. Halftone

3. Which of the following is a property of incremental algorithm?

A. Overlapping pixels
B. Floating point pixel grid
C. Slope
D. Disjoint colors in pixels

4. What’s the formula for the decision parameter in East for Bresenham’s midpoint circle
algorithm:

A. d0 + 2x + 3
B. d0 + 2(x – y) + 5
C. x2 + y2 – R2
D. 1 - R

5. In OpenGL, which one is a callback func on?

A. glColor3ub()
B. glEnd()
C. glutDisplayFunc()
D. gluFlush()

6. For the equa on (x+5)2+ (y-7)2 = 16 The ini al Y co-ordinate for Bresenham’s midpoint line
algorithm is generally considered:

A. 16
B. 4
C. 5
D. 7
7. The property of Hal oning is:

A. Assigning colors in pixels

B. Dots are inversely proportional
C. Viewing from a distance gives an illusion
D. Both B and C

8. The complementary color of green is:

A. Cyan
B. Black
C. Magenta
D. Yellow

9. When we require more default colors for a system which of the following need not to be
applied:

A. Increase in number of bits of color representation

B. Change in default window position
C. Increase of number of pixels per inch
D. Use of additive color model

10. The default value of Le in the co-ordinate system in OpenGL with respect to GluOrtho2D() is:

A. 0
B. -1
C. 1
D. None of the above

11. The number of pixels stored in the frame buffer of a graphics system is known as

A. Depth
B. Resolution
C. Image
D. Pixel

12. Which of the following is correct?

A. Rendering studies algorithms to reflect the light

B. Rendering studies algorithms to transmit the light
C. Computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using non-
computational techniques.
D. Vector graphics are composed of paths
13. Which one is true?

A. Y = G + R
B. C = R + G
C. Y = W – G
D. M = R + G

14. Which one is not a format of Raster graphics?

A. TIFF
B. PCX
C. GIF
D. PICT

15. Conver ng Raster Image to Vector image is called

A. Scan Conversation
B. Rasterization
C. Halftoning
D. Dithering

16. To use Polygon primi ve, the least number of points needed?

A. 3
B. 1
C. 2
D. None of the above

17. What can OpenGL render?

A. Primitives
B. Bitmaps
C. Texture
D. All of the above

18. For a par cular situa on you are using the formula x=x+1 and y=round(y+m) for DDA. What
could be the situa on?

A. m>1
B. m=1
C. m=0
D. m<1
19. The binary for color intensity values (136, 85, 212) is:

A. (10001000, 01010101, 11010100)

B. (10001000, 01010101, 10101110)
C. (00001000, 01010101, 11010100)
D. (10000010, 01010101, 11010100)

20. (x-3)2 + (y-5)2 = 49, considering the equa on, which one of the following would be the ini al
Y coordinate according to Bresenham’s midpoint circle algorithm?

A. 1
B. 3
C. 7
D. 8

21. In CMYK, the key color is

A. Magenta
B. Cyan
C. Black
D. Yellow

22. Each color has its ____ different intensity level

A. 8
B. 256
C. 100
D. 200

23. Which one is not a format of Vector graphics?

A. AI
B. PCX
C. CGM
D. PICT

24. The DDA algorithm is ________ dependent.

A. Resolution
B. Orientation
C. Projection
D. Transformation
25. Scan conversion takes place a er

A. Rendering
B. Mapping
C. Mapping Shading
D. Clipping

26. An image is visible when:

A. A bitmap is created and shaded

B. Bitmap is converted to vector image
C. Bitmap is formed
D. Bitmap is rasterized

27. Which of the following needs RGB values?

A. Position of a pixel
B. Background Color
C. Window Position
D. Window Title

28. Which func on is meant for looping con nuously through glut events?

A. glutDisplayFunc()
B. glutInit(&argc, argv)
C. glutMainLoop()
D. display()

29. Total number of colors in a colour pale e depends on:

A. Pixel numbers in an image

B. The color space used
C. The color model used
D. Total number of bits for each color

30. Which of the following is an argument for the func on glClearColor():

A. Opacity
B. Intensity colors
C. Vertex value
D. GL Primitive type
31. How many ver ces are required to create a four-sided box with lines in OpenGL?

A. 4
B. 2
C. 8
D. Not possible

32. How do we create a primi ve circle using OpenGL?

A. Polygon
B. Points
C. Lines
D. All of the above

33. Which one is NOT a format of raster graphics?

A. GIF
B. PICT
C. TIFF
D. GIF

34. Circle is also known as a ______ symmetry:

A. 4 way
B. 6 way
C. 8 way
D. 10 way

35. Which of the following is one of the steps for the midpoint circle algorithm?

A. d = 3 − 2r
B. d = 1 − R
C. m = dy/dx
D. ax + by + c = 0

36. Which of the following is a valid formula for line drawing?

A. x = round(x + m)
B. y = y + 2
C. 2dy
D. ax + by + c = 0
37. For genera ng a line, which features do we need to consider?

A. End point
B. Floating point arithmetic
C. Avoiding floating point arithmetic
D. All of the above

38. Which one is NOT an example of Computer Graphics in real life?

A. In fields of entertainment, such as video games and animation

B. In fields of computer-aided design
C. Both A and B
D. Only A

39. The quality of images depends on:

A. Number of pixels
B. Colors assigned to each pixel
C. Display device quality
D. All of the above

40. Hal one breaks up an image into a series of

A. Scan code
B. Shade
C. Shape
D. None

41. Which one is not a format of Raster graphics?

A. TIFF
B. PCX
C. PICT
D. GIF

42. In coloring, the technique that uses a storage approach to iden fy the color codes is:

A. Direct Coding
B. Lookup Table
C. Rasterization
D. Halftone
43. What is the formula for the decision parameter in East for Bresenham’s midpoint circle
algorithm?

A. d0 + 2x + 3
B. d0 + 2(x - y) + 5
C. 1 - R
D. None

44. If point A (2, 3) belongs to a line having m = 2.5, what will be the next point if DDA is
applied?

A. B(3, 3)
B. B(2, 4)
C. B(3, 4)
D. B(4, 4)

45. If d >= 0, then next which point is selected according to midpoint circle algorithm?

A. East
B. North-East
C. South-East
D. Both A & B

46. Which one is a callback func on?

A. glColor3ub()
B. glEnd()
C. glutDisplayFunc()
D. glFlush()

47. For the equa on (x+5)² + (y–7)² = 16 the ini al Y-coordinate for Bresenham’s midpoint line
algorithm is generally considered:

A. 16
B. 4
C. -5
D. 7

48. More than 4 ver ces in a primi ve means:

A. Line
B. Quad
C. Polygon
D. None
49. An image composed of individual pixels arranged in a grid is referred to as:

A. Vector graphic
B. Raster image
C. Polygon mesh
D. Bezier curve

50. For a vector image the mathematical formula is used:

A. To find the pixels

B. To find the color
C. To find the coordinates that are mapped to pixels
D. None

51. For a raster image pixel can be arranged in a regular

A. ID Grid
B. 2D Vector
C. Bitmap
D. Coordinates

52. (x-1)2+(y-1)2 = 25, considering the equation, which one of the following would be the initial
point according to Bresenham’s midpoint circle algorithm?

A. (0, 25)
B. (0, 5)
C. (1, 1)
D. (-1, -1)

53. If d > 0, then which one is true for midpoint line algorithm?

A. tan = 2dy - dx
B. East point is selected if d > 0
C. (Δd)E = 2dy
D. (Δd)NE = 2(dy - dx)

54. Which of the following is a coloring technique?

A. Direct Coding
B. Lookup Table
C. Both A and B
D. None
Part B: True/False
1. Pixels in an image can be reproduced at a fixed size without the appearance of visible dots or
squares.

2. CMYK ranges from 0 to 100%.

3. Individually each pixel carries meaning.

4. Incremental algorithm has 3 requirements.

5. (R, G, B) ranges from 0 to 255.

6. Vector images have no fixed intrinsic resolu on.

7. In computer graphics, a color pale e is an infinite set of colors.

8. Colors perceived in subtrac ve models are the result of translated light.

9. GL_CIRCLE is not a geometric primi ve.

10. In midpoint line algorithm, incremental calcula ons are made based on preceding step to
find next y value, in order to form an exact approxima on to a straight line between two points.

11. Magenta is complementary color of green.

12. Resolu on in raster graphics is measured in dpi, or dots per inch. The lower the dpi, the
be er the resolu on.

13. To use polygon primi ve at most 3 points are needed.

14. Raster graphics are bitmaps.

15. CMYK stores color values for cyan, magenta, yellow, black.

16. Raster image is be er for designing a logo

17. To create polygon primi ve at most 3 points are needed

18. Raster images use mathema cal calcula ons

19. Addi ve color model uses CMY color space

20. Raster images use mathema cal calcula ons

21. Lookup table uses a table like structure to find color codes

22. Addi ve color models are used in prin ng

23. Vectors images are significantly smaller than Raster Graphics

24. Resolu on on an image is measured in Dots per inch

25. Addi ve color model uses CMY color space

26. gluOrtho2D() is used to fix the window size

27. Vector graphics are bitmap

28. Subtrac ve color model u lizes transmi ed light for showing an object

29. The number of dots per inch of ink on a printed page determines the resolu on of the
printer

30. Lookup table looks into a table like structure to find the color codes