Foundations of Education

PART I - CONTENT UPDATE

I. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

1. EARLY CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION

1.1. Education for Conformity / Primitive Education

Aims: To survive and to conform to the tribe to which they belong
Contents: Practical and Theoretical Education
Methods: Tell me and show me, trial and error, enculturation, indoctrination
Proponents: Primitives

1.2. Education for the Preservation of Social Stability / Oriental Education

Aims: To impress traditional ideas and customs in order to maintain and perpetuate the long
established social order
Contents: Moral and Theoretical Training
Methods: Imitation, memorization
Proponents: Orientals (Chinese, Indians, Egyptians)

1.3. Education for the Development of Individuality / Greek Education

Aims: To promote individual success and welfare through the harmonious development of the
various aspects of human personality

 Spartan: To develop a good soldier in each citizen

 Athenian: To perfect man (body and mind) for individual excellence needed for public
usefulness
Contents:
 Spartan: Military and physical training
 Athenians: Liberal education
Methods:
 Athenian: Principle of individuality
 Spartan: Competition and rivalry
Proponents: Greeks

1.4. Education for Utilitarianism / Roman Education

Aim: To educate the Roman youth for realizing national ideals
Content: Physical training (martial arts, use of war)

2. MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION

2.1. Education for Rich, Full Life / Italian or Individualistic Humanism

 Aim: To secure rich and full life for each individual through contacts with the ancient
 Contents: Grammar, Literature, and Mathematics
 Methods: Text study, written themes, self-activity, and self-expression
  Proponent: Vittorino da Feltre

2.2. Northern or Social Humanism

 Aim: For social reform

 Contents: Classical and biblical literature (Religious)
 Methods: Individualized instruction, repetition and mastery, motivation, use of praise
and rewards
 Proponent: Desiderius Erasmus

2.3. Reformation

 Aim: Religious moralism

 Content: Physical education, Character education, Math, History, Science
 Methods: Memorization, religious indoctrination
 Proponent: Martin Luther

2.4. Counter-Reformation

 Aim: To develop an unquestioning obedience to the authority of the church

 Content: 4R's (religion included)
 Methods:
o Adapting the lesson to the abilities, needs, and interests of children
o Reviewing the previous lessons
o Repetition for mastery
o Memorization with understanding
o Use of textbooks
 Proponents: Christian Brothers, Jansenists, Jesuits

2.5. Education as Training of the Mind / Formal Discipline

 Aims:
o To train the mind through rigorous exercises in order to develop intellectual
capacities
o To form character (mental, physical, and moral)
 Contents: Classical Languages and Math; Physical (vigor of the body), mental (mental
power), and moral (good conduct)
 Methods: Formal - sensation, memory and reasoning, Drill method
 Proponent: John Locke

2.6. Rationalism

 Aim: To enable man to think for themselves

 Contents: Philosophical/scientific knowledge, ethics and morality
 Methods: Critical analysis, application of reason
2.7. Education in Harmony with Nature / Naturalistic Conception of Education

 Aims: To develop the individual in accordance with the laws of human development and
to preserve the natural goodness of man
 Contents: Holistic education (physical, moral, intellectual)
 Proponent: Jean Jacques Rousseau

2.8. Education for Patriotic Citizenship / Nationalistic Conception

 Aim: To develop military preparedness and aggressiveness for the preservation and
glorification of the State
 Content: Social Studies
 Methods: Practical

2.9. Education as Psychological Development

 Aim: To direct and control growth and development through appropriate educational
procedures
o JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI – Social regeneration of humanity
o FRIEDRICH FROEBEL – Development of the child
o JONATHAN HERBART – Moral development

Edward Lee Thorndike – realize the fullest satisfaction of human wants

 Contents: Math, science, language, arts, history, literature

 Methods: Principles and Laws of Learning

2.10. Education as a Scientifically Determined Process

 Aim: To make education a science

 Content: Science
 Methods: Experimental, problem-solving, scientific method and research

2.11. Education as Social Reconstruction / Social Experimentalism

 Aim: Prepare for a progressive rebuilding of the social order

 Content: Social Studies
o Intellectual – critical examination of the social conditions and social problems
o Civic – intelligent participation and cooperation in civic affairs
o Vocational – social relationships of one's job
 Methods: Guidance (including social guidance), intelligent and cooperative participation,
field trips, directed classroom study (community life)

1. MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS

1. Idealism (Plato)
  View: Reality is mentally constructed; emphasizes spiritual and mental development.
 Aims: Develop spiritually, mentally, morally.
 Methods: Socratic method, lecture, introspection.
 Teacher: Role model, encourages logical thinking.
 Content: Literature, history, religion.

2. Realism (Aristotle)

 View: Reality exists independently; knowledge from senses.

 Aims: Provide knowledge for survival.
 Methods: Lectures, demonstrations.
 Content: Science and mathematics.

3. Pragmatism / Experimentalism (John Dewey)

 View: Education must reflect society; experience-based.

 Aims: Teach students how to think and adapt.
 Methods: Project method, problem-solving, discussion.

4. Perennialism (Robert Hutchins)

 Focus: Enduring ideas and truths.

 Aims: Develop rational thought.
 Teacher: Transmitter of eternal truths.
 Learner: Passive recipient.

5. Essentialism (William Bagley)

 Focus: Core knowledge (3Rs).

 Aims: Promote intellectual growth.
 Teacher: Focuses on achievement and skills.

6. Progressivism (John Dewey, Johann Pestalozzi)

 View: Education as growth and experience.

 Aims: Equip students for changing society.
  Methods: Experience-based learning.

7. Existentialism (Jean-Paul Sartre)

 View: Man defines his essence.

 Aims: Train for personal, meaningful existence.
 Teacher: Aids self-discovery.

8. Social Reconstructionism (George Counts)

 Focus: Education as a tool for societal reform.

 Aims: Address real-world issues, improve society.
 Methods: Community-based learning, real-world problems.

Eastern Philosophies

1. Hinduism (Mahatma Gandhi)

 Focus: Moral life, non-violence, yoga.

 Method: Oral, memory-intensive.
 Teacher: Spiritual guide by example.

2. Buddhism (Siddhartha Gautama)

 Beliefs: Four Noble Truths, Law of Karma.

 Education: Rooted in faith and spiritual learning.

3. Confucianism (Confucius)

 Focus: Family devotion, virtue, morality.

 Methods: Civil service exams, rituals in schools.

4. Taoism (Lao-Tzu)

 Beliefs: Harmony with nature, simplicity.

 Education: Compassion, moderation, physical/mental balance.

5. Zen Buddhism

 Beliefs: Inner enlightenment, meditation, “Third Eye.”

  View: Enlightenment from within.

6. Islam (Muhammad)

 Beliefs: Five Pillars.

 Education: Promotes self and social benefit, moral discipline.

Philippine Educational System

Pre-Spanish Period

 Aims: Survival, conformity.

 Methods: Informal (observation, trial and error).

Spanish Period

 Aims: Christianity.
 Methods: Memorization, religious instruction.
 Content: Religion, vocational.

American Period

 Aims: Democracy.
 Content: Reading, writing, arithmetic, civics.
 Methods: Socialized recitation, student participation.

Commonwealth Period (1935–1942)

 Aims: Citizenship, discipline, democratic ideals.

Japanese Occupation (1943–45)

 Aims: Promote Japanese language, dignity of labor.

 Content: Vocational, technical, physical ed.

Republic Period (1943–1972)

 Aims: Democratic ideals, equal opportunities.

 Content: Filipino heritage, nation-building, training.
Child and adolescence

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

A. Basic Concepts

 Growth – Physical changes; measurable (height, weight, etc.); rapid in early stages.
 Development – Skill and function progression; adaptation and behavioral changes.
 Maturation – Genetically programmed changes, mostly independent of environment.
 ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) – Vygotsky's idea of learning with help.
 Heredity – Genetic transmission of traits.
 Environment – Influences development externally.

🔹 Theories of Development
1. Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Stage Age Range Focus Area

Oral Birth–1.5 yrs Mouth; weaning conflict
Anal 1.5–3 yrs Anus; toilet training conflict
Phallic 4–6 yrs Genitals; Oedipus/Electra complex
Latency 6–puberty Repressed sexuality; peer relationships
Genital Puberty onwards Mature sexuality, social maturity
2. Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory

Positive
Stage Age Range Conflict Negative Outcome
Outcome
Birth–18
Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Trust Mistrust, withdrawal
mos
Autonomy vs. Compulsiveness,
Early Childhood 1.5–3 yrs Self-control
Shame/Doubt defiance
Late Childhood 3–5 yrs Initiative vs. Guilt Assertiveness Guilt, self-doubt
School Age 6–12 yrs Industry vs. Inferiority Competence Inferiority, withdrawal
Identity vs. Role
Adolescence 12–20 yrs Identity Role confusion
Confusion
Young Deep
18–25 yrs Intimacy vs. Isolation Isolation
Adulthood relationships
Generativity vs.
Adulthood 25–65 yrs Productivity Stagnation
Stagnation
Maturity 65+ yrs Integrity vs. Despair Life satisfaction Regret, despair

3. Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks

Developmental tasks based on age:

  Infancy to Middle Childhood: Walk, talk, eat solids, control wastes, independence,
conscience.
 Adolescence: Independence, body acceptance, emotional/occupational prep.
 Adulthood: Marriage, parenting, career, civic responsibilities.
 Later Maturity: Adjust to aging, retirement, and death of spouse.

🔹 Cognitive Development: Piaget

Stage Age Characteristics

Sensorimotor Birth–2 yrs Reflexes, object permanence, sensory exploration
Preoperational 2–7 yrs Symbolism, egocentrism, intuitive thinking
Concrete Operational 7–11 yrs Logical thinking, conservation, reversibility
Formal Operational 11+ yrs Abstract thinking, hypothesis testing
🔹 Moral Development: Kohlberg

Level Stage Description

Pre-conventional Obedience & Punishment Avoiding punishment
Instrumental Relativist Self-interest
Conventional Interpersonal Concordance Social approval
Law and Order Following rules and laws
Post-conventional Social Contract Rights and democracy
Universal Ethical Principles Internal moral principles

1. Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth)

 Duration: ~270-280 days (9 months)

 Phases:
o Germinal Stage (0–2 weeks): Fertilization to implantation. Zygote formation and
early cell division.
o Embryonic Stage (2–8 weeks): Organs and body systems begin to form. Critical
period for birth defects.
o Fetal Stage (8 weeks–birth): Growth and refinement of body systems; fetus
kicks, reacts, and grows to viability.

2. Infancy Stage (Birth to 2 weeks)

 Transition period marked by helplessness.

 Newborns are feeble, sensitive to light, and cry/coo.
 Language roots: crying, cooing, babbling.
3. Babyhood Stage (2nd week to 2nd year)

 Decreased dependency; gains motor control.

 Developmental Tasks: Walking, talking, eating solid food, emotional bonding, early
speech.
 Communication: Babbling, crying, emotional expressions.
 Considered non-moral (no values yet).

4. Early Childhood Stage (2–6 years)

 Also called: Toy age, preschool age, pre-gang age.

 Tasks: Self-help skills (feeding, dressing), motor skills, vocabulary growth.
 Piaget’s Substages:
o Preconceptual (2–4 yrs): Egocentrism, animism, transductive reasoning.
o Intuitive (4–6 yrs): Limited logic, centration, irreversibility.
 Teachable moment due to curiosity and speech development.

5. Late Childhood Stage (6–12 years)

 Coincides with elementary school years.

 Tasks: Academic skills, physical coordination, social skills, self-concept, independence.
 Values peer interaction, rules, and moral development.

6. Pre-Adolescence / Puberty Stage (10–14 years)

 Trigger: Puberty; physical and hormonal changes.

 Changes: Rapid height/weight gain, primary (menstruation/nocturnal emissions) and
secondary sex characteristics.
 Divided into:
o Prepubescent
o Pubescent
o Postpubescent

7. Adolescence Stage (13–18 years)

 Period of identity formation, emotional intensity ("storm and stress").

 Tasks: Independence, social identity, maturity, peer influence.
 Concerned with others’ opinions and abstract thinking.
8. Adulthood Stage (20–65 years)

 Focus: Intimacy, career, commitment, generativity.

 Challenges: Burnout, moral responsibility, decline in organ reserve,
menopause/climacteric.

9. Old Age (65+ years)

 Marked by retirement and physical, intellectual, and social slowing.

 Concerns: Memory loss, dementia, greater appreciation of art/nature.
 Needs: Emotional connection more important than achievement.

Principles and Theories of Learning and Motivation

Definition of Learning

 Learning is acquiring new knowledge, skills, beliefs, and behaviors.

 It involves:
o Gaining knowledge (the “what”)
o Process of gaining knowledge (the “how”)
o An ongoing process of adapting to new information (Banner & Cannon, 1997)

🔹 Learning Theories

These are explanations (hypotheses) on how learning occurs.

🔹 Principles of Learning

 Learning by doing is more effective than passive listening.

 Present concepts in varied ways.
 Ask and formulate questions to aid learning.
 Learning improves when tasks are challenging.
 Readiness impacts learning—related to learners’ development stage.

🧠 Theories of Learning
A. Behavioral Learning Theories

1. Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning

 Based on Stimulus-Response
 Classical Conditioning Process:
o UCS (Meat Powder) → UCR (Salivation)
o Neutral Stimulus (Buzzer) → No Response initially
o Pairing UCS + Neutral Stimulus = Conditioning
o Eventually: CS (Buzzer) → CR (Salivation)

Key Terms:

 UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus

 UCR: Unconditioned Response
 CS: Conditioned Stimulus
 CR: Conditioned Response

Features:

 Generalization: Responding similarly to similar stimuli.

 Discrimination: Differentiating responses.
 Extinction: Loss of conditioned response.

2. Edward Thorndike – Connectionism

 Learning by selecting and connecting

 Laws of Learning:
1. Law of Readiness – Learning occurs when the learner is ready.
2. Law of Exercise:
 Law of Use – Connections are strengthened when used.
 Law of Disuse – Connections weaken when not used.
3. Law of Effect – Behavior with satisfying consequences is reinforced.

3. B.F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning

 Learning through consequences (rewards/punishments)

 Reinforcers:
o Primary: Basic needs (food, water)
o Secondary: Associated with primary (money, praise)
 o Positive: Adding a pleasant stimulus
o Negative: Removing an unpleasant stimulus

Reinforcement Types:

 Verbal, Physical, Non-verbal, Activity, Token, Consumable

Formula:

1. Prompt
2. Response
3. Reinforcement

4. Albert Bandura – Social/Observational Learning

 Known for “Bobo doll” experiment

 Learning by observing and imitating models.
 4 Phases:
1. Attention – Focus on model
2. Retention – Remembering observed behavior
3. Motor Reproduction – Physically reproducing the behavior
4. Motivation – Performing behavior if conditions are favorable

B. Cognitive Theories and Metacognition

 Focus on memory and internal mental processes

 Believe in non-observable behavior

1. David Ausubel – Meaningful Reception Learning

 New experiences are related to prior knowledge.

 Learning may occur through:
o Reception
o Rote learning
o Discovery learning

Two Dimensions:

1. Reception vs. Discovery

2. Meaningful vs. Rote
2. Jerome Bruner – Discovery Learning / Inquiry Method

 Learning is meaningful when learners discover relationships themselves.

 Encourages active exploration and manipulation.
 Emphasizes “Instrumental Conceptualism”

3. Wolfgang Köhler – Insight Learning

 Insight = sudden understanding of a problem

 Learning involves analyzing and structuring perception until a solution is found.

4. Atkinson & Shiffrin – Information Processing Theory

 Learning involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Stages of Memory:

 Sensory Memory – Brief storage of sensory input (e.g. shape, color, sound)