POWER DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

(IN-SEM Notes) (UNITS-1&2)

Unit 1: STUDY OF POWER DEVICES

Q. 1.1​ With the help of a construction diagram, explain the working of SCR. Why it is
called a controlled rectifier?…………………………………………. (FEB-23,8 Marks)

SCR stands for Silicon Controlled Rectifier, also known as the Thyristor. The following diagram
shows its symbol.

It has three terminals: an Anode terminal, a Cathode terminal similar to the normal diode, and
one extra terminal compared to the diode; it is a Gate terminal. the flow of current is
unidirectional. That means from anode to cathode. This current is controlled by applying a
certain signal at the gate terminal.

The following diagram shows the construction of an SCR. It has four layers, formed using P-type
and N-type semiconductor layers.
 As shown in the diagram there are three terminals: Anode, Cathode, and Gate terminal. Three
junctions are formed: Junction J1, J2 and J3. Junction J1 is between the first p-layer and the first
n-layer. Junction J2 is in between the first n-layer and the second p-layer. Junction J2 is formed
between the first n-layer and the second p-layer. The junction J3 is formed between the second
p-layer and the bottom n-layer.

It is a current-control device. Applying current at the gate terminal can control the current
flowing from the anode to the cathode. The current enters from the anode terminal, which is
treated as a positive current. The current leaves from the cathode terminal, which is treated as a
negative current. The current flow from the anode to the cathode is controlled by using a gate
terminal.

Whenever the anode terminal is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the cathode
is connected to the negative terminal of the battery then SCR is said to be forward-biased. Under
forward-biased conditions, the current flows from the anode terminal to the cathode terminal.
The first p-layer is connected to the battery's positive terminal. So the p-n junction (J1) is
forward-based. Similarly, the last n-layer is connected to the battery's negative terminal. So the
junction J3 is forward-biased.

So, Junctions J1 and J3 are forward-biased, when the positive and negative terminals of a battery
are connected to the anode and cathode terminal of SCR respectively. Under such conditions,
junction J2 will be reverse-biased.
If we apply a certain positive current at the gate terminal, the junction J2 (between the first
n-layer and the second p-layer) will be forward-biased and the SCR will be turned on. Whenever
SCR is turned on, it offers low resistance. The value is typically between 0.1Ω to 1 Ω. Whenever
SCR is turned off then it provides ideal infinity resistance.

SCR as a controlled rectifier:

The normal p-n junction diodes allow current flow in one direction without any controlling
[Link] offers an additional layer of control. SCRs, like diodes, allow current to flow in
one direction, converting AC to DC. Thus it acts as a rectifier. It has a third terminal, called the
gate. The gate terminal controls the current, when the SCR starts conducting current. Applying a
small current or voltage to the gate terminal, the SCR can be triggered to switch on and allow
current flow. So, SCR is called a controlling rectifier.

Q. 1.2​ With the help of a construction diagram, explain the two transistor model of
SCR.…………………………………………………………………….…………. (6 Marks)

The two-transistor model is shown in the following figure.

SCR is a four-layer device, p- n- p- n. Let us say p1 is the first layer; it is unchanged. Similarly,
the last layer n2 is unchanged. The second and third layers are divided into n1-n1 and p2-p2.
Consider the portion p1-n1-p2. It acts as one p -n- p transistor (T1). Similarly, the remaining
layer n1-p2-n2 forms another transistor (T2). So we can consider this SCR as if there are two
transistors: the first is PNP and the second is NPN transistor. These are connected one after the
other. It is a two-transistor model of the SCR.

The current from the anode to the cathode can be controlled by applying gate current to the gate
terminal. This gate current is donated by 𝐼𝐺. The collector current of transistor T1 is 𝐼𝐶1. It is
combined with 𝐼𝐺 and it forms the base current 𝐼𝐵2 for transistor T2. So 𝐼𝐵2 can be controlled
by controlling 𝐼𝐶1 and 𝐼𝐺.

The collector terminal of the NPN transistor (Transistor T2) is connected to the base terminal of
T1. So if you apply a small gate current 𝐼𝐺, it combines with 𝐼𝐶1 and represents current 𝐼𝐵2.
Even if this gate current is small, the transistor is an amplifier, it produces a large amount of 𝐼𝐶2.
𝐼𝐶2 is this collector current of transistor T2 which is the same as the base current of transistor T1.
This transistor is also an amplifier, so this base current produces a large collector current (𝐼𝐶1).
Likewise, the process continues. This is called positive feedback. So immediately positive
feedback is initiated and the SCR goes into saturation.

Q. 1.3​ Draw V-I characteristics of SCR. Explain the following w.r.t. SCR &
write their typical values.
i) Break over voltage
ii) Latching current
iii) Holding current.…………………………………………………………. (MARCH-24,8 Marks)

There are three modes of operation of SCR:

1)​ Reverse Blocking Mode
2)​ Forward Blocking Mode
3)​ Forward Conduction Mode

The V-I characters of SCR are shown in the following figure.

Reverse Blocking Mode:

In the case of reverse blocking mode, as shown in this diagram the anode is connected to the
negative and the cathode to the positive terminal of the battery. The gate signal is not applied.
There are three junctions, so the structure is like three diodes connected one after the other.

Consider the diode which is between Junction J1. It is a PN Junction, but ‘P’ is connected to the
negative terminal. So this diode containing J1 Junction acts as a reverse-biased diode. Similarly,
the third p-n junction diode (Junction J3) is connected to the battery's positive terminal. So it is
again reverse biased. The middle diode is made from n-p. Here ‘n’ is connected to the negative
and ‘p’ to the positive. So the middle diode is forward-biased.

So, when the anode is connected to the negative and the cathode to the positive, the first diode
D1, and the third diode D3 are reverse-biased. But the middle diode D2 is forward-biased. In
such cases, a small amount of leakage current flows.
There is one particular voltage known as reverse breakdown voltage (𝑉𝐵𝑅). If the applied
voltage increases beyond a certain limit, then Avalanche Breakdown occurs. Due to the
Avalanche Breakdown, suddenly the graph falls as shown in the diagram. So 𝑉𝐵𝑅 is the bare
minimum value of the voltage, which this structure can withstand. If you increase it, an
Avalanche Breakdown occurs, and excessive current flows.

Forward Blocking Mode:

Consider the reverse case, the positive connection to the anode terminal and the negative to the
cathode terminal. Initially; from 0 point ‘M’ a small amount of forward current flows. It is
known as the leakage current. It is a small current, so the structure offers maximum impedance.
Ideally, SCR is a switch. Even if it is in the forward mode, this switch acts as an open circuit due
to a small leakage current. Once you increase this voltage, point ‘M’ shifts to Point ‘N’. Then the
SCR goes into the third mode.

Forward Conductance Mode:

The line NK in the figure indicates the forward conduction mode. The SCR is transferred from
forward blocking mode to the forward conduction mode by applying the gate current or by
increasing the voltage between the anode and cathode terminals.

Important Parameters:

i) Break Over Voltage:

It is also known as forward break over voltage. It is denoted by 𝑉𝐵𝑂 . It is in the forward region.
It is the minimum voltage applied between the anode and cathode. It is a forward voltage after
which the mode changes from forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode.
The typical value is 50V to 500V.

ii) Latching Current:

It is the minimum anode current that SCR must attain during the turn-on process to maintain the
condition.
The typical value is mA to hundreds of mA.

iii) Holding Current:

It is the minimum anode current below which the SCR turns off.
The typical value is mA to tens of mA.
Q. 1.4​ Explain with a neat diagram the turn-on and turn-off characteristics of
SCR. Write down equations for turn-on and turn-off time.………………. (FEB-23,7 Marks)
OR
Draw Dynamic characteristics of SCR and explain the turn-on and turn-off process.
OR
Draw and explain the switching characteristics of SCR

Turn-on Process:

To turn on SCR, it is required to apply a certain gate pulse at the gate terminal. Turning on the
SCR means that the SCR changes its state from the forward blocking to the conduction mode.
The turn-on process is shown in the following figure.
Fig. (a) represents the plot of the gate voltage ( 𝑉𝐺) versus time. This is the gate pulse that we
need to apply at the gate terminal of the SCR. Fig. (B) is the diagram of the anode voltage ( 𝑉𝐴)
and the gate current ( 𝐼𝐺) versus time. The anode voltage is constant up to a certain time and then
it decreases. The gate current (𝐼𝐺) is approaching in the reverse way. It starts increasing and then
it remains constant.

In every graph, two points are marked. One is 10% and the other is 90% point. The 10% means
0.1 of the reading and 90% is 0.9 value of the final reading. The graph 𝑉𝐴 initially remains
constant after that it decreases. The maximum value is the final value of the anode voltage(𝑉𝐴).
Similarly, the gate current also starts from zero. To avoid the complexity, the starting point of the
plot of 𝐼𝐺 is shown as 0.1 𝐼𝐺. This graph starts increasing and reaches to 0.9 𝐼𝐺.

Fig. C shows the variation of the anode current (𝐼𝐴) versus time. Initially, this graph remains
constant, then increases exponentially, and finally, it remains constant. The readings 0.1𝐼𝐴 and
0.9 𝐼𝐴 are marked, as shown in the diagram.

Meaning of Turning ON of SCR:

The meaning of turning ON SCR is the transition from the forward OFF state to the ON state.
Initially, the SCR will be in forward blocking mode. After applying a particular amount of gate
pulse, the forward blocking mode changes to forward conduction mode. This particular time is
known as turn-on time. The forward-off state is the blocking state and the on-state is the
conduction state.

Delay time (𝑇𝑑): It is the value or amount of time when gate current reaches 90 % 𝐼𝐺 to 10% 𝐼𝐴.
Rise time (𝑇𝑟): The time taken by anode current ( 𝐼𝐴) to rise from 10 % to 90% value.
Settling time (𝑇𝑠): The time taken by anode current (𝐼𝐴) to rise from 90 % 𝐼𝐴 to the final 𝐼𝐴.

The total time is the addition of all these times. It is called Turn On time of SCR. It is denoted by
𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑛.
∴ 𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑛= 𝑇𝑑+𝑇𝑟+𝑇𝑠

Turn-off Process:
The time difference between on-state to off-state which means attaining forward blocking mode
is known as turn-off time. The characteristics are shown in the following figure.

The graph of anode voltage (𝑉𝐴) versus time is shown in Fig. D. Initially the plot is constant but
there is a gap compared to the origin. It is known as an on-state voltage drop. Turning off the
SCR means excess carriers should be removed from all the layers. That means there should be
removal of both ‘p’ and ‘n’ types of charges from the corresponding layers.

The graph of anode current (𝐼𝐴) versus time is shown in Fig.E. Two timing intervals are shown
in the diagram. The first is the 𝑡𝑟𝑟. It is known as a “reverse recovery time”. Recovery means
removing excess carriers. The second is 𝑡𝑔𝑟. It is the “gate recovery time”. The typical instances
t1, t2, t3, and t4 are marked in the diagram. These are the typical time instances that are required
to remove excess charges from all four layers of SCR. The combination of 𝑡𝑟𝑟 and 𝑡𝑔𝑟is known
as turn-off time.

Q. 1.5 What are the necessary conditions of SCR to act as a switch?................ (4 Marks)

The switching waveform is the combination of On and OFF time. It is shown in the following
figure.

The diagram shows ON and OFF states. This is the way how the SCR acts as a switch. The width
of the ON pulse is ‘T’. The width of the combination of ON and OFF pulse is 𝑇1. So the width of
the OFF pulse is 𝑇1− T.

The following are a few important conditions for SCR to work as a switch.
●​ The anode voltage must be greater than the cathode voltage. That means, SCR must be
forward-biased.
●​ The width of the gate-triggering pulse must be greater than the width of the “ON” pulse
(T).
●​ Average gate power dissipation should be less than instantaneous gate power dissipation.
●​ Anode to cathode voltage must be sufficiently large so that the SCR can change from
forward blocking condition to the forward conduction mode and again it can be switched
off.
●​ The gate triggering must be synchronized with the AC Supply, so if there are variations in
the AC supply in the same way there should be variations in the gate current.
●​ The magnitude of the gate current must be greater than the minimum required value of
the gate current.

Q. 1.6 What are the different types of ratings of SCR ........................................... (4 Marks)
There are three types of ratings.
1)​ Continuous Rating:
If the SCR is used continuously then these ratings are used. These ratings are related to the
continuous working of the device. These ratings are in terms of voltage and current, usually
expressed in terms of RMS value or average value.

2)​ Repetitive Rating:

These ratings are used if the device is periodically operated. That means these ratings are used
when a device is switched on periodically.
3)​ Surge or Non- repetitive Ratings:
Surge means any excess value. These are non-repetitive ratings. So they are related to the
maximum permissible current or voltage. It represents the maximum permissible or allowed
voltage or current value which the device can withstand during a surge. Such ratings are
expressed in terms of surge or nonrepetitive ratings.

Q. 1.7 Explain different protection circuits of SCR ................................................ (6 Marks)

The manufacturer provides certain specifications of SCR. We need to operate the SCR within the
specified limits. That means within the specified voltage or current. If for any reason the
specified values get exceeded, it may damage that particular device permanently. So to avoid
this, certain protection techniques are used.
There are two main types of protection: Over-current protection and Over-voltage protection.

Over-Current Protection:

It may be the case that the current flowing through the SCR exceeds the specified value, so we
need to provide a certain type of protection. In the case of a normal electrical circuit, we use the
fuse. So whenever the current exceeds the specified value then the fuse blows and the circuit gets
disconnected.

Along the same lines, we can use an HRC fuse which is a high rupturing capacity fuse. For some
sensitive systems, we can use crowbar protection techniques. So by making use of a high
rupturing capacity fuse, semiconductor fuse, or any type of rewireable fuse, the circuit can be
protected. A rewireable fuse means the blowing up of a particular wire takes place and the circuit
is disconnected.

Over-Voltage Protection:
There can be an excess of voltage because of some reasons, for example whenever you switch on
the transformer available in the circuit then voltage spikes are generated. These voltage spikes
exceed the specified values. These voltage spikes exist for a limited time, usually for some
milliseconds. But during that time also it can damage the device.
It is very much essential to provide over-voltage protection. The voltage transients (certain
spikes of voltages) are generated due to different types of switching actions. For example,
insulation breakdown, blowing of fuses or free-wheeling diode, or switching ON of the
transformer, etc. All such things generate voltage spikes. The best technique to avoid such spikes
entering the device is to use L.P.F.( Low Pass Filter) or Zener diode or Snubber circuit.

Q. 1.8 Explain the necessity of series and parallel connection of SCRs.............. (4 Marks)

In the case of certain practical applications like chemical industries; electronic precipitators are
used to control pollution. In such cases, a very large voltage is required. It cannot be obtained by
making use of a single SCR. Similarly, in the case of refineries, higher voltage is required. Again
a single SCR is not capable of providing such voltage.

In all such cases, the number of SCRs must be connected in series, which means one after the
other. This series combination is called a string. The entire voltage across this series combination
is called a string voltage. While the voltage across individual SCR is called link voltage.

In the case of battery chargers or overhead DC supply in railways, there is a requirement for a
very high current. So in such cases, a parallel combination is preferred. The voltage across all
SCRs is the same, which is string voltage. The current flowing through each SCR gets added
and produces a large current.

Q. 1.9 Draw and explain the constructional details of GTO……………………….. (6 Marks)

GTO is Gate Turn Off Thyristor. The constructional details and symbol of GTO are shown in the
following figure.
SCR can be used as an ideal switch. but this application is typically limited to a few KHz.
Certain complex and expensive circuitries are required to turn- off the SCR. To avoid all these
drawbacks, GTO is used.

The construction of GTO is very similar to that of SCR. GTO has four layers P-N- P-N. Similar
to SCR, there are 3 terminals: Anode (A), Cathode (K), and Gate (G). To turn-on the GTO, we
need to apply a certain positive gate voltage.

There are four layers, it can be treated as two transistor models. Starting from the top, the first 3
layers form a p-n-p transistor. While the second, third, and fourth layers form a n-p-n transistor.
We need to apply positive gate voltage. When a positive gate voltage is applied, a positive gate
current will cause an increase in α1and α2 of both the transistors. At the stage at which α1
becomes equal to α2 , both transistors will go into saturation. It will turn on the GTO.

The turn-off mechanism is simple as compared to the SCR. When a negative voltage is applied
to the gate terminal, the excess carriers from the base terminal of the n-p-n transistor and the
collector terminal of the p-n-p transistor will be taken out. Due to this, both the transistors will be
cut off and the GTO will be turned off.

Q. 1.10 Compare SCR with GTO……………………………………….... (MARCH-24,3 Marks)

SCR GTO

1)It is Silicon Controlled Rectifier 1)It is the Gate Turn-off Thyristor

2)Only turn-on is controlled by the gate 2) The gate terminal controls both turn-on and
terminal. turn-off.

3)Lower triggering gate current. 3)Higher triggering gate current.

4)Turn-off time is 5 to 30 µ𝑠𝑒𝑐. 4)Turn-off time is 1 µ𝑠𝑒𝑐.

5)Low switching frequency 5)High switching frequency

6)Applications: Controlled rectifiers, DC 6)Applications: UPS, Choppers, Inverters, etc.

motor controllers, etc.
Q. 1.11 List out advantages and disadvantages of GTO………………………….... (3 Marks)

Advantages:
●​ GTOs have higher efficiency compared to SCR
●​ High voltage blocking capability.
●​ Faster switching speed.
●​ Electromagnetic noise is absent.
●​ Commutation circuits are not required.
Disadvantages:
●​ Higher latching and holding currents.
●​ A large negative current is required to turn off GTO.
●​ High gate circuit power losses.

Q. 1.12 Explain with a neat diagram the working of power MOSFET. Draw steady-state
characteristics of it and explain same.……………….……….... (FEB-23, 8 Marks)

The construction of the n-channel E-MOSFET is shown in the following figure.

MOSFET is a Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. ‘E’ means Enhancement type.
It has 3 major terminals: Gate Terminal (G), Source Terminal (S), and Drain Terminal (D). It is a
voltage-controlled device. By applying a voltage between the Gate and the Source, the
conduction of the device can be controlled. The current flow is due to the majority of carriers, so
it is also called a unipolar device.

As shown in this diagram, it consists of a p-type substrate. The substrate is also called the body.
Two heavily doped n+ regions are deposited on the p-type of substrate and metal connections are
taken out. SiO2 layer is used to isolate the Gate terminal from the p-type substrate. 𝑉𝐷𝐷 is the
voltage applied to a drain terminal through load resistance 𝑅𝐿. 𝑉𝐺𝑆 indicates voltage between the
Gate and Source. Positive of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is connected to the Gate terminal.

Working:

Initially 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is zero, which means it is open-circuited. But 𝑉𝐷𝐷 is connected. The positive
terminal of 𝑉𝐷𝐷 is connected to the n+ region. Below the n+ region, there is a p-type substrate.
So, it acts as a PN Junction. Since the n+ region is connected to the positive terminal of 𝑉𝐷𝐷.
This forms a reverse junction. Due to the reverse bias, there will not be a current flow.

After that, we have to connect 𝑉𝐺𝑆. The positive of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is connected to the Gate terminal. There
will be the formation of a depletion region. P-substrate contains holes as well as electrons. Due
to the positive connection to the Gate terminal, electrons will try to move towards the Gate
terminal. But the holes in the p region will be repelled. That means it will try to move away from
the Gate terminal. So it will form the depletion region. As 𝑉𝐺𝑆 increases, the number of electrons
that are moving toward this gate terminal will increase. Due to this, a channel is formed between
two n+ regions. This is called n-channel. The channel is created at the particular value of 𝑉𝐺𝑆, it
is called threshold value(𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇). The conduction of the current starts taking place.

Steady State Characteristics:

There are two types of characteristics: Transfer characteristics and output characteristics. These
characteristics are shown in the following figure.

The transfer characteristic is a graph of drain current (𝐼𝐷) versus 𝑉𝐺𝑆. Here 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is the voltage
between the Gate and the Source. There is one typical value, which is called threshold voltage (
𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇). When 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is less than that 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇 , the PMOSFET is in cut-off condition. Once the value of
𝑉𝐺𝑆 becomes more than 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇, the graph increases linearly.

The output characteristic is a graph of drain current (𝐼𝐷) versus 𝑉𝐷𝑆. Here 𝑉𝐷𝑆 is the voltage
between the Drain and the Source. There are different graphs shown in the diagram, for different
values of 𝑉𝐺𝑆. The initial region where the graph increases is called an ohmic region. When the
gate-to-source voltage is less than the threshold voltage, it indicates the cut-off region. In this
region, the PMOSFET acts as an open switch. In this region, the resistance remains constant. The
region where the graph remains constant is called the active region. Here even if 𝑉𝐷𝑆 increased,
the drain current remains constant.
Q. 1.13 Explain an isolated gate drive circuit for MOSFET and explain its
operation…………………………………………………….……….... (FEB-23, 8 Marks)

An isolated gate drive circuit for a MOSFET provides the required voltage and current to turn a
MOSFET ON and OFF. It also provides electrical isolation between the control circuitry and the
MOSFET. This isolation prevents high voltages from reaching the control circuit. The circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.

The signal from the control circuit is applied to the base of transistor Q1. At the collector of Q1,
an opto-isolator is connected. An optoisolator uses light to transmit signals. As shown in the
diagram, it consists of LED to generate the light rays. This light falls on the base of the
phototransistor. The output of the phototransistor is applied to the comparator. The optoisolator
provides the isolation between the controlling circuit and MOSFET.

The voltage at the negative terminal of a comparator is called reference voltage. The output of
the optoisolator is applied to the positive terminal of the comparator. The comparator compares
the voltage levels available at both inputs and generates the waveform accordingly. The output of
a comparator is a square wave having sharp rising and falling edges.

The part of a circuit consisting of transistors Q2 and Q3 is called the totem pole arrangement.
The output of a comparator is connected to the totem pole arrangement. It is used to turn ON and
OFF the transistors Q2 and Q3. This output is applied to the gate drive of the MOSFET. When
Q2 is ON, it turns ON the MOSFET. When Q3 is ON, it turns OFF the MOSFET.

The power MOSFET has an input capacitance. The charging and discharging of this capacitor
should be quick. It is required because the MOSFET must be turned on and off quickly to
achieve high efficiency. The totem pole arrangement provides quick charging and discharging.
The resistor 𝑅𝐺 connected to the gate terminal suppresses the oscillations generated due to the
stray inductance.

Q. 1.14 Draw the construction and explain the principle of working of IGBT ( 7 Marks)

Construction:

IGBT is an Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor. It is the combination of two devices: BJT and
P-MOSFET. An important advantage of power MOSFET is that it has high input impedance and
an important advantage of BJT is that it has low on-state power loss. So in the case of IGBT
advantages of both devices are combined. The construction and symbol of IGBT are shown in
the following figure.

It has three main terminals: Gate terminal(G), Collector terminal(C), and Emitter terminal(E).
The lower layer is the p+ substrate. It is called the injection layer. Because this layer injects holes
into the upper layer (n− region). The “n− region” is called the Drift layer. The thickness of this
layer decides the voltage capability of this particular device. Above the “n− region” there is a “p
layer”. This P layer is also called the body region.

The different junctions are shown in the diagram. this Junction J1 is the junction between the n−
and p+ substrate. Junction J2 is the junction between ‘P’( body region) and n− ( drift layer).
Junction j3 is the junction between n+ and P( body region).

As shown in the diagram, the gate terminal is connected to the positive side of the voltage 𝑉𝐺.
𝑉𝐶𝐶 is the voltage source. The positive side of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 is connected to the collector terminal. 𝑅𝐿 is the
load resistance.

Working:

The working principle is divided into two parts.

1)​ 𝑉𝐺=0
The positive side of 𝑉𝐺 is connected to the Gate terminal. If 𝑉𝐺 is zero, that means we are
open-circuiting this terminal. So, it is open-circuited and 𝑉𝐶𝐶 is connected. The negative side of
𝑉𝐶𝐶 is connected to both emitter terminals. The p region is a body region. An emitter is
connected to the negative side of the voltage ( 𝑉𝐶𝐶). Due to this, the Junction J2 between p and n
minus will be reverse biased. So, there won't be any current flow from collector to emitter.

2)​ 𝑉𝐺≥ 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇

To switch on the device we need to apply the Gate voltage which should be greater than some
threshold value. So if 𝑉𝐺 is connected as shown in this diagram, and if it is greater than 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇
(Threshold voltage level), an inversion layer ( n channel) is formed. It is similar to the power
MOSFET. This n channel is formed in the upper part of the P region. It will short-circuit n+ and
n−regions. Due to this, electrons will flow from the p layer (body region) toward n− layer. Thus
electrons from n+ emitter region will flow to the n− drift region.

The device is forward-biased because a positive connection is applied to the collector terminal
and the emitter is connected to the negative side. Due to the forward bias condition, the number
of holes in the P-type substrate will try to move toward the n− region. Here n− region is the drift
layer and the P+ substrate is the injection layer. There will be an accumulation of electrons from
n+ plus layer and holes from p+ substrate. So after some time, there will be abundant electrons
and holes. Thus the conduction of the device starts.
Q. 1.15 Draw and explain the Gate drive circuit for IGBT………….. (MARCH-24, 5 Marks)

IGBT is a voltage-controlled device. So, to turn on the device, a sufficiently positive voltage
must be applied between the Gate and Source terminals. This value is about 15Volts. This device
has a large input capacitance between the Gate and Source terminals. Thus the driver circuit
should have a low output resistance. This is required to reduce the turn-on and turn-off times. An
over-current protection is required to protect the device. A circuit diagram of a typical Gate drive
for IGBT is as follows.

The signal from the control circuit is applied to the base of transistor Q1. At the collector of Q1,
an opto-isolator is connected. An optoisolator uses light to transmit signals. As shown in the
diagram, it consists of LED to generate the light rays. This light falls on the base of the
phototransistor. The output of the phototransistor is applied to the comparator. The optoisolator
provides the isolation between the controlling circuit and the IGBT.

The voltage at the negative terminal of a comparator is called reference voltage. The output of
the optoisolator is applied to the positive terminal of the comparator. The comparator compares
the voltage levels available at both inputs and generates the waveform accordingly.

The part of a circuit consisting of transistors Q2 and Q3 is called the totem pole arrangement.
The output of a comparator is connected to the over-current protection circuit and then to the
totem pole arrangement. It is used to turn ON and OFF the transistors Q2 and Q3. This output is
applied to the gate drive of the IGBT.

Under normal operating conditions, diode D is forward-biased. The output of the comparator is
directly applied to the totem pole arrangement. If there is an overcurrent, the Drain to Source
voltage suddenly increases. It will reverse bias the diode. That means the diode is turned OFF
and the comparator output is blocked. It will not be passed to the totem pole arrangement and
IGBT is protected.

IGBT is a voltage-controlled device. Sufficient voltage must be applied between the Gate and
Source terminals to turn ON the device. The IGBT has high input capacitance between the Gate
and Source terminals. The driver circuit must have a low output resistance to reduce the turn-on
and turn-off times. The Gate drive circuit for IGBT is shown in the following figure.

Unit 2: AC TO DC
POWER CONVERTERS
Q. 2.1 What is a phase-controlled rectifier?………………………………….…….. ( 3 Marks)

A simple diode is an uncontrolled rectifier. But when the diodes are switched with Thyristors
then it becomes a phase-controlled rectifier (PCR). In this case, the output voltage can be
controlled by changing the firing angle. The firing angle or delay is the phase angle of the
voltage at which SCR is turned on. The major application is the speed control of DC motors.

The diode does not control the output voltage. The output voltage is controlled by changing the
firing angle of the SCR. A phase-controlled SCR is activated by applying a short pulse at the
Gate terminal.

Q. 2.2 What is commutation? Explain with a diagram a natural and forced

commutation…………………………………………………….…….…….. ( MARCH-24,5 Marks)

Definition: The process of turning off a conducting SCR is called “commutation”.Thus in

commutation, the mode of SCR is transferred from conduction to forward blocking.
Natural Commutation:
When the forward current goes below the holding current then SCR is switched off. It is called a
natural commutation. It is also called a line commutation. Consider the following circuit and
corresponding waveforms.
An AC supply is connected to the SCR as shown in the diagram. It is 𝑣𝑠= 𝑣𝑚sin ω𝑡. The load
‘R’ is resistive. Thus the load voltage and the current will have the same shape. When the current
passing through SCR crosses zero, the anode voltage of SCR becomes zero. Thus it will be
turned off. This is called a natural commutation.

Forced Commutation:

When the SCR operates on a pure DC supply, the forward current can not be reduced below the
holding current. So SCR can not be turned off naturally. In such cases, an external commutation
circuit is used to switch off the SCR. The following two forced commutation methods are used.

1)​ Voltage Commutation:

The conducting SCR is turned off by applying a large reverse voltage across [Link] is called voltage
commutation.
2)​ Current Commutation:
In this method, an externally produced reverse current is passed through the conducting SCR. It
will turn off the SCR. It is called current commutation.
Q. 2.3 Explain the operation of single phase half converter for R load with neat
circuit diagram and relevant waveforms.…………….………………………..…….. ( 7 Marks)

The circuit diagram of a single-phase half-controlled rectifier is shown in the following figure.

At the input of the transformer, a single-phase AC Supply is connected. So, this is the
single-phase rectifier. For the secondary of the transformer, SCR is connected. At the output,
resistance R is connected as a load. So, it is a resistive load. The voltage across the resistance is
the DC output voltage denoted by 𝑉0. The corresponding current flowing through the output
resistance R is the load current 𝐼𝐿. The corresponding waveforms are shown in the following
figure.
SCR starts conducting if it is forward-biased and the gate pulse is applied to the gate terminal.
Fig. (a) is a graph of a gate voltage 𝑉𝐺 versus ωt. The gate voltage pulses are applied to the Gate
terminal of SCR. The notation α represents a particular angle called the firing angle (delay). So,
after the delay α, the gate pulses are applied.

Fig. (b) is a graph of a source voltage 𝑉𝑆 versus ωt. It is an ideal sine waveform. The positive
half cycle is from 0 to Π and the negative half cycle is from Π to 2Π. After 2Π the cycle repeats.
The maximum value of 𝑉𝑆 is denoted by 𝑉𝑚.

Fig. (c) is a graph of the output voltage (𝑉0) versus ωt. When the positive half cycle is applied to
the SCR, it will be forward-biased. But for the conduction, a gate pulse must be applied. The
gate pulse is applied after a delay of α (firing angle). So, from 0 to α, the output voltage is zero.
Once the gate pulse is applied at α, the SCR starts conducting. From α to Π, the output
waveform is the same as that of the source voltage waveform. Whenever SCR is in conduction, it
will be treated as a closed switch. From Π to 2Π, there is a negative half cycle. During this half
cycle, SCR will be reverse-biased. It will be treated as an open switch. Likewise, the cycle
repeats.

Fig. (d) is a graph of the output current (𝑖0) versus ωt. It is exactly similar to the graph of the
output voltage (𝑉0) versus ωt. By changing the value of the firing angle (α), the conduction can
be controlled. So, it is a controlled rectifier. The conduction is only for a positive cycle, so it is a
half-wave-controlled rectifier.
Q. 2.4 Explain the operation of single phase full converter for R load with neat
circuit diagram and relevant waveforms……………………..…….. (FEB-23, 8 Marks)

The circuit diagram of a single-phase full converter with an R load is shown in the following
figure.
As shown in the diagram, a center tap transform is [Link] the input, a single-phase AC supply is
connected. As shown in the diagram, two SCRs (SCR-1 and SCR-2) are connected to the center
tap transform. It is a full wave control rectifier, which means there will be conduction for the
complete input cycle. The corresponding waveforms are shown in the following figure.

At the input side, a single-phase ac supply is [Link] is the standard sine wave. A resistor R
is connected at the center of the transformer. It is called resistive load. This connection is called a
midpoint or M2 type of connection. At the upper side, SCR1 is connected and at the lower side,
SCR2 is connected. Across the resistance ( R ), the output voltage is measured.

Fig. (a) shows the gate pulses applied to the [Link] the positive cycle is applied, the SCR
will be in forward blocking mode. Once the gate pulse is applied at an angle α , then SCR is fired
and will start conducting.

During the positive half cycle, the polarities across the secondary of the transformer are as shown
in the circuit diagram. The lower negative polarity is connected to the anode terminal of SCR2.
So, SCR2 will be switched off. That means it acts as an open switch. The upper top positive of
the transformer secondary is connected to the anode terminal. So SCR1 will be in ON state.
Whenever any SCR is in ON state, it acts as a short circuit At firing angle α, the gate pulse is
applied. The corresponding voltage and current waveforms are shown in fig.(c) and fig. (d)
respectively.

During the negative half cycle, the polarities are reversed as shown in the following figure.

Here negative polarity of the transformer secondary is connected to the anode of SCR1. So SCR1
will be open-circuited. The positive polarity is connected to the anode of SCR2, so it will be in
the ON state. When the gate pulse is applied at π + α, the SCR2 starts conducting. Thus in both
cycles the current flows through the load resistance. So it is called a full wave-controlled
rectifier.

Q. 2.5 Draw & explain single phase full converter for R-L load with circuit
diagram and voltage & current waveforms.…………………..…….. (MARCH-24, 10 Marks)
The circuit diagram of the single-phase full converter for R-L load is shown in the following
figure.

It is also called a highly inductive load or resistive inductive load. We are considering the center
tap configuration. At the input side, a single-phase AC supply is connected. It is the standard sine
wave. A resistor R and inductor L are connected at the center of the transformer. It is called
resistive-inductive load. This connection is called a midpoint or M2 type of connection. At the
upper side, SCR1 is connected and at the lower side, SCR2 is connected. Across the resistance (
R ) and inductor (L) the output voltage is [Link] is a full wave control rectifier, which
means there will be conduction for the complete input cycle. The corresponding waveforms are
shown in the following figure.

To switch on the SCR and start conducting, we need to apply gate pulses to the gate terminal of
SCR. So we are going to apply such pulses to the gate terminal of SCR. These pulses are applied
at an angle α . It is called the firing angle. Such gate pulses are shown in Fig. (a).

During the positive half cycle, the polarities across the secondary of the transformer are as shown
in the circuit diagram. The lowermost negative polarity is connected to the anode terminal of
SCR2. So, SCR2 will be switched off. That means it acts as an open switch. The upper top
positive of the transformer secondary is connected to the anode terminal of SCR1. So SCR1 will
be in the ON state. Whenever any SCR is in an ON state, it acts as a short circuit. At the firing
angle α, the gate pulse is applied. The corresponding voltage and current waveforms are shown
in fig.(c) and fig. (d) respectively.

During the negative half cycle, the polarities are reversed. Here negative polarity of the
transformer secondary is connected to the anode of SCR1. So SCR1 will be open-circuited. The
positive polarity is connected to the anode of SCR2, so it will be in the ON state. When the gate
pulse is applied at π + α, the SCR2 starts conducting. Thus in both cycles the current flows
through the R-L load.
 This is inductive load also which means it contains contains an inductor as a part of the load.
The important property of the is that it is a storage device. So whenever this SCR1 was in
conduction mode, at that time the current I was flowing through the load. Accordingly, the output
voltage was developed across the load. Whenever this was happening, the inductor was storing
the energy.

During a negative half cycle, SCR1 is ideally switched off. But the inductor has stored energy
earlier. So up to a certain period (π 𝑡𝑜 π + α), the output voltage and current waveforms
continue as shown in fig.(c ) and fig. (d ). Whenever the negative half cycle starts, this stored
energy will be returned to the source. The conduction continues up to a certain period.

Whenever all the energy is returned; SCR1 will be turned off. So at point ( π + α ) SCR1 will
be Switched Off. During the negative half cycle, the polarities are reversed. So negative is
applied to the anode terminal of SCR1 and positive is applied to the anode terminal of [Link]
SCR1 will be OFF and SCR2 will be ON. That means SCR2 will start conducting. Likewise, the
cycle repeats.

Q. 2.6 Draw & explain semi-converter for R-L load with circuit diagram and voltage &
current waveforms.………………………………………………………………..…….. (8 Marks)

It is a half-controlled converter which is a semi converter. This is also called single phase full
wave half controlled bridge converter. The circuit diagram is as follows.

This is a bridge type of network. Two SCRs and two diodes are connected in the bridge form.
The two diodes D1 and D2 are called free-wheeling diodes. We are using R-L load which is a
resistor-inductive load. It is connected to the output side. In the case of a positive half-cycle, the
polarities are as shown in the circuit diagram. The waveforms are shown in the following figure.
 Fig. (a) shows the gate pulses applied to the [Link] the positive cycle is applied, the SCR
will be in forward blocking mode. Once the gate pulse is applied at an angle α , then SCR is fired
and will start conducting.

During the positive half cycle, the anode terminal of SCR1 is connected to the positive, and the
cathode of diode1 is connected to the negative. These polarities are shown in the circuit diagram.
So, SCR1 will start [Link] SCR1 will be in forward blocking mode from 0 to α. At α,a
gate pulse is applied. So, after applying the gate pulse, SCR1 will start conducting. The flow of
current will be through this SCR1 then through the R-L load and then through the diode D1. In
this case, the cathode terminal of diode D2 is connected to the positive terminal. So D2 cannot
conduct.

Ideally, whenever the value of input voltage reaches π then it will try to turn off SCR1. But here
the load is inductive. The property of an inductor is to store the energy. Since the inductor has
stored energy, this energy will be returned back to the source.

After Π the negative half cycle starts. Whenever the negative half cycle starts the polarities are
[Link] negative polarity is connected to the cathode terminal of diode D2. Even if after π ,
the applied voltage tries to switch off SCR1; the inductor has stored energy. So, after π the
current will flow through SCR1 then through load, and then through diode D2.

As shown in fig. (d ), the load current continues up to ( π + α ). Because of this, the load will be
short-circuited Whenever there is a short circuit, the voltage across short circuit is zero. So you
are getting zero voltage from Π to ( π + α ).

The same thing repeats during a negative half-cycle. During the negative half cycle, SCR2 will
start conducting. So current will flow through SCR2 and then through the load, again due to the
inductive action the current continues for some time. Likewise, the cycle repeats.

Q. 2.7 A single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier supplies a ripple-free load

current of 10 A and operates from the 110V, 60Hz mains. If the average
o/p voltage is 75V
Calculate:
i) Firing angle
ii) RMS o/p voltage
iii) RMS supply current
iv) RMS 7th Harmonic supply current………………………………...…….. (FEB-23,7 Marks)

Given: 𝐼0(𝑎𝑣)= 10 A, 𝑉𝑠= 110 V , 𝑉0(𝑎𝑣)= 75 V

Now, maximum voltage ( 𝑉𝑚) = 2 𝑉𝑠 = 2 ✕110 = 155.56 V
i) Firing Angle:

𝑉𝑚
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
(1+ COS α)
115.56
∴ 75 = Π
(1+ COS α)
75 ✕ Π
∴ (1+ COS α) = 115.56
75 ✕ Π
∴ COS α = 115.56 −1
−1 75 ✕ Π
∴ α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 115.56
−1 )
∴ α = 59.02° or 1.03 rad

ii) RMS o/p voltage:

2
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2Π
(Π − α + 2
)
2
155.56 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2× 59.02)
∴𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2Π
(Π − 1. 03 + 2
)

{ Note: In the term (Π−α), the value of α is in radian. In other places it is in

degree}
∴𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 99.16 V

ii) RMS supply current:

Π −α
Formula ⇒ 𝐼
𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 𝐼0(𝑎𝑣) Π

Π −1.03
∴𝐼
𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 10 Π
∴𝐼
𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 8.1984 A

ⅳ) RMS 7th harmonic supply current:

 2 2 𝐼0(𝑎𝑣) 𝑛α
Formula ⇒ 𝐼 = 𝑛Π
COS ( 2 )
𝑠𝑛
For 7th harmonic, n=7
2 2 ×10 7×59.02
∴𝐼 = 7Π
COS ( 2
)
𝑠7
∴ 𝐼 = 1.28 A
𝑠7

Q. 2.8 A single-phase semi-converter operated from the 120V, 60Hz AC input

supply. The load is resistive of 10 Ohm. If the firing angle is 30 degrees.
Calculate:
i) Average output voltage
ii) Average output current
iii) RMS output voltage
iv) RMS output current………………………………………….…...…….. (MARCH-24,7 Marks)

Π
Given: 𝑉𝑠= 120 V , Load Resistance(R ) = 10 Ω ,firing angle (α) = 30°= 6
rad, frequency (f) =
60 Hz
Now, maximum voltage ( 𝑉𝑚) = 2 𝑉𝑠 = 2 ✕120 = 169.7 V

i) Average output voltage:

𝑉𝑚
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
(1+ COS α)
169.7
∴ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
(1+ COS 30°)
∴ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 100.79V

ii) Average output current:

𝑉0(𝑎𝑣)
Formula ⇒ 𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 𝑅
100.79
∴𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 10
∴𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 10.079 A

iii) RMS output voltage:

 2
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2Π
(Π − α + 2
)
2
169.7 Π 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2× 30)
∴𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2Π
(Π − 6
+ 2
)

{ Note: In the term (Π−α), the value of α is in radian. In other places it is in

degree}
∴𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 118.253 V

ⅳ) RMS output current:

𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑒)
Formula ⇒ 𝐼
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 𝑅
118.253
∴𝐼
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 10
∴𝐼
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 11.8253 A

Q. 2.9 A single-phase fully controlled converter with a resistive load of 10 Ohm is

operated from the 230V, 60Hz AC input. If the firing angle is 60 degrees
Calculate:
i) Average load voltage
ii) RMS load voltage
iii) Average and RMS load current
iv) Form factor and ripple factor…………………………………………….…...…….. (7 Marks)

Π
Given: 𝑉𝑠= 230V , Load Resistance(R ) = 10 Ω ,firing angle (α) = 60°= 3
rad, frequency (f) = 60
Hz
Now, maximum voltage ( 𝑉𝑚) = 2 𝑉𝑠 = 2 ✕230 = 325.269V

i) Average load voltage:

𝑉𝑚
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
(1+ COS α)
325.269
∴ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
(1+ COS 60°)
∴ 𝑉 = 155.3V
0(𝑎𝑣)
ii) RMS load voltage:

2
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2Π
(Π − α + 2
)
2
325.269 Π 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2× 60)
∴𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2Π
(Π − 3
+ 2
)

{ Note: In the term (Π−α), the value of α is in radian. In other places it is in

degree}
∴𝑉
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 206.295 V

iii) Average and RMS load current:

𝑉0(𝑎𝑣)
Formula ⇒ 𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 𝑅
155.3
∴𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 10
∴𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 15.53 A

𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
Formula ⇒ 𝐼
0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 𝑅
206.295
∴𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 10
∴𝐼
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 20.6295 A

ⅳ) Form factor(FF) and Ripple factor(RF):

𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
Formula ⇒ FF= 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
206.295
∴ FF= 155.3
∴ FF= 1.3283 A

2
Formula ⇒ RF= 𝐹𝐹 − 1
 2
∴ RF= 1. 3283 − 1
∴ RF= 0.8742

Q. 2.10 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter supplies an inductive load. The
output current 𝐼0 is constant. If the supply voltage is 230 V and the firing angle is 30
degrees
Calculate:
i) Average output voltage
ii) Fundamental power factor
iii) Supply power factor……………………………………………………….…...…….. (6 Marks)

Π
Given: 𝑉𝑠= 230V , firing angle (α) = 30°= 6
rad

Now, maximum voltage ( 𝑉𝑚) = 2 𝑉𝑠 = 2 ✕230 = 325.269V

i) Average output voltage:
2𝑉𝑚
Formula ⇒ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
COS α
2×325.269
∴ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= Π
COS (30)

∴ 𝑉
0(𝑎𝑣)
= 179.33 V

ii) Fundamental power factor(PFF):

Formula ⇒ PFF = cos(-α)

∴ PFF = 0.866 (lagging)

iii) Supply power factor(SFF):

2 2
Formula ⇒ SFF = Π COS α
2 2
∴ SFF = Π COS (30)
∴ SFF = 0.78 (lagging)
Q. 2.11 Compare single-phase semi-converter and full converter ………...…….. (4 Marks)

Semiconverter Full converter

1)It performs the rectification operation only. 1)It performs rectification and inversion
operations

2)It is a single-quadrant converter 2)It is two- quadrant converter

3)Input current is a quasi-square wave 3)Input current is a square wave

4)Unidirectional power flow 4)Bidirectional power flow

5)Fundamental displacement is -α/2 5)Fundamental displacement is -α

6) The fundamental power factor is cos(α/2) 6)The fundamental power factor is cos(α)

7)Average load voltage is 7)Average load voltage is

𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚
𝑉0(𝑎𝑣)= Π
(1+ COS α) 𝑉0(𝑎𝑣)= Π
COS α

Q. 2.12 Compare SCR and IGBT-based rectifiers ………...……………………..….. (4 Marks)

SCR based rectifiers IGBT based rectifiers

1)Moderate harmonics 1)Low harmonics

2)Low power loss 2)High power loss

3)Low noise levels 3)High noise levels

4) The power factor is 0.7 4) The power factor is 0.8

5)Fault current limiting is possible 5)Fault current limiting is not possible

6) Low-cost configuration. 6) High-cost configuration.

7)Applications: Choppers, Inverters, DC 7)Applications: SMPS, UPS, Induction

circuit breakers, AC voltage stabilizers, etc heating, etc
Q. 2.13 Draw and explain three- phase fully controlled converter with R load with
circuit diagram & waveforms…...……………………..….. (MARCH-24, 8 Marks)
OR
Draw the circuit of a three-phase fully controlled converter with R load. Draw load
current and load voltage waveforms with α=60° and 90°...………... (FEB-23, 8 Marks)

The circuit diagram of diagram for three-phase fully controlled rectifier is shown on the
following figure.

The load is resistive. Six SCRs are connected: S1,S2, S3, S4, S5,and S6. There are three phases.
The notations are R, Y, and B. The corresponding voltages for these lines are 𝑉𝑅, 𝑉𝑌, and 𝑉𝐵.
The corresponding currents are 𝐼𝑅, 𝐼𝑌 , and 𝐼𝐵.
At any time, two SCRs will be conducted simultaneously. The upper three SCRs (S1, S2, and S3)
are supposed to be forming a positive group. Because these SCRs conduct for positive cycle. The
lower three SCRs (S4 , S5, and S6) will be conducted for a negative cycle. These SCRs form a
negative group. The following table shows the different intervals: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and [Link] a time
two SCRs conduct simultaneously.

Interval Ⅰ Ⅱ Ⅲ Ⅳ Ⅴ Ⅵ

Conducting 1,5 1,6 2,6 2,4 3,4 3,5

pair

Load 𝑉𝑅𝑌 𝑉𝑅𝐵 𝑉𝑌𝐵 𝑉𝑌𝑅 𝑉𝐵𝑅 𝑉𝐵𝑌

Voltage
Consider the voltage 𝑉𝑅𝑌. Refer to the table. For 𝑉𝑅𝑌, the conducting SCR pair is 1,5. That means
the flow of current will be from the voltage source 𝑉𝑅 - S1-LOAD-S5-𝑉𝑌. Likewise, the SCRs
pairs conduct.

The corresponding voltage waveforms for different values of firing angle are shown in the
following figure. The current waveforms will be the same as that of voltage waveforms, only the
amplitude will be less.
Q. 2.14 A single-phase fully controlled operated from three phase star connected
208 V, 60 Hz supply with R load of 10 ohm. It is required to obtain 50%
of maximum possible output voltage.
Calculate:
i) Delay angle α
ii) rms and average currents ………………………….………………...…….. (FEB-23,7 Marks)

Given: Maximum phase voltage (𝑉𝑚(𝑝ℎ))= 208 V, R = 10 Ω

Calculation of Line Voltage (𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)):

Formula ⇒ 𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)= 3× 3×𝑉𝑚(𝑝ℎ)

∴ 𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)= 3× 3× 208
∴ 𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)= 509.49 V

Calculation of maximum DC Line Voltage (𝑉𝐿𝐷𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥)):

3𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
Formula ⇒ 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = Π
COS (α)
For maximum condition cos (α) =1
3×509.49
∴ 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = Π
∴ 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 486.52 V
486.52
50% of 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 2
= 243.26 V

Calculation of delay angle (α):

3𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
Formula ⇒ 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = Π
COS (α)
3×509.49
∴ 243.26 = Π
COS (α)
Π×243.26
∴ COS (α) = 509.49
−1 Π×243.26
∴ α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 { 509.49 }
∴ α = 60°

Calculation of average current (𝐼𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠):

 𝑉𝐿𝑑𝑐
Formula ⇒ 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝑐= 𝑅
243.26
∴ 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝑐= 10
∴ 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝑐= 24.326 A

Calculation of RMS current (𝐼𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠):

First we will calculate 𝑉𝐿(𝑟𝑚𝑠)

1 3 3
Formula ⇒ 𝑉𝐿(𝑟𝑚𝑠)= 𝑉𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒) 2
+ 4Π
𝐶𝑂𝑆(2α)

1 3 3
∴ 𝑉𝐿(𝑟𝑚𝑠)= 509.49 2
+ 4Π
𝐶𝑂𝑆(120)
∴ 𝑉𝐿(𝑟𝑚𝑠)= 275.9 V
𝑉𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠
Formula ⇒ 𝐼𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠= 𝑅
275.9
∴ 𝐼𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠= 10
∴ 𝐼𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠= 27.59 A

Q. 2.15 Compare Single phase and Three phase controlled rectifiers

………...……………………..….. (6 Marks)

Parameter Single phase Three phase

1)Number of phases 1 3

2) Number of SCRs used 2 or 4 6

3) Ripple in output More Less

4) Output power capability Lower Higher

5) Firing angle 0 to 180 degree 0 to 360 degree

6) Control circuit Simple Complex

7) Harmonic distortions Higher Lower

8) Used for Low power applications High power applications

…………………………………………………………..END……………………………………