Appendicular
1. Pectoral girdles of fishes includes cartilage or cartilage replacement bone, as well as
dermal bones derived from bony plates. In cartilagenous fishes, the girdle halves are
fused producing the scapulocoracoid, that is joined to the other half of the pectoral girdle
by the coracoid bar
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2. The parasternal process (long posterior stem) of the interclavicle has been thought to be
a synapomorphy of amniotes, diadectomorphs, and seymouriamorphs (Carroll, 1968),
but this character seems to be an autapomorphy of the clade that includes all these taxa
and lepospondyls. pectoral girdles of living bony fishes have reduced coracoid & scapula
(replacement bone) but large cleithrum & supracleithrum (dermal bone). A posttemporal
bone (dermal) connects the supracleithrum to the skull.
3. ornithischian, any member of the large taxonomic group of herbivorous dinosaurs
comprising Triceratops and all dinosaurs more closely related to it than to birds. The
ornithischians (meaning “bird-hipped”) are one of the two major groups of dinosaurs, the
other being the saurischians. Ornithischians are so called because their hip bones were
superficially arranged like those of birds in that a large portion of the pubic bone pointed
down and toward the tail instead of down and forward as in other reptiles. Despite their
name, ornithischians are not related to birds, which evolved from theropod saurischian
dinosaurs.
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4. The epipubic bone acts as a lever that is retracted (depressed) to stiffen the trunk
between the diagonal limbs that support the body during each step. This cross-couplet
kinetic linkage and the stiffening function of the epipubic bone appear to be the primitive
conditions for mammals.
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5. The lobe-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii) are currently represented by six species of
lungfishes (Dipnoi) and two species of coelacanths (Actinistia). The lobe-finned fishes
diverged from the ray-finned fishes about 450 million years ago (mya) and were highly
successful during the Devonian, when hundreds of species lived in the oceans and
rivers of most continents. By the end of the Devonian, 360 mya, the first tetrapods had
diverged from the Rhipidistia, an extinct family of lobe-finned fishes, and colonized land.
The diversity of all lobe-finned fishes began to decline after the mass extinction in the
Permian (290–245 mya). Most recent paleontological analyses support a Dipnoi +
Rhipidistia sister group relationship, although Actinistia + Rhipidistia or Dipnoi +
Actinistia sister group relationships have also been proposed.
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6. The proportion of the fish's body is most often by the wave like movements of the fish
body and paint the fish win by exerting the force against the surrounding water. This is
normally achieved by the fish contracting muscles on the other side of its body in order
to generate the baits of election that travel the length of the body from the nose to retain
the things that are located in different places on the fish it serves for different purposes
are just the moving forward, dining and keeping in an upright position, et cetera. So
some the issues of bony fishes, they have reduced or absent of fins. For example, we
can see Maurice, they lack the pectoral fins and pelvic things too.
7. Chondrichthyes have ceratotrichia (keratinous) and Osteichthyes have lepidotrichia
(bony) - modified rows of bony scales. actinotrichia are keratinous rays in the distal parts
of the fins of some bony fish. Actinotrichia are fibrils located at the tip of each
lepidotrichia and play a morphogenetic role in fin formation. Actinotrichia are formed by
collagens associated with non-collagen components.
8. Life emerged in the water, and it took a series of adaptations (defense against gravity
and desiccation; new forms of respiration, reproduction, locomotion, and senses; etc.) for
taxa to colonize the land. Among vertebrates, it was "amphibian"-grade tetrapods which
partially made the transition to life on land, but only the amniotes that lived their entire
life cycle on land. The amniotes had evolved a shelled egg, keratinized skin, and claws
(among other traits) which allowed them to be successful at living on land. Different
groups of amniotes radiated at different times: the first group were the basal members of
the Synapsida (the lineage that contains mammals) in the Carboniferous and Early
Permian; followed by their descendants (the Therapsida) in the Middle and Late
Permian.
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9. Femur of hindlimb is homologous to Humerus of forelimb. Tibia of hindlimb is
homologous to Radius of forelimb. Fibula of hindlimb is homologous to Ulna of forelimb.
Metatarsal bones of hindlimb are homologous to metacarpal bones of forelimb.
10. The fusion or loss of individual bones reduces the number of movable joints in the bird's
skeleton, making it rigid and better adapted as the internal framework of a flying
machine.
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11. The arches shape is designed in a similar manner to spring; bears the weight of the
body and absorbs the shock that is produced with locomotion. The foot's flexibility
conferred by the arches is what facilitates everyday loco-motor functions such as walking
and sprinting. [Link]
12. The cuboid bone is a short bone in the lateral part of the foot, located on the distal row of
the tarsal bones. It is square shaped, hence the name, and is the main bone of the mid
foot, due to the several articular surfaces it possesses. Another key function of the
cuboid is that it acts as a pulley to the peroneus longus tendon, which lies between the
calcaneus proximally and the fourth and fifth metatarsals distally.
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13. This suggests that many vertebrates descended from the same common ancestor.
Although the limbs of crocodiles, birds, whales, horses, bats and humans all look very
different they share the same five fingered bone structure. This provides evidence for the
theory of evolution .
14. Phalangeal formula is a way of comparing animals by the number of phalanges that they
have in each of their digits. It can be used to study phylogeny or to predict how an
animal may use its hands and feet. An animal's phalangeal formula is simply given as a
series of numbers. Plantigrades, digitigrades, and unguligrades are all associated with
different numbers of digits as well as different phalangeal formulas.
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15.