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INTRODUCTION TO AI
AND APPLICATIONS
SUBJECT CODE: 1BAIA103/203
MODULE-1

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Introduction to AI and Applications

1BAIA103/203
Module-1
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence,How Does AI Work?, Advantages and Disadvantages of
ArtificialIntelligence, History of Artificial Intelligence, Types of Artificial Intelligence,
WeakAI, StrongAI, Reactive Machines,Limited Memory,Theory of Mind, Self-Awareness,Is
Artificial Intelligence Same as Augmented Intelligence and Cognitive Computing, Machine
Learning and Deep Learning.
Machine Intelligence:Defining Intelligence, Components of Intelligence, Differences
Between Human and Machine Intelligence, Agent and Environment, Search, Uninformed
Search Algorithms, Informed Search Algorithms: Pure Heuristic Search, Best-First Search
Algorithm (Greedy Search).
Knowledge Representation:Introduction, Knowledge Representation, Knowledge-Based
Agent, Types of Knowledge.
Textbook 1: Chapter 1 (1.1-1.5), Chapter 3 (3.1-3.7.2), Chapter 4 (4.1-4.4)

1.1 What is Artificial Intelligence?

In 2004, John McCarthy defined artificial intelligence (AI) as the science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs.
However, much before this definition was coined, the birth of AI was marked by Alan
Turing’s seminal work, ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence,’ published in 1950. Alan
Turing, also known as the‘father of computer science,’ raised questions like ‘Can machines
think?’ in this paper. Continuing with his work, he later proposed the ‘Turing Test’, where a
human interrogator
would try to distinguish between a computer and human text
response.
Few languages that are popularly used to code AI applications
are R, Python and Java.
From a layman’s view, artificial intelligence (AI), simply means the intelligence
demonstrated by machines that help them to mimic the actions of humans. AI simulates
natural intelligence in machines that are programmed to learn from experiences, adjust to new
inputs and perform human-like tasks.
From a researcher’s view, AI is a set of algorithms that
generates results without having to be explicitly instructed to do so, thereby making machines
capable of thinking and acting rationally and humanely.
Most AI examples, from chess-playing computers to self-driving cars, heavily depend on
deep learning and natural language processing techniques.
AI applications perform specialized tasks by processing large
amounts of data and recognizing patterns in them. Besides learning from experience, AI
applications can recognize objects,understand and respond to language and make decisions to
solve real-world problems. AI perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.

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The main focus of this technology is to build machines and algorithms which are capable of
performing computational tasks that would otherwise require human-like brain functions.
While computers execute certain tasks like sorting, computing,memorizing, indexing, finding
patterns, etc. far better than humans, they still cannot beat human skills for identifying
emotions, recognizing faces, communication and conversation. This is where AI will play a
crucial role to enable machines
achieve human capabilities.

NITI Aayog: The National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence has

defined AI as follows: AI refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like
thinking, perceiving, learning, problem solving and decision-making. Initially conceived as a
technology that could mimic human intelligence, AI has evolved in ways that far exceed its
original conception. With incredible advances made in data collection, processing and
computation power,intelligent systems can now be deployed to take over a variety of tasks,
enable connectivity and enhance productivity.

1.1.1 How Does AI Work?

AI systems work effectively when fed with a large amount of labelled training data.
This data is thoroughly analysed to discover correlations and patterns. These patterns are then
used to make predictions about future states. For example, a chatbot fed with examples of
text chats can learn to converse with humans in real-world applications. AI programming
focuses on three cognitive skills: learning, reasoning and self-correction.
Learning Processes
AI programs focus on acquiring data and creating rules for turning that data into actionable
information. Rules, also known as algorithms, provide step-by-step instructions to complete a
specific task.
Reasoning Processes
The success of an AI program depends on choosing the right algorithm to reach the desired
outcome.
Self-Correction Processes
AI programs are designed to continually enhance their algorithms to provide the most
accurate results.
Case Study: Why is artificial intelligence important?
AI allows business organizations to gain insights into their operations that they may not have
been previously aware of. There are numerous tasks that AI-enabled machines can perform
better than humans. This has acted as the driving force for exploring new business
opportunities. It was because of AI that computer software could be used to connect riders to
taxis.
Uber, one of the largest companies in the world, is utilizing sophisticated machine learning
algorithms to predict when people would need a greater number of rides in a particular area
so that the company can get drivers on the road before they are needed.

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1.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence, when used along with machine learning and deep learning
techniques, is quickly evolving to processes massive amounts of data much faster and makes
predictions more accurately than humanly possible. While huge volumes of data are being
generated every day, only AI applications can utilize this data to quickly turn it into
actionable information.
Google has become one of the largest players in AI. It provides a range of online services by
using machine learning to understand how people use their services and then improving them.

Advantages
1. Performs well on tasks that uses detailed data.
2. Takes less time to perform tasks that needs to process huge
volumes of data.
3. Generates consistent and accurate results.
4. Can be used 24 X 7.
5. Optimizes tasks by better utilizing resources.
6. Automates complex processes.
7. Minimizes downtime by predicting maintenance needs.
8. Enables companies to produce new products having better
quality and speed.

Disadvantages
1. Involves more cost.
2. Technical expertise required to develop and use AI
applications.
3. Lack of trained professionals.
4. Incomplete or inaccurate data may result in disastrous
Results.
5. Lacks the capability to generalize tasks.
In 2017, Google’s CEO, Sundar Pichai, pronounced that Google
would operate as an ‘AI first’ company.
Conclusion: Today, every big enterprise has used AI to improve
its operations and gain advantage on their competitors.

1.2 History of Artificial Intelligence

Let us analyse the support for the modern field of AI, right from 1943 to the present
day (Fig. 1.1).

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In 1943, Warren McCullough and Walter Pitts wrote a paper that proposed the first
mathematical model for building a neural network.
1950 was a significant year in the field of AI. A series of events took place this year
including the following: Alan Turing demonstrated Turing Test, that could determine whether
a machine is intelligent or not. Harvard undergraduates Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds
built the first neural network [Link] Shannon publishes a paper on programming a
computer for playing [Link] Asimov published his work on the ‘Three Laws of
Robotics.’
In 1952, Arthur Samuel developed a self-learning program to
play checkers.
In 1954, the IBM computer could translate 60 carefully selected
Russian sentences into English.
In 1956, John McCarthy coined the term ‘artificial intelligence’.
The scope and goals of AI were discussed in a conference later. It is from this point that we
consider the birth of artificial intelligence as we know it [Link] the same year, Allen Newell
and Herbert Simon demonstrated the first reasoning program.
In 1958, John McCarthy developed the AI programming language, Lisp. He also published a
paper discussing a complete AI system that could learn from experience as effectively as
Humans do.
In 1959, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon and J.C. Shaw developed the General Problem Solver
(GPS), a program designed to imitate human [Link] the same year, Arthur
Samuel coined the term ‘machine learning’.
In 1963, John McCarthy started the AI Lab at [Link] Professor Joseph Weizenbaum
developed ELIZA, an early natural language processing program that laid the foundation for
today’s chatbots.
In 1969, the first successful expert systems to diagnose blood
infections was developed at Stanford.
In 1972, logic programming language PROLOG was created.

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The 1974–1980 period is known as the ‘First AI Winter,’ because it was during this period
that DARPA cutbacks in academic grants and funding for AI dried up, stalling further
research.
In 1980, DEC developed the first successful commercial expert system, R1.
In 1982 Japan launched the ambitious Fifth Generation Computer Systems (FGCS) project to
develop supercomputers that could support performance and a platform for AI development.
Later, in 1983, even the US government funded research in advanced computing and artificial
intelligence.
1987–1993 marked the ‘Second AI Winter.’ In 1992, Japan terminated the FGCS project
owing to failure in meeting its ambitious goals. The US also ended the project in 1993 after
spending nearly $1 billion as the results were far from what were expected.
In 1997, IBM’s Deep Blue machine could beat world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov.
In 2005, STANLEY, a self-driving car, won the DARPA Grand Challenge. Even the US
military started investing in autonomous robots like Boston Dynamics’ ‘Big Dog’ and
iRobot’s ‘PackBot.’
In 2008, Google did a remarkable work in speech recognition
and introduced the feature in its iPhone app.
In 2011, Apple released Siri, an AI-powered virtual assistant that could be used through its
iOS operating system.
In 2012, Andrew Ng, founder of the Google Brain Deep Learning
project, fed 10 million YouTube videos as a training set to a neural network and used deep
learning algorithms to enable the neural network to recognize a cat without being told what a
cat is.
In 2014, Google makes the first self-driving car that could pass a
state driving test. In the same year, Amazon released Alexa.
In 2015, Baidu’s Minwa supercomputer used a convolutional neural network (special deep
neural network) to identify and categorize images with a higher rate of accuracy than the
average human.
In 2016 Google DeepMind’s AlphaGo defeated world champion
Go player Lee Sedol. Go is an ancient Chinese game and winning
this game was a major breakthrough in the field of AI.
In the same year, the first ‘robot citizen’, a humanoid robot, Sophia was created that could
perform facial recognition, verbal communication and facial expression.
In 2018, Google released NLP engine BERT that reduced barriers
in translation and understanding by machine learning applications. In the same year, Waymo
One service was launched that allowed users to request a pick-up from one of the company’s
self-driving vehicles.
In 2020, Baidu released its LinearFold AI algorithm to develop a vaccine during the early
stages of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The algorithm could predict the RNA sequence of the
virus in just 27 seconds, 120 times faster than other methods.

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1.3 Types of Artificial Intelligence

We can classify an artificial intelligent system into one of the following categories
(Fig. 1.2).

1.3.1 Weak AI
Weak AI, also known as narrow AI,is specifically designed to perform a specific type
of task. For example, Siri and Alexa are weak AI systems. These systems are already trained
with appropriate responses to classify things accordingly. When you instruct Alexa to play a
song, it responds by playing that song. In fact, majority of AI applications that we use today
(predicting weather, stock prices, optimizing business, etc.) come under this category. Weak
AI systems operate within a limited context and are the most successful realization of
artificial intelligence to date. Application of narrow AI has resulted in significant societal
benefits. Google search, Image recognition software, self-driving cars and IBM’s Watson are
some examples of such Systems.

1.3.2 Strong AI
Strong AI, also known as artificial general intelligence or artificial super intelligence
(ASI) or superintelligence, makes full attempt to resemble the human brain. It utilizes
cognitive skills and fuzzy logic to perform tasks for which it had not been trained earlier.
Such a system needs capability for visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making
and translations between [Link] of now, we see general AI only in sci-fi movies,
where machines emulate human intelligence and think strategically to perform complex tasks.
However, it is believed that soon, ASI will surpass the intelligence and ability of the human
brain as demonstrated by HAL, the superhuman, rogue computer assistant in 2001: A Space
Odyssey. Many people fear that intelligent robots would overrun humanity, but experts says
that we need not worry about it as it is not likely to happen in the near future. Moreover,
artificial intelligence systems can also be categorized into four groups based on their
functionality. This categorization can be given as discussed in Table 1.1.

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1.3.3 Reactive Machines

Reactive machines are very basic machines with no memory to store and thus use past
experiences to determine future actions. They just perceive the world and react to it. IBM’s
Deep Blue, which defeated chess grandmaster Kasporov, is such an example. The AI system
sees the pieces on a chess board and responds without referring to any of its prior
experiences. Since it lacks capabilities to store past experiences, a reactive machine cannot
improve with practice. A strong AI program must pass a Turing Test as well as the Chinese
room [Link] machines can perform only a limited number of specialized tasks. Such
machines are more trustworthy and reliable as they react the same way to the same stimuli
every Time. Deep Blue could only identify the pieces on a chess board and compute its next
move based on the rules of chess and the present positions. The AI application could not
pursue future potential moves by its opponent or plan its own pieces in a better position.
Every move was treated as its own reality, without any connection with any other previous
movement. Google’s AlphaGo is another example of a game-playing reactive machine. The
application evaluates future moves using neural network. This gives it an edge over Deep
Blue game.

1.3.4 Limited Memory

Limited memory machines retain data but only for a short period of time and can use
it only for a limited time. They cannot keep adding data permanently to a library of their
experiences. Such systems are usually used in autonomous vehicles since they need not store
data (like recent speed of nearby cars, distance between cars, the speed limit, etc.) that can
help them navigate roads. AlphaGo also bested world-class competitors of the game,
defeating champion Go player Lee Sedol in 2016. No doubt, limited memory AI is more
complex and is used for better possibilities than reactive machines. These machines
continuously train a model to analyse and utilize new data. The model also improves using
feedback received from humans or the environment and stored as [Link] are three major
machine learning models that applies limited memory artificial intelligence:
1. Reinforcement learning: It enables continuous learning through repeated trial-and-error
to make better predictions.

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2. Long Short-term Memory (LSTM): Such models use past data to help predict the next
item in a sequence. More recent information is given a higher priority for prediction than past
data. However, this does not mean that past data is not considered while making predictions.
3. Evolutionary Generative Adversarial Networks (E-GAN):
The ML model evolves over time to explore new ways of utilizing previous experiences to
formulate new decisions. The model is continuously striving to discover a better path. It
makes use of simulations and statistics, to predict outcomes throughout its evolutionary
mutation cycle.

1.3.5 Theory of Mind

The theory of mind focuses on imitating the human brain. For this, it forms
representations about the world, starting from thoughts, emotions and memories. However,
such systems are only theoretical as of now but they may become reality very [Link]
machines must understand thoughts and emotions that affect the behaviour of one’s self.
Theory of Mind machines make decisions keeping in view the feelings experienced through
self-reflection and determination.

1.3.6 Self-Awareness
Once Theory of Mind is established, then the next step would be incorporating
self-awareness in AI systems. Self-awareness in machines enable them to possess
human-level consciousness, understand the current state its own existence in the world and
use that information to deduce others feelings. Self-AI systems will be able to understand
what others may need. They could interpret user’s feelings by learning not only what they
communicate to them but also how the communicate it. Knowledge imbibed by researchers
and its learning of the conscious context will help them to respond to an event. However,
such systems do not yet exist but may become available in the near future.

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1.4 Is Artificial Intelligence Same as Augmented Intelligence and Cognitive Computing?

Some experts think that artificial intelligence is the same as augmented intelligence.
But this is not true. Let us understand the difference between the two [Link]
intelligence is weak AI that simply improves products and services. For example,
automatically highlighting vital information in business is a part of implementing augmented
[Link] intelligence or true AI, strong AI or artificial general intelligence, is the
future AI that would far surpasses the human brain’s ability to understand and implement
complex tasks. As of now, though a lot of work is being done in this domain, AI remains
within the realm of science fiction. Technologies like quantum computing can play an
important role in making AGI a [Link] term AI when used in reference to machines,
makes machines obtain human intelligence by simulating how humans sense, learn, process
and react to information in the [Link] computing is a term that is especially
coined for products and services that mimic that augment human thought processes.

MACHINE LEARNING
Let us try to understand the term ‘machine learning’ with the help of some real-world
scenarios.
Scenario 1: Imagine that you are given the task of finding the missing number in the
series-10,20,30,40, ? Yes, you are correct. That’s 50. But how did you get the answer?You
quickly did some computations in your mind and observed the pattern in the data values. The
whole idea of machine learning is to imbibe the same thinking process in machines.

Scenario 2: Before going for playing a cricket match, you always use your past experiences
to understand how a batsman/bowler plays. For example, if you know a bowler gives a
straight ball after every 2 left balls and 1 right ball, then you can better use this information to
prepare yourself for the next ball. In machine learning, we make machines also to learn from
past experience/data.

Scenario 3: When you buy a new mobile phone, you can yourself compute the price of that
phone vis-à-vis the configuration and brand. For example, you know a phone with 128 GB
RAM, stereo speakers, iOS 16, hexacore would cost around 80K. So, given the details, we
can predict the price. Similarly, a machine learning program is developed to predict values
based on certain [Link] let us go deeper in this terminology. Machine Learning is
a branch of computer science that analyses data and identifies patterns to teach a machine to
deduce results and make decisions without any human intervention.

ML algorithms learn from experiences rather than instructions.

They automatically learn and improve by learning from their output. For this, humans
do not have to write instructions for them to produce the desired output. They learn by
analysing data sets and comparing the final output. In case of any error,they repeat the
learning process until the accuracy of the outputs improve. This automation not only saves

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human time and effort but also makes better [Link], machine learning is an
application of artificial intelligence (refer Fig. 1.4) that enables machines to automatically
learn and improve from experiences without being explicitly [Link] enables
computers (machines) to make data-driven decisions rather than being explicitly programmed
for carrying out a certain task. These algorithms are designed to learn and improve over time
when are exposed to new data. Thus, the process of teaching the machines is a structural
process that can be broken down into three steps (Fig. 1.5).

HOW IS AI RELATED TO MACHINE LEARNING?

Machine learning and artificial intelligence are two different techniques where
machine learning is a tool for achieving artificial intelligence. The aim of AI is to create
intelligent machines that can recognize human speech, have vision to see,assimilate
knowledge, strategize and solve problems as humans do. Machine learning provides
machines the ability to learn, forecast and progress on their own without specifically being
programmed. ML system improves by learning from more data and [Link] you
have been given the task of making a robot see, talk, walk, sense and learn. Which technique
will you use ML or AI? Of course, AI. This is because to achieve this task,multiple
technologies come into picture (like NLP, computer vision, voice recognition, reinforcement
learning, etc). Machine learning is just one of them that will be used only for learning
purpose. Therefore, AI is the superset and ML is the subset of [Link] is, ML is only a way
to achieve AI (Fig. 1.6).

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Traditional Programming vs Machine Learning

Traditional programming involves manually creating a program that accepts data and
returns an output. It rests on a manual process as one has to manually formulate or code rules.

Traditional programming uses conventional procedural language like assembly

language or a high-level language such as C, C++, Java, JavaScript, Python, etc. These
languages code the rules and write lines of code manually. The program accepts input data,
and based on the programming logic, generates the desired [Link] conventional
programming approach is algorithm dependent, and for a program, multiple algorithms can
be [Link] programmer can analyse the performance of all the algorithms to choose the best
that meets the current [Link], an advanced type of programming has
revolutionized business by adding power to the applications working on intelligence and
embedded analytics. Machine learning programming, also known as augmented analytics,
accepts both data as well as output. It then generates the corresponding program for giving
the specified output on that input. This gives insights that can be used to predict future
outcomes. The machine learning algorithm automatically formulates the rules from the data.
Unlike traditional programming, machine learning is an automated process that adds the
capability of embedded analytics in areas including natural language interfaces, automatic
outlier detection, recommendations, [Link] of these features give better insights and reduce
decision bias.

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For example, if we give customer demographics and transactions as input and use historical
customer churn rates as output, then the algorithm will formulate a program (also known as
predictive model) that can predict if a customer will churn or not.

Therefore, the steps to create a model to predict outcomes can

be given as follows:
Step 1: Identify the business question you would like to ask.
Step 2: Identify the historical input.
Step 3: Identify the historically observed output (when the condition is true and when it is
false).Machine learning language goes beyond traditional algorithmic solutions and trains the
machine to solve different complex
tasks by [Link] conventional programming, machine learning uses a
pre-written algorithm that learns how to solve the problem
itself. It is a more sophisticated way of solving a problem.
For Programmers: A data engineer cannot work as a substitute to a conventional programmer
and vice [Link] data engineer must know at least one coding [Link], a
conventional programmer may not learn the machine learning [Link] capabilities of
both traditional programming and machine learning are altogether different and cannot
replace each other (refer Table 1.2). However, machine learning supplements conventional
programming. For example, while machine learning can build predictive algorithms,
traditional programming, on the other hand, can be used to design user interface or perform
data visualization.

Case Study: It is not easy to filter Amna’s photos from a set of 100 images using traditional
programming. Even comparing every pixel value may not give accurate results. But the same
task can be easily done with machine learning. We just need to input different photos of
Amna, the machine learning model will learn how she looks like.

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1.5 Machine Learning and Deep Learning

Majority of AI systems are supported by breakthroughs in machine learning and deep
learning techniques. These techniques together go hand-in-hand to deliver an efficient system
that sometimes it is just difficult to understand the difference between artificial intelligence,
machine learning and deep learning. However, venture capitalist Frank Chen highlighted this
difference by stating ‘Artificial intelligence is a set of algorithms and intelligence to try to
mimic human intelligence. Machine learning is one of them, and deep learning is one of those
machine learning techniques.’In simple words, machine learning techniques are used to feed
data in to the computer so that statistical techniques can be applied to it to help machines
‘learn’ how to solve tasks or which it had not been specifically programmed. These
computers free programmers from writing several lines of [Link] learning techniques
can be further classified into supervised learning (using labelled data sets) or unsupervised

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learning (using unlabelled data sets).

Deep learning is an advanced machine learning technique that passes data inputs through a
biologically-inspired multiple layers of neural network. Such a neural network architecture
consists of a number of hidden layers through which the data is processed. Data processed in
this architecture allows machines to go ‘deep’ in its learning, making connections and
weighting input for the best [Link] does AI work?AI algorithms solve specific tasks in
the following manner:
1. Studying very large amounts of data.
2. Making generalizations or statistical estimations model (Refer Fig. 1.7).

Features of AI
1. Artificial intelligence is autonomous and can make independent decisions without any
human [Link] systems work silently in the background without the user’s
knowledge. The best part of an AI system is that they don’t have to be programmed manually
to respond to every situation. Rather, these systems themselves learn through input data and
past experiences. Baidu, a search engine that works in the Chinese language, has a voice
cloning tool, which can clone human voice with just 3-4 seconds of audio, as opposed to the
previously taken 30 minutes
2. Predict and adapt: AI systems can understand data patterns to make decisions and
predictions.
3. An AI system continuously learns from patterns in data.
4. An AI system is said to be reactive as it perceives a problem and acts on perception.
5. Data driven: In the last several years, the cost of technology has gone down considerably.
With the availability of cheap data storage (hard disk, etc.), fast processors (CPU, GPU
orTPU) and sophisticated deep learning algorithms, huge volumes of data can now be easily
extracted. This has led to the rise of data centric AI systems.

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6. Data driven AI systems can make accurate predictions based on past experiences that have
outperformed humans. However,success of these systems depends largely on the availability
of correctly labelled large datasets.
7. Finally, an AI system is futuristic since the scope of it being applied in different areas is
continuously expanding.

1.6 Defining Intelligence

Howard Gardner, the American developmental psychologist,has categorized
intelligence into the following [Link] intelligence is the ability to speak,
recognize and use mechanisms of phonology (speech sounds), syntax (grammar) and
semantics (meaning). It is mainly exhibited by narrators and orators.
Musical intelligence is the ability to create, communicate with and understand different
sounds, pitch and rhythm. This intelligence is used by musicians, singers and
[Link]-mathematical intelligence helps a person to use and understand complex
and abstract ideas. Mathematicians and scientists extensively use this type of intelligence.
Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive visual or spatial information, change it and
re-create visual images. Using this, 3D images can be created and manipulated (translated,
transformed and rotated). This intelligence is generally applied by map readers, astronauts
and physicists.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence defines the ability to use the entire or part of the body to solve
problems or manipulate objects. For example, this kind of intelligence is mostly used by
players and dancers. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to distinguish between one’s
feelings, intentions and motivations. A few people like Gautam Buddha has this instinct.
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to recognize and differentiate between other people’s
feelings, beliefs and intentions. Mass communicators and interviewers use these skills to the
maximum.
A machine or a system is said to be artificially intelligent when it exhibits at least one and at
most all intelligences.

1.7 Components of Intelligence

Intelligence is an intangible entity composed of the following (Fig. 3.1):
Reasoning
Learning
Problem solving
Perception
Linguistic intelligence

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Reasoning
It is the set of processes that is used in making decisions and prediction. There are two
types of reasoning inductive and deductive. The differences between these two techniques is
given in Table 3.1.

Learning

It is a process of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practicing, being taught or

experiencing something. Learning is an ability that is possessed by humans, animals and
AI-enabled systems to improve the awareness of the subjects of the study.
Learning can be categorized as follows.
1. Auditory learning promotes learning by listening and hearing. For example, students hear
recorded lectures to understand a particular concept.
2. Episodic learning promotes learning by remembering the sequences of events that one has
witnessed or [Link] is linear and orderly.
3. Motor learning helps to learn by precise movement of muscles. For example, picking
objects.
4. Observational learning triggers learning by watching and imitating others. For example,
children often learn by mimicking their parents.
5. Perceptual learning is done by recognizing stimuli that one has seen before. For example,
identifying and classifying objects and situations.

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6. Relational learning involves learning to differentiate among various stimuli on the basis of
relational properties, rather than absolute properties. For example, if we know that the last
time we cooked a dish, it had excess spices, the next time, we would add spices in lesser
quantity.
7. Spatial learning is done through visual stimuli such as images, colours, maps, etc. For
example, we usually create a roadmap in our minds before actually moving to the road.
8. Stimulus-response learning facilitates subjects to perform a particular behaviour when a
certain stimulus is received. For example, we usually shout when we touch a hot vessel.

Problem Solving
It is the process in which one tries to find the desired solution in the present situation by
following the path which is blocked by known or unknown hurdles. Problem solving uses
decision- making to select the best suitable alternative to reach the desired goal.
Perception
It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting and organizing sensory information.
While humans use sensory organs to perceive their environment, AI systems use data
acquired by the sensors to do the same.
Linguistic Intelligence
It is used in in interpersonal communication and defines one’s ability to use, comprehend,
speak and write the verbal and written language.

1.8 Differences Between Human and Machine Intelligence

1. Humans perceive by patterns, whereas machines perceive by analysing data with respect to
a given set of rules.
2. Humans store and recall information by patterns but machines use searching algorithms to
do the same.
3. Humans have intelligence to deduce any information that is missing or distorted but
machines lack this ability to do it with a high level of accuracy.

1.9 Agent and Environment

Artificial intelligence is all about studying rational agents, which may include
anything that makes decisions. For example, a person, firm, machine or software that
performs action(s) with the best outcome after considering past and current percepts at a
given instance is an example of agents. These agents work in their environment and may
interact with other agents in that environment. Thus, we can say that an AI system comprises
an agent and its environment.

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In an artificially intelligent system, the agents act in their environment which may contain
other agents. This agent (refer Fig. 3.2) can be anything that is capable of perceiving its
environment. For this, it may have sensors. Agents also have effectors that help them to act
upon their environment. The different types of agents in an AI system include the
following:
1. Human agent: A human agent has sensory organs (like eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin)
that acts as sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth as effectors for taking
actions.
2. Robotic agent: A robotic agent uses cameras and infrared range finders as sensors, and
various motors and actuators as effectors.
3. Software agent: Such an agent uses bit strings as its programs and actions.

1.9.1 Key Terminology

Performance Measure of Agent This criteria helps to determine how successful an
agent is.
Behaviour of Agent
It is an action performed by an agent after any receiving a certain percept.
Percept
These are perceptual inputs given to an agent at a specific instance.
Percept Sequence
This is a list of all percepts received by an agent till date.
Agent Function
This is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

1.9.2 Rationality
Rationality is a feature that inculcates a sense of responsibility,sensibility and
judgment. It empowers the agent to perform expected actions after perceiving. The agent
must perform all the actions to maximize its performance measure with respect to the percept
sequence and the knowledge base that it [Link], we can say that rationality of an agent
depends on

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the following:
1. Agent’s performance measure that gives the degree of success.
2. Agent’s percept sequence received so far.
3. Agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.
4. Agent’s actions that can be performed.
A rational agent (refer Fig. 3.3) always performs the right action in the given percept
sequence to maximize performance. Thus, a problem solved by an agent is characterized by
performance measure, environment, actuators, and sensors (PEAS).

1.9.3 Structure of Intelligent Agents

The structure of an intelligent agent can be given as,Agent = Architecture + Agent
Program,where architecture is the machinery on which an agent works, and agent program is
an implementation of an agent function.

1.9.4 Types of Agents

In this section, we will discuss different types of agents.

Simple Reflex Agents

Simple reflex agents choose actions based only on the current percept. They are
rational only if they make a correct decision based on the current precept. Their environment
is completely [Link] work using condition-action rule that maps a state (condition)
to an action. If the condition is true, then the action is taken, else not. However, the problem
with a simple reflex agent is that they succeed only when the environment is fully observable.
If the environment is partially observable, then the agent may get stuck in infinite loops. In
such a situation, the agent can escape the loop only if it can randomize its actions. Other
issues with such agents are given below.
1. Possess very limited intelligence
2. Has knowledge of any state other than the current state.
3. Any change in the environment will eventually end up updating the collection of rules.

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Model-Based Reflex Agents

Model reflex agents (refer Fig. 3.4) use a model of the world to choose their actions.
For this, they need to maintain an internal state. Here, model means knowledge about ‘how
things happen in the world’.

Internal state represents unobserved aspects of the current state depending on percept
[Link] update the state, information is required to understand, How the world evolves and
How the agent’s actions affect the world.

Goal-Based Agents
Goal means a description of desirable situations. Goal-based agents (refer Fig. 3.5)
choose their actions to achieve goals. This provides more flexibility than reflex agent as the
knowledge supporting a decision is explicitly modeled and permits any sort of modifications.

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Utility-Based Agents
Many a time, goals are either conflicting or are difficult to achieve. In such situations,
utility-based agents (refer Fig. 3.6) can be used to achieve goals that are more important than
others. These agents choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.

Learning Agent
A learning agent (refer Fig. 3.7) learns from its past experiences. It is designed to
possess learning capabilities. Initially, it starts working with basic knowledge and then acts
and adapts automatically through learning.

Such an agent has four main conceptual components, as follows:

Learning element, which is responsible for making improvements by learning from the
environment Critic (refer Fig. 3.8) is the element that provides feedback to the learning
element, describing how well the agent is doing

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with respect to a fixed performance [Link] element chooses a particular

external action to be taken.
Problem generator suggests actions that result in new and informative experiences.

1.9.5 The Nature of Environments

When building an artificially intelligent system, some programs would be confined to
keyboard input, database, computer file systems and character output on a screen while other
software agents (like software robots or softbots) would operate in unlimited domains. The
simulator for a softbot has a very
detailed, complex environment. The software agent must take a specific action by choosing
from a long array of actions in real time.
For example, a softbot whose job is to scan customer preferences and display them relevant
items works in the real as well as an artificial environment. The most famous artificial
environment is the Turing Test environment, in which artificial agents are tested with a real
agent (on equal ground). The software agent is trained to perform as well as a human.

Turing Test
Turing test is widely used to determine the success of an intelligent behaviour of a
system. Two persons and a machine or intelligent system or software agent to be evaluated
participate in the test. One of the two persons becomes the
tester. The other person and the software agent are then made to sit in different rooms. The
tester does not know who is the machine and who is a human. He asks them questions by
typing and sending them to both, and receives typed responses.
The aim of this test is to fool the tester. If the tester fails to determine whether the reply is
coming from a machine or a human, then the machine is said to be intelligent.

1.9.6 Types of Environments

As stated earlier, environment is the place where the agent would work. It gives
rewards and specifies states and actions of the agents. Although environment in an AI system

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is quite vast, we can identify a small number of dimensions to categorize them as given
below.
Discrete/Continuous
If an environment has a limited number of distinct, clearly defined, states, then it is
said to be discrete. For example, a software agent designed to play chess game works in a
discrete environment as there are limited moves that a player can make.
However, a self-driving car operates in a continuous environment. While a discrete
environment has a finite number of percepts and actions that can be performed within it, a
continuous environment has no such constraints.

Known Vs Unknown
Known and unknown are based on an agent’s state of knowledge to perform an action
and they are not actually a feature of an environment. In a known environment, the agent
knows the results for all actions but in an unknown environment, the agent has to learn how it
should work to perform an action. Usually, a known environment is partially observable and
an unknown environment is fully observable. While known environments are good examples
of exploitation, unknown environments are best for exploration. Reinforcement learning is
extensively applied in an unknown environment.

Observable/Partially Observable
If an agent can determine the complete state of the environment at each time point
from the percepts, then it is said to be observable; otherwise, it is only partially observable.
Correspondingly, in an unobservable environment, the agent has no sensors. In a fully
observable environment, the complete state of the environment relevant to the choice of
action of the agent can be captured using its sensors. While a fully observable environment
(refer Fig. 3.9) does not require to maintain the internal state to keep track history of the
world, a not fully observable environment, on the other hand, must maintain an internal state
to keep track of the world. An environment with sensors can be partially observable because
of noise, inaccuracy of the sensors, due to the framework of the task itself or because parts of
the state are missing from the sensor [Link] example, the classic chess game is fully
observable as one agent can perceive the positions and the moves of the other agent. But in
the Kriegspiel version of chess, the game environment is partially observable as only invalid
moves can be observed.

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Static/Dynamic
A static environment does not change when an agent is acting, but a dynamic
environment does. Agents in static environments, therefore, do not take into account the state
of the environment during the action and are thus easy to deal with. However, in a dynamic
environment, agents must consider the world while performing each action. For example,
self-driving cars work in a dynamic environment, but games like crossword puzzles and chess
operate in a static one. Between these two extremes, we can also have semi-dynamic
environments which do not change with the passage of time but the agent’s performance
score does.

Single Agent/Multiple Agents

The environment may contain other agents which may or may not be of the same kind
of the agent. For example, vacuum cleaning environment is a single agent but a chess game is
a two-agent environment. In a multi-agent environment, the performance measure of one
agent depends on the action performed by another agent. A multi-agent environment (refer
Fig. 3.10) may be competitive or cooperative. For example, chess is an example of a
competitive environment and two taxi-driving agents must avoid collisions and work to
maximize the performance of both the [Link], it operates in a cooperative environment.

Accessible/Inaccessible
In an accessible environment, the sensory apparatus of the agent has access to the
complete state of the environment. This means that it can obtain complete and accurate

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information about the state’s environment, but this is not so in case of an inaccessible
[Link] example, an empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an
example of an accessible environment,whereas information about an event on the Earth is an
inaccessible environment.

Deterministic/Non-deterministic
In a deterministic environment (refer Fig. 3.11), the next state of the environment can
be easily determined by the current state as well as the actions of the agent. This is not true
for a non-deterministic environment. A non-deterministic environment description maximizes
an agent’s performance for all possible outcome of its actions. Note that in a deterministic,
fully observable environment, the agent does worry about [Link] a Stochastic
environment, uncertainty about outcomes is quantified in terms of probabilities.

For example, the game of ludo is non-deterministic as the dice will generate a number
randomly, creating uncertainty in the environment. On the contrary, chess can be considered a
deterministic environment to a certain extent as the state of the game can be determined by
estimating the other agent’s moves although there can be uncertainty due to the other agent in
the game. Most real-life situations are so complex that it is not possible to track of all the
unobserved aspects. In such cases, we can consider them as deterministic.

Episodic/Non-episodic
In an episodic environment (refer Fig. 3.12), each episode has an agent perceiving and
then acting. The quality of its action depends just on the episode itself. Subsequent episodes
do not depend on the actions performed in the previous episodes. Episodic environments are,
therefore, simpler as the agent does not need to think ahead. There are however, a series of
one- shot actions, and only the current percept is required for the action. On the other hand, in
a sequential or non-episodic environment, an agent requires memory to store past actions so
that it can determine the next best actions. Therefore, the current decision can affect all future
decisions.

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1.10 Search

Algorithms
We have read that artificial Intelligence is the study of building rational agents. These
agents make use of some or the other search algorithms in the background to achieve their
tasks. For example, some single-player games like tile games, Sudoku, crossword, etc., use
search algorithms to deduce a particular position in the game.
A search problem consists of the following:
1. State space is the set of all possible states that can be attained by an agent.
2. Start state is the state from where the searching is done.
3. Goal test is a function that checks if the current state is the
goal state or not.
4. Solution to a search problem is a sequence of actions (also known as plan) that transforms
the start state to the goal state. This plan is realized using search algorithms.

1.10.1 Types of Search Algorithms

There are many search algorithms but, in this section, we will discuss six of the most
popularly used ones. For better understanding, we will categorize them under two headings
informed and uninformed as shown in Fig. 3.13.

1.10.2 Properties of Search Algorithms

1. Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it returns at least one solution
for a particular input.
2. Optimality: A search algorithm is said to give an optimal (best) solution if it has the lowest
path cost.

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3. Time and space complexity: Time complexity is the time taken by an algorithm to
complete a given task, and space complexity is the maximum storage space required to
perform the search operation. A good search algorithm takes less time and space to do its
work.

1.11 Uninformed Search Algorithms

A uninformed search, also known as a blind search algorithm, has no additional
information about the goal state other than the one provided in the problem definition. The
only information they have is on how to traverse or visit the nodes in the tree. In such
algorithms, the machine blindly follows the technique irrespective of whether it is right or
wrong, efficient or inefficient. There can be multiple plans to reach the goal state from the
start state. All these paths differ by the order and/or length of [Link] this section, we will
read about depth first search, breadth first search and uniform cost search algorithms. Each of
these algorithms has the following information.
Problem graph, the start node S to the goal node G.
Strategy, stating the path followed by the graph reach G.
Fringe, which is a data structure to store all the possible states (nodes) that can be reached
from the current state.
Tree, that depicts path while traversing to the goal node.
Solution plan, that specifies the sequence of nodes from S to G.
Path/Step cost are integers that represent the cost to move
from one node to another node.

1.11.1 Depth First Search (DFS)

In this search algorithm, the tree is traversed from the root node. The key will be
searched till the leaf node of a particular branch. If the key is not found, then the search
process backtracks to the point from where the other branch was left unexplored. This
process is repeated for that other branch either until the key is found or the entire tree is
completely traversed.

In Fig. 3.14, we can clearly visualize the working of a DFS algorithm. Here, searching starts
from the root node A and then traverses nodes B, D and H. Now, H is the leaf node, so we
retrace the path to reach node B to traverse its unexplored branch. Nodes E and I are thus
traversed. Now, I is the leaf node, so again, the path is retraced to follow the unexplored
branch of node E. As a result, node J is visited and then it is found that all nodes in branches

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of node B have been traced. So, the algorithm will move further by exploring the other
untraced branch of the root node. Here, node C, followed by nodes F, K and G are explored.
From these observations, we can conclude that DFS algorithm occupies a lot of memory
space, and takes a lot of time to execute when the solution is at the bottom or end of the
[Link] is implemented using LIFO, that is, stack data structure. Time complexity of the
algorithm can be given as, O(b ). It is equivalent to the number of nodes traversed in DFS.
Correspondingly, space complexity is equivalent to how large can the fringe get. It is given as
O(bm), where b is the maximum branching factor in a tree.d defines the depth of the
least-cost solution.m specifies the maximum depth of the state space. It maybe Infinity. Note
that path = the depth of the search tree = the number of
levels of the search tree = number of nodes in level .DFS algorithm explores as far as
possible along each branch before backtracking. Though the DFS algorithm is complete if the
search tree is finite and a solution exists, it is not optimal as the number of steps in reaching
the solution, or the cost spent in reaching it is high.
Advantages
1. It uses less memory as it stores only the nodes on the path
from the root node to the current node.
2. It takes less time to reach the goal node/state as compared to the BFS algorithm.
Disadvantages
1. Sometimes, many states keep recurring. In such a scenario, there is no guarantee of finding
the solution.
2. In certain cases, the algorithm may get stuck in an infinite loop while going deep searching
for nodes in the tree. A possible solution to this problem is to choose an appropriate value of
cut-off depth. If the ideal cut-off is d, and the chosen cut-off is less than d, then algorithm
fails. But, if the chosen cut-off is more than d, the execution time increases.
3. Complexity of the algorithm depends on the number of paths.
4. DFS cannot check duplicate nodes.
Example: Explore the path that will be explored using the DFS algorithm to reach node G
from S.
DFS creates the same set of nodes as breadth-first method, different order.

Solution: To explore the path, a search tree for the graph will be created. Since DFS traverses
the tree using the ‘deepest node first’ technique, it would always pick the deeper branch until
it reaches the solution or until all nodes of the current branch have been traversed. The
traversal is shown in blue arrows.

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The DFS path can be given as, S -> A -> B -> C -> G

Example: Consider the graph given below and state its DFS traversal.

Solution: We start with node 0. Exploring its branch to node 1, we move to node 2 and node
4. From node 4, we backtrack to node 3. Hence, the DFS path can be given as, 0 -> 1 -> 2 ->
4 -> 3.

1.11.2 Depth-Limited Search Algorithm (DLS)

DLS is similar to the DFS algorithm with an addition of a predetermined limit. This limit
helps to overcome the limitations of the infinite path in the DFS. In DLS, the node at the
depth limit will be treated as it is a leaf node (or a node with no successor nodes).
The DLS algorithm is terminated in any of the three cases:
1. First, if the problem does not have any solution. This is
known as standard error failure.
2. Second, if the problem does not have any solution within a
given depth limit. This is known as cut-off failure.
3. Third, when the solution is found.
For example, in the tree given in Fig. 3.15, if level is limited to 2, then the search technique
will not go to level 3. Therefore, nodes E, F, G and H will not be [Link], the DLS
search algorithm is complete if the solution is present within the specified depth limit. While
time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(b ), space complexity is O(b×l), where l is the depth
limit and d is the depth of the tree.

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Advantages
1. It is a memory efficient algorithm as it consumes less space.
2. The algorithm takes less time to execute.
3. It terminates in finite time.

Disadvantages
1. It is an incomplete algorithm as we may not be able to get the solution every time we do
the search (even if the solution exists, due to limit constraint).
2. If multiple solutions of a problem exist, then DLS may not be able to find the optimal
solution. In other words, the algorithm is not optimal even if l>d.
Example: Traverse the given tree to search node H using DLS with predefined limit as 2.

Solution: We start with Node A at level 0. The search process then continues to explore nodes
B, C, D, and E at level 1.
Now, we go to level 2 and explore the child nodes of node B. When H is not found there, a
backtrack is done to level 1. Child nodes of node C are searched to find node H. Finally, node
H is found at level 2 as a child node of C and the algorithm Terminates.
Example: Traverse the given tree to search node H using DLS with predefined limit as 2.
Solution: In the tree, node H is not present till level 2, so the algorithm terminates returning a
cutoff failure. The path traversed for searching is marked with a dashed line.

This image explains the DLS implementation and could be referred to for better
understanding.

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1.11.3 Breadth First Search (BFS)

In this algorithm, nodes in the tree are traversed breadthwise to reach the goal node.
Searching begins from the root node and expands the successor node breadthwise before
traversing depth-wise. As evident from Fig. 3.16, a BFS algorithm starts from the root
node A and then traverses node B followed by node C. This means that children of the root
node are traversed before exploring other nodes on any branch. After traversing all nodes at a
particular level, control then passes to the next [Link], after node C, all nodes from
D to G are traversed. This is followed by traversal of nodes H to K. Thus, the BFS algorithm
explores all neighbour nodes at the present depth before moving the nodes at the next depth
level.

In Fig. 3.17, BFS algorithm selects a random initial node (also known as source node or root
node) and traverses the graph layer-wise in such a way that all the nodes and their respective
children nodes are visited and explored. Here,Visiting a node means to visit or select a node.
And,Exploring a node means exploring the adjacent nodes (child nodes) of the selected node.

Advantages
1. BFS will find a solution if it exists.
2. If a given problem has multiple solutions, then BFS will give the minimal solution
requiring least number of steps.
3. The architecture of the BFS algorithm is simple and robust.
4. It constructs the shortest path of traversing through the nodes of the graph so that the graph
can be traversed in the smallest number of iterations.
5. The algorithm does not get stuck in an infinite loop.

Disadvantages
1. Since each level of node is saved for creating the next one, it consumes a lot of memory
space. Space requirement to store nodes is exponential.

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2. It takes less time if the solution is far away from the root Node at the bottom or at the end.
3. Its complexity depends on the number of nodes.

The BFS algorithm is implemented using a FIFO queue. It is a complete algorithm, that is, it
finds a solution if it exits. The algorithm is optimal, if step cost = 1 (that is, if either there is
no cost or if all step costs are same). Moreover, it has both time and space complexity given
by, O(b ). Here, b is the branching factor and d is the depth of the tree.
Note that total number of nodes created in the worst case is b + b + b + ... + b .
While time complexity is equivalent to the number of nodes traversed in BFS space
complexity, on the other hand, it is equivalent to how large can the fringe get. Due to high
precision and robust implementation, BFS is used in multiple real-life
solutions like P2P networks, Web Crawlers and Network Broadcasting.

Example: Find the BFS traversal from node S to node G.

Solution: The BFS creates a tree and traverses it using the principle ‘shallowest node first’.
So, at note S, node D will be traversed followed by node G. Thus, Path is S -> D -> G

Example: Consider the graph. Using node A as the source node, traverse the graph and trace
the working of the algorithm using a queue.

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Step 1: Insert root node ‘a’ into the Queue.

Step 2: Remove node ‘a’ from the queue, print it and insert the child nodes of ‘a’ in the
queue. Thus, nodes ‘b’ and ‘c’ are inserted.

Step 3: The queue is not empty and has node ‘b’ and ‘c’. Since ‘b’ is the first node in the
queue, remove it, print it and insert the child nodes of ‘b’ into the queue. That is, insert node
‘d’ and ‘e’.
Repeat these steps until the queue gets empty. Do not insert those nodes in the queue that are
already visited.

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According to the pseudocode, s is the root node of the graph, [Link], s is inserted in the
queue. Then, all child nodes of ‘s’ are marked. These child nodes are visited after removing
‘s’ from the queue. At each step of the algorithm, child nodes, w are inserted into the queue
to further visit its child nodes. The process is repeated under the queue is empty.

Applications of Breadth-First Search Algorithm

BFS is a simple graph traversal method that is widely used in the following areas.

Crawlers in Search Engines

BFS algorithm is used for indexing web pages. In this application, each web page is
considered as a node in a graph. The algorithm starts traversing from the source page and
follows all the links associated with that page.

GPS Navigation Systems

GPS systems use BFS algorithm to find neighbouring locations. Find the Shortest Path for an
Unweighted Graph For an unweighted graph, the shortest path can be easily calculated by
choosing a path with the least number of edges. BFS algorithm can do this by traversing a
minimum number of nodes starting from the source node. Similarly, either breadth- first
search or depth-first traversal methods can be used to find a spanning tree.

Broadcasting
In computer networks, data is broken down into small packets before transmission across the
communication media. These packets use an algorithm to compute a path to the destination.
For messages that are broadcasted across all the nodes in a network, BFS is a preferred
choice.

Peer-to-Peer Networking
BFS is used in peer-to-peer network as a traversal method to find all the neighbouring nodes.
For example, BitTorrent uses BFS for peer-to- peer communication.

1.11.4 Uniform Cost Search (UCS)

The UCS algorithm is used to find an optimal solution to the goal state when the step costs
are not the same. In such a scenario, the algorithm computes the cumulative cost to expand
each node from the root node to the goal node. It neither traverses depth nor breadth, but
searches for the next node with the lowest cost. Sorting is done in increasing cost of the path
to a node so that the algorithm can explore paths in the increasing order of cost. UCS always
expands the node with the least cost. It is identical to BFS if each transition has the same cost.
Remember that,
Cost of a node is defined as:
cost(node) = cumulative cost of all nodes from root
cost(root) = 0

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In Fig. 3.18, if S is the start node and G is the goal state, then node A is explored as it has the
lowest cost (the other node G has a higher cost). Now, node A has two child nodes—B and C.
C having the lowest step cost is traversed and from there, node D, followed by G is reached.
Though UFS performs well for this algorithm, it may not work with all cases.
Thus, we see that uniform-cost search (UCS) expands nodes based on their path costs form
the root node. It can be used to traverse any graph/tree where the optimal cost is the traversal
criteria. The uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue, giving
maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost. If you observe carefully, you will find that
UCS is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is the same.

The UCS algorithm is a complete and optimal algorithm with time and space complexity and
space complexity O(b ), where ε is the lowest cost and c is the optimal cost.

Advantages
1. It finds an optimal solution by considering the least cost at every state.
2. UCS is complete only if states are finite and if there is no loop with zero weight.
3. UCS is optimal only if there is no negative cost.

Disadvantages
1. The algorithm may get stuck in an infinite loop as it considers only cost and not the
number of steps taken to reach the goal state.
2. It explores nodes in every ‘direction’.
3. It does not have any information about the location of the goal state.
4. It requires more space for storing information about nodes.
5. The UCS must explore all paths including the long ones.
Example: Consider the tree given below and its UCS traversal to reach node G from S.

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Example: Find the path and cost to move from node S to node G in the graph given below.

Solution: For a better clarity, we can draw an equivalent search tree for the graph. Using
UCS, the path with the least cumulative cost is chosen.

Path: S -> A -> B -> G

Cost: 5

1.11.5 Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search (IDDFS)

The iterative deepening algorithm combines the features of DFS and BFS algorithms to find
out the best depth limit that can be used to implement the DLS algorithm. IDDFS does so by
gradually increasing the limit until the goal is found. The algorithm performs depth-first
search to level 1, starts over, executes a complete depth-first search to level 2 and continues
until the solution is found. It never creates a node until all lower nodes are generated. It only
saves a stack of nodes. IDDFS gets benefitted by fast search technique of BFS algorithm and
memory efficiency of the depth-first search algorithm. This algorithm is widely used when
search space is large, and depth of the goal node is not known.

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Advantages
1. It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithms fast search and memory
efficiency
2. The algorithm is complete is if the branching factor is finite.
3. IDDFS is an optimal algorithm if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the
node.

Disadvantages
1. It repeats all the work of the previous phase.
2. It takes more time (exponential) to reach the goal node.
3. The algorithm fails when the BFS fails.

Example: Traverse the given tree using the iterative deepening depth-first search algorithm.
Solution: In the first iteration, node A at level 0 is explored.
In the second iteration, nodes B and C are traversed at level 1.
In the third iteration, nodes D, E, F and G are traversed.
In the fourth iteration, node H is reached.

The algorithm ends when it finds a solution at depth d. The number of nodes created at depth
d is b and at depth d-1 is b Time complexity of IDDFS algorithm is O(b ) and its space
complexity is O(bd), where b is the branching factor and depth of the tree is d. In IDDFS, we
perform DFS up to a certain ‘limited depth,’ and keep increasing this ‘limited depth’ after
every iteration. Example: Consider the tree given below and demonstrate the application of
IDDFS.

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1.11.6 Bidirectional Search

In a bidirectional search, searching is done from both the directions simultaneously. It
searches forward from initial state and backward from goal state till both meet to identify a
common [Link] path from initial state is concatenated with the inverse path from the goal
state. Each search is done only up to half of the total path. The algorithm finds the smallest
path from the source node to the goal node. Thus, bidirectional search replaces single search
graph with two smaller sub graphs one starting from initial or start node to the goal node
(termed as forward search) and the other starting from goal node towards the source node
(known as backward search).The search process terminates when the two graphs intersect.
Bidirectional search can be guided by a heuristic estimate of remaining distance from source
to goal and vice versa. Heuristic means finding the shortest path from the current node in the
graph to the goal node.

Example: Consider the graph given below and apply bidirectional search on it to reach goal
node 14 from source node 0.

Solution: Two searches are executed simultaneously-, one from node 0 and the other from
node 14. Both these searches intersect at node 7. At this point, we have found a path from
node 0 to 7 and from node 14 to 7. The search process terminates successfully, thereby
avoiding unnecessary exploration.

Advantages
1. It is faster than other algorithms
2. It avoids unnecessary exploration of nodes
3. Time and space complexity of searching is O(b +b ), which is far less than O(b ). Here, b is
the branching factor of the tree and d is the distance of goal node from the source node.
4. The algorithm drastically reduces searching time by supporting simultaneous searches.
5. It takes less memory capacity to store all the searches. d/2 d/2
6. Bidirectional search is complete if BFS is used in both searches.
7. The algorithm is optimal if BFS is used for search and paths have uniform cost.

Disadvantages
1. The algorithm can be used only when the goal state is clearly known.
2. It is difficult to implement.

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3. The algorithm must be robust enough to correctly deduce the intersection point where it
can terminate. Otherwise, the algorithm may get stuck in an infinite loop.
4. It is very difficult to search backwards through all states.

When to Use Bidirectional Approach?

Bi-directional search can be best used in the following situations:
When both the starting node and the goal node are unique and completely defined.
When the branching factor is exactly the same in both directions.
Example: Consider the graph given below and demonstrate the application of bidirectional
search from Start forward search from node 2 and backward search from node 11.
Do BFS from both directions.
In the forward search process, nodes 1, 6 and 8 are explored. In the backward search process,
mode 7 is explored. But no intersection node is encountered.

Next explore node 3 while doing a forward search and node 3 while doing a backward search.
Here, we find intersecting node as node 3, so the algorithm terminates and the path is- 2 -> 1
-> 3 -> 7 -> 11.

1.12 Informed Search Algorithms

The uninformed search algorithms that we have learnt so far had no knowledge about search
space. But informed search algorithm, as the name suggests, contains some information about
how far we are from the goal, cost of the path, how to reach the goal, etc. This knowledge
helps agents to explore less to the search space and reach the goal node more efficiently.
The informed search algorithm which is extensively used in a large space is also known as
heuristic search as it uses a heuristic function. The heuristic function takes the current state
of the agent as its input and estimates how close the agent is from the goal. Though the
heuristic method may not always give the best solution, it is, however, guaranteed to find a
good solution in reasonable time.
A heuristic function h(n), calculates the cost of an optimal path between the pair of states.
The value of the heuristic function is always positive. We can write,
h(n) <= h (n)
where h(n) is heuristic cost, and h (n) is the estimated cost. This means that the heuristic cost
should be less than or equal to the estimated cost.

1.12.1 Pure Heuristic Search

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To solve large problems with a large number of possible states, problem-specific knowledge
needs to be added to increase the efficiency of search algorithms. In such a situation, heuristic
search algorithm performs well.
Heuristic search is the simplest form of heuristic search algorithms that expands nodes based
on their heuristic valueh(n). The algorithm maintains two lists OPEN and CLOSED. All
nodes that have already been expanded are placed in the CLOSED list, while others that have
not been expanded are in the OPEN list. On each iteration, nodes with the lowest heuristic
value are expanded. Then, the heuristic function is applied to the child nodes and they are
placed in the open list according to their heuristic value. The shorter paths are saved and the
longer ones are disposed. The process continues unit a goal state is found. In this section, we
will discuss two important informed search algorithms best first search algorithm (greedy
search) and A search algorithm.

1.12.2 Best-First Search Algorithm (Greedy Search)

Greedy best-first search algorithm combines depth-first search and breadth-first search
algorithms and always selects the path which appears best at that moment. It uses the
heuristic function and best-first search at each step to choose the most promising node. The
most promising node is the one that is closest to the goal node. The greedy best first
algorithm is implemented by the priority queue.
Heuristic evaluation functions calculate the cost of optimal path between two states.
Best first search algorithm steps:
Step 1: Insert the starting node in the OPEN list.
Step 2: Stop and return failure if the OPEN list is empty,
Step 3: From the OPEN list, remove the node having the lowest value of h(n), and insert it in
the CLOSED list.
Step 4: Expand the node (removed in Step 3) and generate its successors.
Step 5: Check each successor to find if it is the goal node or not. If any successor node is
found to be the goal node, then return success and terminate the search, else go to Step 6.
Step 6: Check if each successor node is in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If the node is not
present in any of the lists, then add it to the OPEN list.
Step 7: Go to Step 2.

Advantages
1. It takes advantage of both BFS and DFS algorithms.
2. Best first search algorithm is more efficient than BFS and DFS algorithms.

Disadvantages
1. In some worst-case scenarios, best first search can behave as an unguided depth-first
search.
2. Like DFS, best first search algorithm can get stuck in a loop.
3. Best first search algorithm is not an optimal algorithm.

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Example: Consider the tree given below and traverse it using greedy best-first search
algorithm.

Solution: Expand the node S and put it in the CLOSED list. Generate its successors and place
them in the OPEN list.
Open [A, B], Closed [S]
Iteration 1: Since h(n) for node B is less than that of node A, expand B and place it in
CLOSED list. Now only node A is in the OPEN list. Open [A], Closed [S, B]
Iteration 2: Generate successors of node B and place them in the OPEN list. Open [E, F, A],
Closed [S, B]. Since node F has the lowest heuristic value among all nodes in
the OPEN list, we will expand node F. Now, Open [E, A], Closed [S, B, F]
Iteration 3: Generate successors of node F and place them in the OPEN list. So, Open [I, G,
E, A], Closed [S, B, F] Now, generate succors of node F and place them in OPEN list. Since
one of the successors of node F is the goal node, the algorithm returns success and terminates.
The path is given by the nodes present in the CLOSED list. Open [I, E, A], Closed [S, B, F,
G]
Hence, the final solution path will be: S----> B----->F----> G
The worst-case time complexity and space complexity of greedy best first search is O(b )
where, m is the maximum depth of the search space. Although the algorithm is complete, it
can, at times, behave like an incomplete algorithm even if the given state space is finite. This
makes the Greedy best first search algorithm not an optimal one.
Example: Apply greedy best first search algorithm on the graph given below to reach node I
from node S.

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Solution: Add node S in the CLOSED list and place its successors in the OPEN list. Open [A,
B, C], Closed [S]
Remove A from the OPEN list as it has minimum h(n), place it in CLOSED list and put its
successors in the OPEN list.
Open [B, C, E, D], Closed [S, A]
Remove C from the OPEN list as it has minimum h(n), place it in CLOSED list and put its
successors in the OPEN list.
Open [B, E, D, H], Closed [S, A, C]
Remove B from the OPEN list as it has minimum h(n), place it in CLOSED list and put its
successors in the OPEN list.
Open [E, D, H, F, G], Closed [S, A, C, B]
Remove H from the OPEN list as it has minimum h(n), place it in CLOSED list and put its
successors in the OPEN list. Since I is the successor of node H, the algorithm returns success.
Open [E, D, F, G, I, J], Closed [S, A, C, B, H]

Knowledge Representation

1.13 Introduction
Artificial intelligence as technology has always fascinated human beings. Multiple
science fiction novels and movies have demonstrated the use of AI-powered systems (like
robots) that can think, act, understand complex information and make smart decisions based
on it. Although this all looks like a fantastic development, we agree that it is not easy to make
machines that behave exactly like humans. This is because humans have conscience and this
conscience develops gradually in us with our knowledge, experiences and memories. To build
AI systems that have conscience, we need to inculcate knowledge in them. This chapter is,
therefore, dedicated towards representing knowledge in machines.

Knowledge and Intelligence

Knowledge of real world plays a crucial role in intelligence and creating AI agents
that demonstrate intelligent behaviour. Such an agent acts by sensing its environment and
using knowledge to act intelligently. However, for this, the knowledge or experience about
the input is mandatory. The relationship between knowledge and intelligence can be clearly
understood from Fig. 4.1. You can see that if we remove the knowledge component, then the
decision maker will not be able to sense the environment accurately and take appropriate
decisions.

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1.14 Knowledge Representation

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning and interpreting things they know
(knowledge). Humans use their knowledge to perform various actions in the real world. But
how machines perform actions, comes under the domain of knowledge representation and
reasoning.
Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is a part of artificial intelligence which
focuses on how AI agents think and how their thinking contributes to intelligent behaviour. A
knowledge-based system represents information about the real world in such a way that a
computer can easily understand and utilize this knowledge to solve complex real-world
problems like diagnosing a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural
language. Knowledge representation represents knowledge available in the form of beliefs,
intentions and judgments that an intelligent agent must possess for automated reasoning. One
of the primary purposes of knowledge representation includes modelling intelligent behaviour
for an agent. Knowledge representation is not just storing data in a database. It goes beyond
this aspect to facilitate an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences
so that it can behave intelligently like a human.
1.14.1 What Knowledge Needs to be Represented?
Humans have intuition, intentions, prejudices, beliefs, judgments, common sense, etc.
apart from knowledge about certain facts. We need to incorporate all this information in a
machine-understandable format and make the AI system truly intelligent. For this, we need to
represent the following knowledge in AI systems:
1. Object: Information and facts about all objects (relevant in context). For example, in a
self-driving car, vehicles and roads are objects.
2. Events: Information and facts about actions which occur in the real world. For example, in
a self-driving car, an event can be applying breaks when an object comes in front of it.
3. Performance: The manner in which actions are performed. It describes the behaviour
related to how to do things.
4. Meta-knowledge: It is the knowledge about knowledge (what we know).
5. Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world that needs to be represented for an
intelligent agent.
6. Knowledge base: It is the most important component of a knowledge-based agent that
stores a group of sentences (technical sentences, not simple English language ones).

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1.14.2 What is Knowledge?

We know that knowledge is the basic element of our brain as it helps us to know and
understand things logically and is gained by experiences of facts, data and situations. A
knowledgeable person performs all the actions in a better way. Everyone has five types of
knowledge illustrated in Fig. 4.2 and enumerated as follows.
1. Meta knowledge is knowledge about knowledge.
2. Heuristic knowledge is the knowledge about a specific topic.
For example, it can be knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject. Heuristic knowledge
is treated as the rule of thumb as it is based on previous experiences and awareness of
approaches, which are good to work but not guaranteed.

3. Procedural knowledge, also known as imperative knowledge, gives information about how
to achieve or do something. This knowledge includes rules, strategies,
procedures, agendas, etc. that can be directly applied to perform any task.
4. Declarative knowledge is the information that we have about an object. This knowledge
helps us to describe a particular concept, fact, object and its attributes. Declarative knowledge
is simpler than procedural language and is also called descriptive knowledge as it is usually
represented using declarative sentences.
5. Structural knowledge is the basic knowledge to solve complex problems. It describes
relationships between various concepts or objects such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.

1.14.3 What is Logic?

Logic is the main component of any knowledge as it facilitates a person to draw
conclusions by filtering required information from large volumes of sentences.
In AI, knowledge is represented using logic. Every logic has three main elements.

Syntax

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Every language has its own syntax to specify the sequence of constructs that makes a
complete sentence in that language. Itis therefore not wrong to say that syntax is the
representation of a language.

Semantics
Semantics is used to check if a syntactically correct sentence is logically correct and
meaningful or not. Therefore, semantics defines the sense of the sentence which relates to the
real world. For example, consider the statement:
Ram is riding a bike.
This sentence is syntactically as well as semantically correct. However, the sentence,
Bike is riding Ram.
is syntactically correct but semantically incorrect.

Logical Inference
Inference means to deduce conclusions in the context of some fact or problem.
Correspondingly, logical inference uses inference algorithms to think all the possible reasons
that can give a proper result.

1.14.4 Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI

An AI system has several components (Fig. 4.3) that helps it to exhibit an intelligent
behaviour. These components include the following:

Perception
The perception component retrieves data from the environment, discovers the
source(s) of noise, checks if the AI was damaged by anything and defines response to be
given when any sense has been detected. Data from the environment is gathered using

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different types of sensors in the form of video, audio, text, time, temperature or any other
sensor-based input.

Learning
The learning component learns from the data that is captured by the perception
component. The aim here is to develop a system that can be taught instead of being
programmed. With learning, the system focuses on self-improvement through knowledge
acquisition, inference, acquisition of heuristics, faster searches, etc.

Knowledge Representation and Reasoning

This is the main component which shows human-like intelligence in the machines.
Knowledge representation techniques (refer Fig. 4.4) are designed to understand using a
top-down approach focussing in detail, what an agent needs to know to behave intelligently.
The KRR component also defines how automated reasoning procedures can make this
knowledge available as needed.

Planning and Execution

This component analyses knowledge representation and reasoning. The
planning component selects an initial state, enumerates preconditions and effects, and
a sequence of actions to achieve the goal state. Once planning is done, actions are
executed to get the desired results.

1.14.5 Knowledge Representation Requirements

A good knowledge representation system must have the following properties.
1. Representational accuracy, to ensure that the system represents all kinds of required
knowledge.
2. Inferential adequacy to manipulate the representational structures to produce new
knowledge corresponding to the existing structure.
3. Inferential efficiency to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism to generate
appropriate results.
4. Acquisitional efficiency that helps the knowledge representation system to easily acquire
new knowledge using automatic methods.

1.15 Knowledge-Based Agent

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In AI, the agents that mimic a human being’s knowledge are known as
knowledge-based intelligent agents. Such an agent uses its knowledge and reasoning to act
efficiently by making appropriate decisions. A knowledge-based agent, therefore, does the
following:
1. It maintains an internal state of knowledge to represent states, actions, etc.
2. It deduces reasoning with that knowledge.
3. It updates their knowledge after observations by incorporating new precepts.
4. It takes actions accordingly.
Knowledge-based agents represent knowledge that can be reasoned to act intelligently
according to the requirements. Usually, these agents store knowledge about its surroundings
in the form of sentences.

1.15.1 The Architecture of Knowledge-Based Agent

Knowledge-based agents represent the world with some formal representation to act
intelligently. For this, they contain a knowledge-base and an inference system.

Knowledge base (KB) is the most important component of a knowledge-based agent.

It stores real facts of world using sentences which are explained in knowledge representation
Language. Inference engine (IE) is the knowledge-based system engine
that infers new knowledge in the system. Figure 4.5 shows a generalized architecture for a
knowledge- based agent (KBA). According to Fig. 4.5,
Step 1: The KBA perceives the environment to take input from it.
Step 2: This input is taken by the inference engine of KBA.
Step 3: The inference engine interacts with the knowledge base to make decisions based on
the knowledge stored in it.
Note that the learning element of the KBA regularly updates the knowledge base by learning
new knowledge. This knowledge base is nothing but a collection of sentences (technical
information not same as a sentence in English) that are expressed in a language known as
knowledge representation language and stores fact about the world. In AI, a sentence is not
an English language sentence, but a fact represented in a language known as knowledge. The
inference system derives new sentences from old ones and also facilitates addition of new

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sentence(s) to the knowledge base. As stated earlier, a sentence is a proposition about the
world. New information is deduced from the knowledge base by
applying logical rules (either forward chaining or backward chaining).

1.15.2 Operations Performed By KBA

Whenever the KBA is called to add/update knowledge in the KB or to answer queries
made to the KB, it acts intelligently by performing a set of important functions that are given
[Link] operation tells the knowledge base what knowledge it already has about its
environment and what additional knowledge it needs to know. TELL is also used to inform
the knowledge base which action was selected and performed by the agent.
ASK operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform. The agent gets its
answer from the knowledge base. PERFORM operation performs the selected action.

1.15.3 A Generic Knowledge-Based Agent

Given below is the structure outline of a generic knowledge- based agent program
(Fig. 4.6).

The knowledge-based agent accepts the information it perceives from the

environment as input and returns an action as the output. The agent maintains the knowledge
base (KB). It has some background knowledge of the real world and maintains a counter, t
with initial value zero to indicate the time for the whole process. Each time the function is
called, the KBA performs operations as given below. TELLS the KB what it perceives. For
this, the MAKE-PERCEPT- SENTENCE function is used to generate a sentence that informs
about what information the agent had perceived at the given [Link] KB what action it

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should take. The MAKE-ACTION-QUERY function is executed to generate a sentence

asking which action should be performed at the current time. TELLS the KB about the action
that was chosen. The MAKE- ACTION-SENTENCE function generates a sentence
informing about the chosen action that was executed.

1.15.4 Various Levels of Knowledge-Based Agent

A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels as follows.
​
Knowledge Level
This is the first level of a KBA. In this level, we need to specify what the agent
knows, and what its goals would be. This information is then used to fix the behaviour of the
agent. For example, if an agent has to go from point A to point B and it, knows the optimum
way to reach the destination, then this information is added at the knowledge level (using
sentences).

Logical Level
At this level, the knowledge representation of the knowledge stored in the knowledge base is
understood. For this, sentences are encoded into different logics. Therefore,knowledge is
encoded into logical [Link] with the above example, agent deduces
(understands) logic to reach destination, that is, point B.

Implementation Level
This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At this level, the
agent performs actions according to the knowledge obtained from the logical and
knowledge level. For
example, the agent that wants to move from point A to B, implement the knowledge and logic
to reach the destination.

Example: In an automated air conditioner, the inbuilt knowledge stored in the system states
that ‘It would adjust its temperature according to the weather.’ Now, when to adjust and how
to adjust is [Link] actual working of adjusting the temperature is at the implementation
level of the knowledge- based agent.

1.15.5 Approaches to Designing a Knowledge-Based Agent

There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent.
Declarative Approach
In this approach, the knowledge-based agent is created by initializing it with an empty
knowledge base and then telling the agent all the sentences with which we want to start with.
These sentences are told to the empty system one by one until the system becomes
knowledgeable enough to deal with the environment.

Procedural Approach

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In the procedural approach, the desired behaviour is directly encoded in the agent as a
program code. Therefore, in this approach, we are actually specifying the desired behaviour
of the system through coding in programming languages like LISP, Prolog. Practically, hybrid
approach is used that combines features of both declarative as well as procedural approaches.
In the hybrid approach, declarative knowledge is compiled into more efficient procedural
code.

1.16 Types of Knowledge

We can express different types of knowledge in a knowledge representation system.

Simple Relational Knowledge

In this technique, facts about a set of objects are systematically stored using relations
(or tables) in database systems (refer Fig. 4.8). These relations depict relationship between
different entities. However, the main shortcoming of this approach is that there is little
opportunity for inference.

Inheritable knowledge
Inheritable knowledge is one that stores data using a hierarchy of classes. We start
representing using generalized classes and move down to specialized classes in the hierarchy.
For example, consider Fig. 4.9 which shows such a relationship. Note that Zinya and Vidhi
both are instances of under-graduate and post-graduate students, respectively. Inheritable
knowledge shows the relation between instance and class, and is therefore known as instance
relation of IS-A relation. In this diagram, objects and values are represented in boxed nodes.

Inferential Knowledge
Inferential Knowledge Represents Knowledge in the Form of Formal Logic and Can
be Used to Derive More Facts Accurately.
For example,

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Statement 1: Diya is a student.

Statement 2: All students are bright.
Then, it can be represented as;
Student(Diya)
∀x = Student (x) ———-> Bright (x)

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