DC-DC converter

• Electronic system is designed to operate from a

constant supply voltage.
• The voltage regulator provides this DC output voltage
which needs to be constant regardless of changes in
load current or input voltage.
• In portable system, the battery is often used as the
input voltage.
• DC-DC converter type regulators take such DC input
voltage and produce the required output voltage
which could be higher or lower than the input battery
voltage.

1
 System requirements

• Major power consumers: PA, baseband digital,

display lighting, analog
• Different voltage/current requirements
Antenna
Display
mP/DSP D/A PA
core LO
Audio
A/D LNA
I/O
Baseband digital Analog/RF
Interface
Block diagram of cellular system

• Basic power management:

– Efficient distribution of required voltage/current levels
– ON/OFF control for all functional blocks

2
 Power distribution

Battery example: single-cell Lithium-Ion Battery Charger

Power distribution: Vbat = 2.7-5.5 V

PS PS PS PS
3.6 V 2.5 V 1.5 V 0.5-Vbat
Antenna
Display
mP/DSP D/A PA
core LO
PS Audio
A/D LNA
2.7-5.5 V I/O
Baseband digital Analog/RF
Interface
2.5 V 2.5 V 2.5 V

PS PS PS

PS Power supply choices: (1) nothing, (2) LDO, (3) switcher, or (4) switched-cap

3
 Power for mP/DSP Core

VDD

mP/DSP P  CVDD
2
f c  VDD I off
core

• Dynamic or AC power: C(VDD)2fc

• Static or DC or leakage power: VDDIoff
C constant proportional to the number of gates and switching
activity
fc clock frequency
Ioff leakage current proportional to the number of gates, increases
with reduced device threshold voltages Vtn, Vtp

4
Deep Sub-micron Digital CMOS Trends

• Feature size down to ~0.1μ or less

• Supply voltage down to 1.2 V or less
• Very thin gate oxide
• Significant leakage current through devices
• Both dynamic and static power are significant
• Dual or triple well processes with precisely
adjusted oxide thickness and device threshold
voltages

5
 mP/DSP Power with Standard ON/OFF
Power Management

 MIPS 
P  Pdyn,max    VDD I off
 MIPS max 
Device clocked only Static power is
when needed still a problem
• MIPS = mega-instructions per second, a measure of
processor activity
• Static power limits the stand-by battery life
• Technology trends:
– lower-threshold option for high-speed applications
– higher-threshold option for low-power applications

6
 Example: TSMC 0.13m
Source: TSMC Web site

• “Low-power”: more than 3 orders of magnitude lower leakage but

with a penalty of 3 times lower speed
• Emerging portable applications require both high speed and low
dynamic and static power
7
 Power for RF PA

Vbat

RF in PA
RF out

Class-A

• EDGE, CDMA, WCDMA: amplitude & phase modulation

• Requires highly-linear, Class-A (or Class-AB) PA
• Low efficiency: ~35% max, much lower on average

8
 Power for Display

• Example: transmissive TFT, 120x160 pixel, color

– Active matrix thin film transistor LCD with white LED
backlight
– approx. 5 mW LCD power (when active)
– approx. 100-200 mW lighting power (when active)
• White LED voltage: 3.6 V; cannot be operated
directly from the battery
• Increased usage in state-of-the-art devices: display
power becomes a major factor affecting the battery
life

9
 Power for Analog

• Requires well-regulated, low-noise supply

(2.5 V or 3 V)
• Transmitter: DAC, modulator, filters, oscillator
– approx. 20-30 mA consumption (when active)
• Receiver: low-noise amp, demodulator,
filters, oscillator, ADC
– approx. 30-40 mA consumption (when active)

10
 Power Supply Example:
Step-Down Voltage Regulator
Battery Charger
Power distribution: Vg = 2.7-5.5 V

PS PS PS Step-down PS
voltage regulator
3.6 V 2.5 V
1.5 V 1-3.6 V Antenna
Display
mP/DSP D/A PA
core LO
PS Audio
A/D LNA
2.7-5.5 V I/O
Baseband digital Analog/RF
Interface
2.5 V 2.5 V 2.5 V

PS PS PS

Step-down regulators are used as power supplies for

baseband digital core and the RF power amplifier (PA)
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DC-DC Converter Characteristics & Features

• Efficiency
• Transient response
– Static regulation
– Dynamic regulation
• Noise
– Ripple
– EMI
• Protection
– Over voltage
– Under voltage
– Overload
– Thermal

12
 Efficiency

• Ratio of delivered power to the load vs. input power

from the source
output DC power Po Vo I o
  
input DC power Pin Vin I in

13
 Features: Voltage Regulation

• Static voltage regulation

– DC output voltage precision, i.e., % variation with
respect to the nominal value over:
• input voltage range (“line regulation”)
• output load range (“load regulation”)
• process and temperature variations
• Dynamic voltage regulation
– “Load transient response,” including peak output voltage
variation and settling time for a step load transient
– “Line transient response,” including output voltage variation
and settling time for a step input voltage transient

14
 Line Regulation

• Output voltage change vs. power supply change

Vo
Line Regulation 
Vin

15
 Load Regulation

• Output voltage change vs. load current

Vo
Load Regulation 
I o

16
 Protection Features
• Over-voltage protection
– prevents the output voltage from rising above a
specified limit
• Under-voltage shutdown
– turns the device off if the input (battery) voltage
drops below a specified threshold
• Current limiting (overload protection)
– limits the load current
• Thermal shutdown
– turns the device off if the temperature exceeds a
specified threshold

17
 Other Features
• Frequency synchronization
– allows synchronization of the switching frequency
to an external system clock
• Soft start
– controlled output voltage increase during start-up
• Shut-down and operating-mode control
– enables a system controller to shut-down the
device, or to select an operating mode
• Adjustment of the output voltage using
– a resistive voltage divider,
– external analog control voltage, or
– digital (pin-select) control

18
 Ripple

• Steady state output noise.

• Ripple could be caused by coupling from other
sources in the system e.g. ground or trace to trace
coupling.
• It could also be caused by elements of design of the
power supply itself.
ripple voltage
Vout

19
 DC-DC Converter Technologies

• Linear voltage regulators (LDO)

• “Magnetic” switching converters

– Buck converter (step-down)
– Boost converter (step-up)
– Buck-boost converter (step-down / step-up)

• Switched-capacitor converters (charge pumps)

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 Feedback control

DC DC-DC DC
input converter output

feedback
control
−
+ reference

The converters control the output voltage by

comparing the output voltage to a reference.

21
 Linear Regulator

• A linear regulator can be represented as a variable

resistor between the input and output.
• This impedance is varied as Iout or Vin varies.
• Additional power is required for sense and control
circuits.

DC DC
input output

feedback
control
−
+ reference

22
 Linear Voltage Regulator as Power Supply
Series pass transistor
Q Iload
+ Load

Vbat + C Vo
–

–
“Error amplifier” with
loop compensation
+
Bandgap
- Vref
reference
• Simple, low noise, small footprint area
• Output voltage lower than the battery voltage
• High efficiency only if Vo is close to input voltage Vbat = Vg
• Typical use - supply voltages close to input voltage
23
 Linear Regulator Power Model
Ig Rs Io
+

Vg + Vo
–
Bias current
IQ
–

I g  Io  IQ
Vo I o Vo I o
Efficiency: η 
Vg I g Vg ( I o  I Q )
Vo
Linear regulator efficiency cannot be greater η
than the ratio of the output and the input voltage Vg
24
 Linear Regulator Efficiency Example

100

90

80

70
Example:
• Vg = 3.6 V
Efficiency [%]

60

50
• Vo = 1.5 V
40

30
.
• IQ = 50 mA
20
• 0 < Io < 300 mA
10

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Io [mA]

25
 The Inductive Switcher

• The Inductive switcher is the most efficient topology.

• The energy is pulsed from Vin to Vout through the
inductor.
• The Inductor acts as a reservoir of energy during
every pulse.
• As the voltage reaches the desired level, only the
energy needed by the load needs to be drawn from
Vin and transferred to Vout.
• Typical use - Generate low supply voltage to a
processor core (e.g. 1.5V, 1.8V, 2.5V) or I/O (2.5V,
3.3V) from the main supply rail such as 3.3V/5V rail
or from the Battery

26
Buck (step-down) Switching Power Converter
Low-pass LC filter

Ig L Io
1
+ +
2
Vg + vs(t) C v(t)
– Load

– –

vs(t)
Vg
fs = 1/Ts =
DTs D' Ts switching
0 frequency
0 DTs Ts t
Switch
D = switch
position: 1 2 1 duty cycle

27
 Buck Converter Ideal Static Characteristic

vs(t)
Vg

area = vs = DVg

DTsVg
0
0 DTs Ts t
V
Conversion ratio:
Vg Vo
M ( D)  D
Vg

0
0 1 D switch duty cycle
28
 Other Basic Converter Configurations
L 2

iL(t) + • Boost (step-up) can be

1 used to generate voltage
Vbat +– C R v
greater than the available
– battery voltage
Boost: M(D) = 1/(1−D) • Buck-boost (and other
step-up/down) converters
can be used to generate
supply voltages of
1 2 +
opposite polarity or
+ iL(t)
Vbat – L
C R v voltages smaller than or
–
greater than the available
battery voltage
Buck-boost: M(D) = −D/(1−D)

29
 Switch-Mode Power Supplies
• Step-up, step-down and inverting configurations
available
• Switching converters are ideally 100% efficient
• Real efficiency can be close to 100%; depends on
operating conditions and implementation
• Converters generate switching noise
• Discrete filter components (L, C) are required
• Higher switching frequency => smaller L, C
• Closed-loop output voltage control: switch duty cycle is
the control variable

30
 SMPS Efficiency as a Function of Load

100

90

80
Buck regulator
70 Example:
• Vg = 3.6 V
Efficiency [%]

60

50

40
Linear regulator • Vo = 1.5 V
• 0 < Io < 300 mA
.
30

20

10

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Io [mA]

31
 Impact of Efficiency: a System Example
uP/DSP core mode Stand-by Wait Run1 Run2 FullRun
% of time in this mode 90.0 4.0 3.0 2.5 0.5
Load current Io [mA] 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 300.0

Linear regulator Efficiency [%] 34.7 40.9 41.6 41.7 41.7

Battery current Ig [mA] 0.12 1.02 10.02 100.02 300.02
Average Ig in this mode [mA] 0.11 0.04 0.30 2.50 1.50

Total linear reg average Ig [mA] 4.45

SMPS Efficiency [%] 29.1 78.4 93.7 93.0 87.7

Battery current Ig [mA] 0.14 0.53 4.45 44.82 142.60
Average Ig in this mode [mA] 0.13 0.02 0.13 1.12 0.71

Total SMPS average Ig [mA] 2.12

100

90

Example: 80

70

• Vg = 3.6 V
Efficiency [%]
60

50

• Vo = 1.5 V 40
.

• 0 < Io < 300 mA

30

20

10

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Io [mA]

32
 Impact of Efficiency

• SMPS results in significantly lower average battery

current
• High efficiency over a wide range of loads is
important
• Low zero-load bias current IQ is particularly important
for mobile systems that spend most of the time in
“stand-by” modes

33
Application Example
Source: LM2608 data sheet,
National Semiconductor

Main application:
Power supply for
baseband digital

Desirable features:
Integration of power
switches and all control
functions
Minimum pin count,
minimum footprint area
Multi-mode operation for
high efficiency over very
wide load range 34
 Charge Pump Buck Regulator

• The Charge Pump Switcher is also known as

switched capacitor regulator.
• Since charge pump switchers produce discrete
multiples of input voltage, typically a linear regulator
is used for post fine granular regulation inside the
charge pump switcher device.
• By creating multiple discrete gains and gain hopping
among them helps newer charge pump switchers
achieve better efficiencies.
• Charge pump buck regulators are used typically
when space and cost are more important than
efficiency.

35
 Switched-capacitor Converters
(charge pumps)
Voltage doubler example

1 Iload
• No inductive components
a VO
• Completely on-chip
2 b 2
C1 implementation possible for
+
– Vbat 1 Cout very low power applications
• Ideal, zero-load conversion
ratio Mi = Vo/Vbat is constant;
Vbat depends only on the SC
p1 Switches 1 configuration
are on t • Step-up, step-down and
Vbat inverting configurations are
Switches 2 available
p2
are on t
clock signals
36
On-chip SC Doubler Implementation Example
Vbat
N-well bias
M8a VB

M5 M6 Two cross-coupled
M8
b2 opposite-phase
VO
doublers
b1 M7
Cout R VO 2 Vbat
C1 C2

M7a
Cb
a1 a2

Vbat
a1

Vbat
a2

37
 SC Power Model
Ibat Ro(fs) Iload
+

Vbat + MiIload + MiVbat Vo

– –
IQ + Qsw fs
–
2
 K 
• Conduction loss modeled by: Ro ( f s )  Ro min 1  
 CR f 
 o min s 
• Switching loss proportional to the switching (clock) frequency
– charge/discharge of switch, pad and bottom-plate capacitances
– gate drive and oscillator losses
• Fixed loss due to the total chip bias current IQ

38
 Comparison of Power Supply Technologies
Ibat Rs Iload
+
Linear regulator
Vbat + Vo (LDO)
–
IQ
– Vo < Vbat
Ibat Ron RL Iload
+
Buck switching
Vbat + DIload + DVbat Vo converter
– –
IQ + Qsw fs
– 0<D<1
Ibat Ro(fs) Iload
+
Switched-
Vbat + MiIload + MiVbat Vo capacitor
– –
IQ + Qsw fs
– converter
Mi = constant
39
Comparison of Power Supply Technologies

Switching Switching
LDO SC
PWM PWM/PFM
Poor
Efficiency at (good Good if
Best
heavy load only if VoMiVbat
VoVbat)
Light-load
power Lowest Highest
consumption
Switching None Highest
noise
Footprint Smallest Largest
area
Step-
Conversion down Step-down, step-up, inverting
ratio
only
Analog
Typical Display
baseband
application and RF mP/DSP lighting

40