Consumer Electronics

Module-1
Microphone & Loud Speaker
BEC654B
Module-1
Microphones: Introduction, Requirements,
Quality of Microphones, Classification, Moving
Coil Microphone, Ribbon Microphone,
Condenser (or Capacitor) Microphone, Crystal
Microphone, Carbon Microphone, Electret
Microphone.

Loudspeakers: Introduction, Features of

Loudspeaker, Moving Coil (Cone Type)
Loudspeaker, Electrodynamic Loudspeaker,
Horn Loudspeaker, Loudspeaker for High
Fidelity Systems.(Text : 5.1 to 5.10 and 6.1 to
6.6 )
[Link]
• In all audio systems sound energy has to
be transmitted to distant places. This can
be done by converting the variations of
sound pressure into electrical impulses.
• A microphone is a transducer which
converts variations of sound pressure into
electrical signals of the same frequency.
• The amplitude of the electrical signals are
proportional to the intensity of the sound
waves.
• It is important to amplify the electrical
signals using an audio amplifier before
these signals can be transmitted through
wires or by wireless means.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Microphones & Loudspeakers

2. Requirements
Electrical signals are faithful reproduction of sound
pressure only if the microphone fulfills the following
requirements.
[Link] response should be independent of frequency in
the complete audio frequency range 16Hz to
20KHz.
[Link] noise generated within the microphone should
be as low as possible.
[Link] performance should not be affected by the
adjacent electric and magnetic fields.
[Link] should be mechanically robust.
[Link] response should be independent of the direction
of sound waves.
[Link] of Microphones
A microphone should have the following qualities so
that it matches the above requirements
[Link]: It is the output in milli volt for a
sound pressure of 0.1 pa at 1000 Hz. Many
times, sensitivity is expressed in dB below 1V
[Link] response: Audio frequency range
extends from 16Hz to 20KHz. However, the audio
system is considered to be very good if it has a
flat response from 40Hz to 15KHz
[Link] to Noise Ratio: All equipment's generate
noise. If the generated noise is high, the quality
of sound will be poor. In a good microphone the
signal to noise ratio should be low. S/N ratio is
defined as the ratio at the output when sound
pressure is 0.1 pa to the output in the absence of
sound.
4. Output impedance: The importance of this
parameter arises because of the necessity to
transfer maximum power to the transmission
circuit.
• As per the maximum power transfer theorem,
the power transferred to the load is maximum
when load resistance is equal to source
resistance.
• To ensure maximum power transfer, the
resistance of the load and source can be
matched by the process of impedance matching.
• For this purpose, the microphone is connected
to a two winding transformer whose output is
fed to the transmission system. The transformer
changes the impedance level.
[Link]: A microphone may suffer from non-
linear distortion, frequency distortion and phase
distortion.
• Non linear distortion means that the relative
amplitudes of different frequencies in the
electrical output is not same as in the sound wave
Frequency distortion means some frequencies not
present in the sound signal appear in the output.
• This is due to natural resonant frequency of the
movable parts of the microphone.
• Phase distortion means that the inter-phase
relationship between different frequency
components in the output is not same as in the
input. This generally occurs when more than one
microphone is used in the system.
[Link]: The response or sensitivity of a
microphone is not the same for sounds
coming from different directions. This effect
is known as directivity.
• A microphone may be unidirectional,
bidirectional or omnidirectional. Directivity
is defined in terms of angle 𝜃 which is the
angle between half power points. Directivity
is also given by 20 log D were
D = Actual output in the direction of maximum output /
Output in that direction of Omnidirectional
Microphone
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 1: Directivity of Microphone

Fig 2: Polar Curves of Microphones (M)

a) Omnidirectional b) Bidirectional c) Special Directivity
Pattern
[Link]
• The basic principle of microphone is that sound
waves set up mechanical vibrations in a moving
element.
• The mechanical vibrations generate electrical
voltages at audio frequencies. The generated voltage
can be either proportional to velocity of the moving
element or its amplitude.
• Accordingly, microphones are classified as constant
amplitude or constant velocity microphones.
• Carbon, crystal and capacitor microphones are
constant velocity type.
1. Moving Coil Microphone
• A moving coil microphone works on the
principle of induced emf.
• The variations of sound pressure cause the
motion of a coil in a magnetic field.
• Thus, an emf is induced in the moving coil. It
is also known as a dynamic microphone.
• Fig 3 shows the construction. It consists of a
permanent magnet, generally POT type with a
central south pole and peripheral north pole.
• The magnet is so shaped as to give a uniform field
in the air gap.
• A diaphragm made of non-magnetic material is
fixed to the body by springs.
• A coil wound on the cardboard cylinder is attached
to the diaphragm and is free to move in the air gap
as the diaphragm vibrates due to sound waves.
• A protective cover saves the delicate diaphragm
and other parts from mechanical damage.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 3: Moving coil microphone

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves
forward and backwards. The coil also moves along
with diaphragm and an emf is induced in the coil. The
magnitude of emf is given by
e = Blv
Where e = emf
B = flux density Wb/m2 or T
L = length of the conductor/coil, m
V = velocity of coil, m/sec
Since the emf is proportional to velocity of coil, it is
designated as velocity microphone.
The motion of coil depends on pressure of sound
waves. Therefore, it is pressure microphone.
Features
[Link] sensitivity is about 90dB below 1V when
sound pressure is 0.1pa. The voltage induced is
about 30µV
[Link] output impedance is low, around 30 to 40
ohms. If it is to feed a transmission line of
impedance 250 ohms, an intervening step-up
transformer of turns ratio about 3 is needed.
[Link] frequency response is nearly flat in the 40Hz to
8KHz range
[Link] is an omnidirectional microphone
[Link] signal to noise ratio is about 25dB
[Link] distortion is less than 5%
Advantages
[Link] is mechanically robust and is not affected by
weather.
[Link] than ribbon and condenser
microphones but is more costly compared to
crystal and carbon microphones.
Disadvantages
[Link] has to be kept within 25cm distance from
source of sound.
2. Its weight is considerable because of heavy
magnet.
Applications
1. Public address system and broadcast studios.
1.6 Ribbon Microphone
• Its principle is exactly the same as that of the
moving coil microphone. However instead of
diaphragm and coil like in the moving coil
microphone this has an aluminum ribbon which
acts as a diaphragm as well as coil.
• When sound waves strike the ribbon, emf is
induced in it. It is velocity microphone because
the induced emf is proportional to the velocity of
the ribbon.
• Moreover, the working depends on the pressure
sound waves. Hence it is a pressure microphone.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 4: Ribbon Microphone

Ribbon Microphone
• The permanent magnet has extended pole
pieces Between the pole pieces is placed the
aluminium ribbon in which the emf is induced.
• A step-up transformer is inbuilt in the
microphone [Link] ribbon acts as a
diaphragm. When sound waves strike it, it
vibrates.
• Because of this motion an emf proportional to
velocity of ribbon is induced in it.
• This voltage is stepped up by the transformer
and appears at the output terminals.
Features
1. The sensitivity of ribbon microphone is low,
about 3µV or 110dB below 1V for a sound
pressure of 0.1 pa. However, this voltage is
stepped up to about 30 times by step up
transformer.
[Link] of low mass of ribbon, the frequency
response is very good and is almost flat from
about 20Hz to about 12000Hz.
[Link] output impedance is very low, generally
less than 0.5 ohm. The step up transformer
helps in increasing the output impedance by
about 900 times.
[Link] pressure can be applied to the ribbon
from front as well as back. Therefore it is a
bidirectional microphone.
[Link] distortion is less than 1%
[Link] Signal to Noise Ratio is good
[Link] gives good transient response
Advantages
[Link] frequency response
[Link] behavior
[Link] transient response
Disadvantages
[Link] is a delicate and expensive microphone
[Link] can be easily damaged due to slight
mishandling
[Link] sensitivity is low
Applications
[Link], music, broadcast
[Link] bidirectional feature allows the
participants of a drama to talk face to face
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

1.7 Condenser (or Capacitor) Microphone

The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates i.e

𝐶 = soA
Where d
C = Capacitance, Farads
s𝑜 = Permittivity of free space i.e
8.85 x 10-12 F/m d = distance between
plates, m
A = area of plate m2

Fig 5: Condenser Microphone

• As d changes due to pressure of sound waves,
capacitance changes. This change in capacitance
causes a change in the frequency of an
oscillatory circuit.
• This change in frequency is a measure of the
pressure of sound waves. Alternatively, this
change in capacitance causes successive
charging and discharging currents in a
resistance.
• These currents produce oscillating voltage across
the resistance. This voltage is a measure of the
pressure of the sound waves.
• Fig 5 shows the construction of a capacitance
microphone. It consists of a light weight
diaphragm about 0.0025 cm thick made of
duralumin.
• It is separated by about 0.005 cm from another
metal plate which is fixed and is known as
backplate.
• It is connected in series with a resistance R
across a battery of about 150 V.
• The output voltage across R is fed to an amplifier
as shown in the fig below.
• As sound waves impinge on the diaphragm,
the distance between the diaphragm and back
plate changes and thus the capacitance
between the plate changes.
• Charging and discharging currents flow in the
circuit causing a change in voltage across
resistance R. This voltage is amplified by the
amplifier.
• Thus, output voltage of the amplifier varies
with the change in pressure of sound waves.
It is a pressure microphone since output is
proportional to pressure of sound waves.
Features:
[Link] sensitivity is low and therefore it has an
inbuilt amplifier.
[Link] has a very good and almost flat frequency
response from 40Hz to 15KHz
[Link] distortion is less than 1%
[Link] signal to noise ratio is high, 40dB or so
[Link] is omni directional
[Link] output impedance is very high, about 50 MΩ
or so.
Advantages
[Link] output impedance
[Link] frequency response
[Link] distortion
[Link] signal to noise ratio
Disadvantages
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] is affected by heat and moisture
Applications
[Link] as a standard microphone for calibration of
other microphones
[Link] used in high fidelity sound recording and in
sound meter
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

1.8 Crystal Microphone

Its principle is based on piezoelectric effect.
As per this effect the application of pressure across the
faces of a crystal, produces a voltage across the faces.
The crystals which exhibit this property are Rochelle
salt, quartz, ceramic etc.
Ceramic is the most commonly used material.

Fig 6: Crystal Microphone

Construction: The crystal is in the form of bimorph
crystal unit. Metal foils are attached to the crystal
surfaces to serve as terminals.
• A diaphragm, generally made of aluminium is held
between supports through springs.
• The diaphragm is connected to the biomorph
through a push rod.
• When sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, it
vibrates. These vibrations are picked up by the
bimorph element and a voltage is developed across
its faces.
• The voltage developed is proportional to pressure
of sound waves. This voltage is generally fed to an
amplifier.
Features
[Link] sensitivity is good
[Link] flat frequency response between 80Hz to
8000Hz
[Link] noise generated with in this microphone is
low. Hence it has high signal to noise ratio.
[Link] output impedance is very high, about 1MW
[Link] distortion is low
[Link] is omni directional
Advantages
[Link] sensitivity
[Link] Signal to Noise
[Link] Distortion
[Link] Size
[Link] directional characteristics
[Link] cost
Disadvantages
[Link] rugged than moving coil
[Link] withstand high temperature
[Link] low frequency sound waves are
attenuated.
[Link] is affected by moisture
Applications
[Link] recording
[Link] communication systems
[Link] communication
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

1.9 Carbon Microphone

When carbon granules are packed in a casing, the
resistance of granules depends on the applied pressure.
The sound waves impinge on the diaphragm which
compresses the granules.
The change in resistance causes a change in voltage
in circuit. This voltage is proportional to pressure of
sound waves. Fig 7 shows the construction.
• Fine carbon granules are packed in a case as
shown. The sound pressure acts on a metallic
diaphragm.
• The movable metal piston transmits this pressure to
a movable carbon plate. The second metallic plate
is fixed.
• A battery is connected between the two plates. A
transformer is used to eliminate the dc content in
the microphone output.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 7: Carbon Microphone

Features
[Link] Good sensitivity, about 20 dB below 1V. The
output voltage is about 100mV
[Link] frequency response is limited between about
200 Hz to 5000 Hz
[Link] signal to noise ratio is poor. Random
variation of carbon resistance causes a rather
continuous noise.
[Link] output impedance is about 100 ohms
[Link] distortion is also high, about 10%
[Link] is more or less omni directional
1.10 Electret Microphone
• Its principle is same as that of a condenser
microphone. However, it does not require a d.c
supply. It has a inbuilt charge on one plate.
• Sound pressure causes movement of diaphragm
and a consequent change in capacitance. Since
charge is constant, a voltage appears between the
plates. Fig 8 shows the construction.
• The metallic diaphragm held in position by
springs. The fixed plate has coating of Teflon
which has the characteristic of retaining charge
for a longer period.
• Teflon layer is given a negative charge at the
time of manufacture.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 8: Electret Microphone

When sound pressure acts on the diaphragm, it vibrates. Therefore, capacitance between the
plates changes. Charge Q, capacitance C and Voltage V are related as
𝑉= 𝑄
𝐶

When capacitance decreases, voltage or field across the plates

increases When capacitance increases, the field decreases.
Thus, the terminal voltage changes due to pressure of sound
waves.
Features
[Link] is average
[Link] response is good
[Link] to nose ratio is high
[Link] is low
[Link] impedance is high, about 50 MΩ
[Link] is omni directional
Advantages
[Link] cheap
[Link] light weight
[Link] not require dc supply
[Link] distortion
[Link] size
Disadvantages
[Link]
[Link] is affected by temperature and
moisture
Applications
[Link] address system of small gatherings
(clubs etc.)
[Link] it is very lightweight
[Link] is commonly used as a tie clip
microphone
Table 1 Comparison of Microphones
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

[Link]
Loud speaker is an essential component of all audio
systems. It converts electrical audio frequency signals
into sound waves of the same frequency. Thus, its
work is opposite to that of a microphone. The input to
a loudspeaker may come from the audio system
directly or from the antenna.
[Link] of Loudspeaker
A loudspeaker must convert the electrical signals
into sound waves as faithfully as possible without
any distortion and in the whole of audio-frequency
range.
The main features of a speaker are sensitivity,
frequency response, signal to noise ratio, distortion,
directivity and input impedance.
Sensitivity
It is the input signal required to give a sound
pressure of 0.1pa at a distance of one meter from the
loudspeaker. Sometimes the word efficiency is used
to describe the ability of the speaker to convert
electrical signals into sound waves.

Frequency Response
The frequency response is the range of frequencies
having an amplitude ±1dB. Ideally the frequency
response should be flat over the whole audio range
i.e 16Hz to 20KHz. However, the mass of the
diaphragm of the speaker attenuates high
frequencies. The speaker will always have a
natural resonant frequency. The input signal at this
frequency is strengthened giving rise to non-
linearity.
Signal to Noise Ratio
A loudspeaker also generates some noise in itself.
Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of the output(with
signal) to the output(without signal). It should be as
high as possible.
Distortion
It may in amplitude, frequency and phase. Causes of
distortion are non-linear behavior of magnetic field,
mass of diaphragm, natural frequency of the
mechanical parts etc.
Directivity
It is defined as the ratio of sound intensity in the
direction of maximum response to the sound
intensity which would be existing if the speaker is
omnidirectional.
Input Impedance
It is expressed in ohms. For maximum power output
from speaker, its input impedance should be equal to
the source impedance so that proper impedance
matching is obtained.
1.13 Moving Coil (Cone Type) Loudspeaker
Its principle is the same as that of a motor. It is also
known as direct radiating loud speaker. A coil,
known as voice coil, is placed in the magnetic field
of permanent magnet. When electric current passes
through the coil, a force acts on the coil causing the
coil to move(vibrate). A paper diaphragm of the
shape of a cone is attached to the coil. Thus, the
diaphragm vibrates, produces pressure variations in
air and the result is the sound waves.
The force acting on the voice coil causes vibration
of the diaphragm resulting in compressions and
rarefactions in the air. Thus, electrical signals are
converted into sound waves of the same
frequencies.
Construction
The main parts of the loudspeaker are magnet,
voice coil, conical diaphragm. This
loudspeaker uses a pot type permanent
magnet having central south pole and
peripheral north pole. To give a strong
magnetic field, the magnet is made of special
alloy Alnico. This material has a very high
retentivity and can thus retain magnetism
almost indefinitely. A voice coil is suspended
by a suitable suspension in the air gap and is
free to move in the air gap when a force acts
on it. The coil is attached to a conical
diaphragm made of special paper. Terminals
of the voice coil are fixed on the cone
surface. Fig 9 shows the moving coil
loudspeaker
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 9: Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Working
When electric current flows through the voice coil, interaction
between the field of permanent magnet and the magnetic field
of current occurs. Due to this, interaction of force acts on the
voice causing its to and fro motion.
Since the conical diaphragm is attached to the voice coil, the
diaphragm also vibrates causing compressions and rarefactions
in air.
Thus, the electrical signals are converted into sound waves of
the same frequency. The cone helps in spreading the sound over
a large area and thus sound can be heard at a great distance.
Features
[Link] of this loudspeaker is poor. Only 5-
10% of the signal power is converted into sound
[Link] signal to noise ratio is about 30dB
[Link] gives a nearly flat frequency response in the
200Hz to 5000Hz
[Link] non-linear distortion can be as high as 10%
[Link] is omni directional. Directivity can be
modified by using baffles and enclosures so that
most of the sound waves go to the area in front
of it.
6. The impedance of the voice coil is the input
impedance of the loudspeaker. This impedance
is a function of frequency because of the
inductance of the voice coil.
For transfer of maximum power, the input
impedance of speaker should be equal to the
output impedance of the system feeding signal to
the loudspeaker. Since the input impedance is a
function of frequency, perfect matching is
possible only at one frequency.
1.13.1 Equivalent Circuit
• Fig 10 shows the equivalent circuit of a cone type loudspeaker. Source
is the source of signals. rc and Lc denote the resistance and self-
inductance of the voice coil, Cm is the mechanical compliance
(Stiffness) and Lm is the inductance which represents mass of the
moving system. RL is the load.

• At low frequencies, the resistance of Lm is low and shunts the load

resistance. Therefore, the output at low frequencies is reduced.

• At high frequencies the reactance of series

inductance is high and causes attenuation of
high frequency components of signal. Effect of Cm is small and
negligible.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 10: Equivalent Circuit of moving coil

Loudspeaker

Advantages
[Link] Size
[Link] cost
[Link] frequency response
Disadvantages
[Link] efficiency
[Link] low and high frequencies are attenuated
Applications
[Link] receivers
[Link] receivers
[Link] Players
[Link] Players
[Link] in all audio appliances designed for small
groups of people
Capacity Available
[Link] radiating cone type loudspeakers are
available in number of sizes up to about 25W
1.14 Electrodynamic Loudspeaker
The principle of electrodynamic loudspeaker is
exactly the same as that of moving coil direct
radiating loudspeaker.
The construction is also similar except that
electrodynamic speaker uses an electromagnet.
The field coil of the electromagnet is wound
over the central limb as shown in Fig 11.

Fig 11: Electrodynamic Loudspeaker

• This field coil produces a very strong
magnetic field. Therefore, this speaker can
handle more power.
• Loudspeakers of rating from 25W upto 100W
or so are of this type. The flow of electric
current in the voice coil creates a magnetic field.
• This field interacts with the field of
electromagnet and creates a force. This force
causes a to and fro motion of voice coil and the
conical diaphragm vibrates thus converting
electrical signal r into sound waves.
• The main advantage of this speaker is that it
can handle more input power. However, it
needs a source of power supply for the
electromagnet. Its cost is more than that of
moving coil cone type.
1.15 Horn Loudspeaker
Principle
The interaction of the magnetic field due to
current in the voice coil with the magnetic field of
the magnet causes a force to act on the coil.
The coil moves to and fro and causes vibrations of
the diaphragm. However, it does not use a cone
and does not deliver sound directly to open space.
Instead, it delivers sound to air trapped in a horn
which, in turn, radiates sound to the open space.
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Construction
Fig 12 shows the construction of horn speaker. The
magnet, voice coil, diaphragm are similar to that in
moving coil direct radiating speaker. However, it does
not have a cone.
The cone is replaced by a horn whose diameter
increases from small value at the throat to a large
value at the mouth. The shape of the horn may be
canonical, exponential or hyperbolic as shown in Fig
13.
The dimensions of a horn loudspeaker may be pretty
large with length about 2m and diameter at mouth
about 1m. To optimize the space needed, folded horn
Fig 14 can be used.

Fig 12: Horn Loudspeaker

Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Fig 13: Shapes of Horn Loudspeakers

(a) Canonical (b) Exponential (c) Hyperbolic

Fig 14: Horn Loudspeaker with Folded Horn

Working
• When current flows in voice coil, it creates a
magnetic field. This magnetic field interacts
with the magnetic field of the magnet creating a
force. This force causes the voice coil to move
to and fro. Thus, the diaphragm vibrates.
• The horn expands from a small diameter at
throat to a large opening at mouth. The sound
pressure at the throat is maximum and decreases
as we approach the mouth.
• The loudspeaker power is delivered to the air
space indirectly i.e the power is delivered at the
throat and sound waves then travel to the
mouth.
• The horn acts as an acoustic transformer. The
advantage is that a better matching exists
between the impedance of the voice coil and the
acoustical resistance thus increasing the
efficiency of the loudspeaker.
• A small diaphragm can produce a large volume
of sound. Response is good at low as well as
high frequencies.
Features
[Link] is good, about 40%
[Link] to noise ratio is about 40 dB
[Link] flat frequency response from about 25
to 10000Hz. The high frequency response can
be further improved using tweeter horn
[Link]-linear distortion is less than 5%
[Link] is different at different frequencies
[Link] low frequencies it is nearly omni
directional
[Link] high frequencies the radiation is
concentrated in narrow cone around the
axis of the horn
Advantages
[Link] efficiency
[Link] power handling capacity
Disadvantages
[Link] costly than cone type loudspeaker
[Link] size
Applications
[Link] address systems
[Link] auditoriums and music concerts
Consumer Electronics – Module 1

1.16 Loudspeaker for High Fidelity Systems

Fig 15 shows a special loudspeaker for high fidelity
(hi-fi) music systems. It is a combination of a cone
and exponential horn. The cone faces away from the
audience. The enclosure for the cone and the
exponential horn is so placed that the output from the
horn is directed towards the audience.

Fig 15: Horn Loudspeaker for High Fidelity