Unit 1- Biological Basis of Behaviour

The Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into two main parts:
the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

The Central nervous system (CNS) The Peripheral nervous system(PNS)

It is the part of the nervous system that The PNS consists primarily of nerves, bundles of axons from many
includes the brain and spinal cord. neurons, which connect the central nervous system with sense organs and
with muscles and glands throughout the body. Most of these nerves are
attached to the spinal cord; these spinal nerves serve all of the body below
the neck. Other nerves known as cranial nerves extend from the brain.
They carry sensory information from receptors in the eyes and ears and
other sense organs; they also carry information from the central nervous
system to muscles in the head and neck.

Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a bundle The PNS includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
of neurons that leaves the brain and runs The somatic nervous system connects the central nervous system to
down the length of the back and is the main voluntary muscles throughout the body. It is that part of the peripheral
means for transmitting messages between nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements
the brain and the body. The spinal cord has and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.
two major functions. First, it carries Thus, when you engage in almost any voluntary action, portions of your
sensory information to the brain via somatic nervous system are involved.
afferent nerves leading from receptors In contrast, the autonomic nervous system connects the central
located throughout the body and conducts nervous system to internal organs and glands and to the muscles over
information from the brain via efferent which we have little voluntary control—for instance, the muscles in our
nerves to muscles and glands. Second, it digestive system. It is that part of the peripheral nervous system that
plays a key role in various reflexes, an controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other
automatic, involuntary response to an organs.
incoming stimulus. The spinal cord
controls simple behaviours on its own, The autonomic nervous system, too, consists of two distinct parts.
without any help from the [Link] are The first is known as the sympathetic nervous system. It is the part of
seemingly automatic actions evoked rapidly the autonomic nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in
by particular stimuli. Withdrawing your stressful situations by engaging all of the organism’s resources to run
hand from a hot object and blinking your away or to confront the threat. This is often called the “fight or flight”
eye in response to a rapidly approaching response. In general, this system prepares the body for using energy, as in
object are common examples of reflex vigorous physical actions. Thus, stimulation of this division increases
actions. In their simplest form, reflexes heartbeat, raises blood pressure, releases sugar into the blood for energy,
involve neural circuits in which and increases the flow of blood to muscles used in physical activities.
information from various receptors is The second part of the autonomic nervous system, known as the
carried to the spinal cord, where it parasympathetic nervous system, operates in the opposite manner. It
stimulates other neurons known as is the part of the autonomic nervous system that acts to calm the body
interneurons. These then transmit after an emergency has ended. It stimulates processes that conserve the
information to muscle cells, thus producing body’s energy. Activation of this system slows heartbeat, lowers blood
reflex actions. But please take note: Reflexes pressure, and diverts blood away from skeletal muscles (for example,
are usually much more complex than this. muscles in the arms and legs) and to the digestive system.

Autonomic Nervous System

 Neurons

●​ Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.
●​ They are nerve cells specialized for communicating information
●​ They are the basic building blocks/basic elements of the nervous system.

Parts of a Neuron
1.​ Cell Body or Soma
Like most cells in the body, neurons have a cell body that contains a nucleus. The nucleus incorporates
the hereditary material that determines how a cell will function.
2.​ Dendrite: A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receives messages from other neurons. Those
fibers, which look like the twisted branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons.
3.​ Axon: On the opposite side of the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike extension called an axon, the part of
the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons. The axon carries messages received by the
dendrites to other neurons. The axon is considerably longer than the rest of the neuron.
4.​ Terminal Buttons: Axons end in small bulges called terminal buttons,which send messages to other
neurons. They are small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.
5.​ Myelin Sheath: A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. It is an insulating
material that encases axons. It is a white, fatty substance. It speeds up the transmission of signals.
6.​ Synapse: The junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
 Types of Neurons
[Link] Neurons: They are afferent neurons. They transmit information from the perimeter of the body
to CNS. Sensory neurons get information about what's going on inside and outside of the body and
bring that information into the CNS so it can be processed. For instance, if you picked up a hot coal,
sensory neurons with endings in your fingertips would convey the information to your CNS that it was
really hot.
[Link] Neurons: They are efferent neurons. They communicate information from CNS to muscles and
glands. Motor neurons get information from other neurons and convey commands to your muscles,
organs and glands. For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, it motor neurons innervating the muscles in
your fingers would cause your hand to let go.
[Link]: They connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two.
Interneurons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to another. They receive
information from other neurons (either sensory neurons or interneurons) and transmit information to
other neurons (either motor neurons or interneurons).
For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, the signal from the sensory neurons in your fingertips would
travel to interneurons in your spinal cord. Some of these interneurons would signal to the motor
neurons controlling your finger muscles (causing you to let go), while others would transmit the signal
up the spinal cord to neurons in the brain, where it would be perceived as pain.
 Basic Functions of Neurons
●​ Communication within Neurons: Graded and Action Potentials
●​ Communication among Neurons: Synaptic Transmission
●​ Receive signals (or information).
●​ Integrate incoming signals (to determine whether or not the information should be passed
along).
●​ Communicate signals to target cells (other neurons or muscles or glands).

Glial Cells
●​ Neurons are physically held in place by glial cells.
●​ Glial cells provide nourishment to neurons, insulate them, help repair damage, and generally support
neural functioning.
●​ Glia are cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons.
●​ Glial cells help remove neurons’ waste products.
●​ Glia may also send and receive chemical signals.

Communication within a neuron

Without input most neurons have stable electrical charge difference across the cell membrane. Neurons in the
body have a membrane potential (a difference in voltage or electrical charge between the inside and the outside of
the membrane).

The stable electric charge is mainly due to the concentration of ions inside and outside the cell. The outside of
the cell has a high concentration of positively charged sodium ions (Na+) as well as negatively charged Chloride
ions (Cl-). The inside of the cell has a smaller amount of positively charged Potassium ions (K+) and larger
amount of negatively charged protein ions. Embedded in the surface of the cell membrane which separates the
inside and outside of the cell our protein structures are known as Ion Channels. These channels act as gates by
both permitting and hindering the flow of ions into or out of the cell. Normally these ion channels are closed to
maintain the electrical potential of the cell. However, they can be opened if the right message is received from a
neighbouring [Link] place where one neuron makes a connection with another neuron is called the
synapse.

Neurons receive excitatory or inhibitory input from physical stimuli or another neuron through dendrites.
There are receptors on the dendrites that are designed to pick up signals that come in the form of chemicals
called neurotransmitters. Once the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, it opens an ion channel. This
binding may also lead to Sodium channel opening which allows the passage of positive sodium ions into the cell.
With this influx of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes more positive. These signals picked up by
the dendrites cause electrical changes in the neuron that are interpreted by the soma or cell body. The soma
contains the nucleus, which contains the DNA or genetic material of the cell. The soma takes all the information
 from the dendrites and puts it in an area called the axon hillock. If that charge reaches a certain level, called the
threshold of excitation, the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. (This process of when the
cell’s charge becomes positive, or less negative, is called depolarization.)

At this point the signal is called Action Potential. The action potential moves down the axon is covered with
myelin, an insulator material that helps prevent the signal from degrading. The last step for the action potential
is the axon terminals, also known as synaptic buttons. When the signal reaches the axon terminals, it can cause
the release of neurotransmitters.

After the release of neurotransmitters, many additional gates of the Ion channels open, causing a massive influx
of Na+ ions and a huge positive spike in the membrane potential, the peak action potential. The
Sodium-Potassium Pump handles the build up of voltage. The pump creates a voltage differential by moving 3
+Na ions out for every 2 K ions it lets in, creating a net negative charge inside the cell relative to its outside, this
occurs when a neuron is inactive and is called its Resting Potential and its voltage is -70 mV (millivolts).

At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the potassium gates open. As positively charged potassium
ions leave the cell quickly begins repolarization. At first, it hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative than
the resting potential, and then it levels off, returning to the resting potential.

Communication between Neurons

These neurons communicate with each other using chemical and electrical signals. Messages start as electrical signal and
move rapidly down the neuron. These signals are called action potentials. When the action potential reaches the gap
between the two neurons, called the synapse, the message being carried needs some help to move across. In the nervous
system,

Changes in the amount of activity that occurs at the synapse can either enhance or reduce its function.

At the synapse, the firing of an action potential in one neuron, the presynaptic (the sending cell), causes the transmission
of a signal to another neuron, the postsynaptic (the receiving cell), making the postsynaptic neuron either more or less
likely to fire its own action potential. The synapse transforms the electrical signal (which is the action potential in the
presynaptic cell’s axon) into a chemical signal (which is the neurotransmitter) and back to an electrical signal in the
postsynaptic cell for further communication.

The information is transformed from action potential into a chemical message so as to cross the synapse. The release of
these chemical messengers can either trigger an action potential in the neuron on the other side of the synapse that is the
postsynaptic cell, conveying the message onward or it can ignore the message and not share it. For example- Just like a
member in an office committee, one neuron usually receives and synthesises messages from multiple other neurons before
it “makes the decision” to send the message to other neurons or in this case, the other members of the committee.
Communication between the neurons can be strengthened or weakened by the person’s activity. Stress and drug usage
for example are activities that inhibit communication whereas exercise helps enhance communication between the
neurons.

Role of Synapse Role of Neurotransmitters

Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called A neurotransmitter is defined as a chemical messenger
synapses. At a synapse, one neuron sends a message to a target that carries, boosts, and balances signals between
neuron—another cell. There two types of synapses, chemical neurons, or nerve cells, and other cells in the body.
and electrical. Most synapses are chemical; these synapses These chemical messengers can affect a wide variety of
communicate using chemical messengers. Other synapses are both physical and psychological functions including
electrical; in these synapses, ions flow directly between cells. At heart rate, sleep, appetite, mood, and fear. Billions of
a chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neurotransmitter molecules work constantly to keep
neuron to release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to our brains functioning, managing everything from our
receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make it more or less likely breathing to our heartbeat to our learning and
to fire an action potential. At electrical synapses, unlike concentration levels.
chemical synapses, there is a direct physical connection between
the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron. This
connection takes the form of a channel called a gap junction,
which allows current—ions—to flow directly from one cell into
another.

7 Major Neurotransmitters

Name Location Effect Function

Acetylcholine (ACh) Brain, spinal cord, Excitatory in brain Muscle movement,

peripheral and cognitive functioning (attention,
nervous system, autonomic nervous arousal,
parasympathetic system; inhibitory and perhaps memory.)
elsewhere Only transmitter between motor
neurons and voluntary muscles.
Involved in memory capabilities
Diminished production of ACh
may be related to Alzheimer’s
 disease.

Glutamate Brain, Spinal cord Excitatory

Plays a role in memory. Memories
appear to be produced by specific
biochemical changes at particular
synapses.

GABA Brain, Spinal cord Inhibitory

It moderates a variety of behaviors,
(Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid)
ranging from eating to aggression.
(Example- Inhibits amygdala
thereby reducing anxiety)
Substances, such as the tranquilizer
Valium and alcohol, are effective
because they permit GABA to
operate more efficiently.

Dopamine Brain Inhibitory or Involved in voluntary movement,

Excitatory attention, learning, pleasure,
reward.
Effective treatments for a wide
variety of physical and mental
ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s
disease (deficiency of dopamine in
the brain- tremors, muscular
rigidity)
Overproduction of dopamine
produces negative consequences -
schizophrenia.

Serotonin Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory Regulation of sleep, eating, mood,

depression, and pain.
Involvement in such diverse
behaviors as alcoholism, depression,
suicide, impulsivity, aggression, and
coping with stress.

Endorphins Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory,

The production of endorphins
except in
reflects the brain’s effort to deal
hippocampus
with pain as well as to elevate mood
Produce the euphoric feelings that
runners sometimes experience after
 long runs
Placebos release endorphins.

Norepinephrine Brain and Inhibitory or Modulation of mood and arousal.

Sympathetic nervous Excitatory
system

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is referred to as "central"
because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the whole
organism.

The Brain

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex (the outermost part of the brain
and the largest part by volume) contains an estimated 15–33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to
thousands of other neurons. In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells make up
the human brain. Our brain uses around 20 percent of our body's total energy. The brain is the central control
module of the body and coordinates activity. From physical motion to the secretion of hormones, the creation of
memories, and the sensation of emotion. To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain have dedicated
roles. However, many higher functions — reasoning, problem-solving, creativity — involve different areas
working together in networks.
 Structure of the brain

Forebrain

The Forebrain is by far the largest brain division. It includes the cerebrum, which accounts for about
two-thirds of the brain's mass and covers most other brain structures.

The Cerebrum- Also known as the cerebral cortex, the cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain, and
it is associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. Nerve cells make up the gray surface,
which is a little thicker than our thumb. White nerve fibers beneath the surface carry signals between nerve cells
in other parts of the brain and body. Its wrinkled surface increases the surface area, and is a six-layered structure
found in mammals, called the neocortex. It is divided into four sections, called “lobes”

The forebrain consists of two subdivisions called the telencephalon (Consists of the four lobes- frontal, parietal,
occipital, temporal lobes) and diencephalon (Consists of Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pineal Gland). The
olfactory and optic cranial nerves are found in the forebrain, as well as the lateral and third cerebral ventricles.

Midbrain

The Midbrain is located below the cerebral cortex, and above the hindbrain placing it near the center of the
brain. It comprises the tectum, tegmentum, cerebral aqueduct, cerebral peduncles and several nuclei and
fasciculi. The primary role of the midbrain is to act as a sort of relay station for our visual and auditory systems.
Portions of the midbrain called the red nucleus and substantia nigra are involved in the control of body
movement, and contain a large number of dopamine-producing neurons. The degeneration of neurons in the
substantia nigra is associated with Parkinson’s disease. The midbrain is the smallest region of the brain, and is
located most centrally within the cranial cavity.

Limbic Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus Pituitary Gland

System

The limbic The The primary The primary The primary role The primary role of
system is often primary role of the role of the of the the pituitary gland is
referred to as role of the hypothalamus is amygdala is to hippocampus is an important link
our “emotional thalamus is to regulate be a critical memory forming, between the nervous
brain”, or to relay various processor for organizing and system and the
‘childish brain’. sensory functions of the the senses. storing endocrine system. It
 It is found informatio pituitary gland Connected to information. It is releases many
buried within n from and endocrine the particularly hormones which
the cerebrum other parts activity, as well hippocampus, it important in affect growth,
and contains of the as somatic plays a role in forming new metabolism, sexual
the thalamus, brain to functions emotionally memories, and development and the
hypothalamus, the cerebral [Link] laden memories connecting reproduction system.
amygdala and cortex. temperature, and contains a emotions and It is connected to the
hippocampus. sleep, appetite. huge number of senses, such as hypothalamus and is
opiate receptor smell and sound, about the size of a
sites that are to memories. pea. It is located in
implicated in the center of the
rage, fear and skull, just behind the
sexual feelings. bridge of the nose.

Hindbrain

The Hindbrain assists in the regulation of autonomic functions, maintaining balance and equilibrium,
movement coordination, and the relay of sensory information. It consists of the Cerebellum, Brain Stem, Pons
and Medulla.

Cerebellum Brain Stem Pons Medulla

The cerebellum, The brainstem is The primary role of the pons is to serve as a The primary role of
or “little brain”, is located beneath bridge between various parts of the nervous the medulla is
similar to the the limbic system. system, including the cerebellum and regulating our
cerebrum with its It is responsible for cerebrum. Many important nerves that involuntary life
two hemispheres vital life functions originate in the pons, such as the trigeminal sustaining functions
and highly folded such as breathing, nerve, responsible for feeling in the face, as such as breathing,
surface. It is heartbeat, and well as controlling the muscles that are swallowing and heart
associated with blood pressure. responsible for biting, chewing, and rate. As part of the
regulation and The brainstem is swallowing. It also contains the abducens brain stem, it also
coordination of made of the nerve, which allows us to look from side to helps transfer neural
movement, midbrain, pons, side and the vestibulocochlear nerve, messages to and from
posture, balance and medulla. which allows us to hear. As part of the the brain and spinal
and cardiac, brainstem, a section of the lower pons cord. It is located at
respiratory and stimulates and controls the intensity of the junction of the
vasomotor breathing, while a section of the upper pons spinal cord and brain.
centers. decreases the depth and frequency of
 breaths. The pons is also associated with the
control of sleep cycles, and controls
respiration and reflexes. It is located above
the medulla, below the midbrain, and just in
front of the cerebellum.

CORPUS CALLOSUM
A bundle of nerve fibers, creating an information highway connecting the left to the right side of
the brain. It transfers information from one hemisphere to the other.

CEREBRAL CORTEX
Cerebral Cortex is the principle location responsible for the most sophisticated information
processing in the brain. Ability to think, evaluate, and make complex judgments are embodied in
the four lobes that make up the Cerebral Cortex.

●​ The cerebral cortex is referred to as the “new brain” because of its relatively
recent evolution.
●​ Cerebral Cortex is the largest and the most complex element.
●​ It is a mass of deeply folded and rippled tissue that is the convoluted
outer layer of the cerebrum being 1∕12 of an inch thick.
●​ The uneven shape of the Cerebral Cortex allows a high level of integration of
neurons, allowing sophisticated information processing.

LOBES

The four major physical structures or sections of the cerebral cortex are called lobes.
 The cerebral hemispheres or lobes of the brain are physically separated by deep grooves known as
sulci and are associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, emotion, thought,
memory, reasoning and language. The four lobes are -
a) Frontal b) Parietal c) Temporal d) Occipital lobe.

FRONTAL LOBE
The Frontal lobe is involved with reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language.
Frontal lobe is located at the front-most region of the cerebral cortex.
The frontal lobes are the largest brain lobes and are perform several functions -
a)​ Motor Functions
b)​ Higher-Order Functions
c)​ Planning
d)​ Reasoning
e)​ Impulse Control
f)​ Memory
g)​ Language and Speech
The right frontal lobe controls activity on the left side of the body and the left frontal lobe controls activity on the
right side. Broca's area located on the left frontal lobe is involved in language and speech production.
Damage to the frontal lobes can lead to loss of fine motor function, speech, and language processing difficulties,
thinking difficulties, an inability to comprehend humor, a lack of facial expression, and changes in personality.
Damage can also lead to dementia, memory disorders, and a lack of impulse control.
The frontal lobes can be subdivided into two main parts
Prefrontal cortex Motor cortex
The prefrontal cortex is the front portion of the Contains the premotor cortex and primary motor
frontal lobes and manages complex cognitive processes cortex which contain nerves that control the execution
such as memory, planning, reasoning, decision making of voluntary muscle movement.
and problem-solving. Movement in the various areas of the body is
controlled by the primary motor cortex, with each
In humans, the prefrontal cortex account for 28% of area linked to a specific region of the motor cortex.
the cerebral cortex. Motor cortex is devoted to parts such as lips, tongue
and fingers and not to thighs and shoulders as we do
not have fine control over them.

PARIETAL LOBE
The Parietal lobe deals with the processing of sensory information from the body’s senses.
Parietal lobe is located behind the Frontal lobe and above the Temporal lobe.
Functions of Parietal lobe -
a)​ Cognition
b)​ Information Processing
c)​ Speech
d)​ Visual Perception
e)​ Reading and Writing
Parietal lobe helps in understanding spatial orientation and provides proper navigation. Being able to identify the
position, location and movement of the body and its parts is an important function of the parietal lobes.
Damage or injury to the parietal lobe can lead to inability to write or spell, impaired reading, inability to position
the lips or tongue properly in order to speak, inability to recall names of everyday objects.
Damage could also lead to difficulty in drawing and performing math calculations, difficulty in identifying objects
by touch, inability to distinguish left from right, difficulty in understanding direction, difficulty in making exact
movements, lack of hand-eye coordination and lack of body awareness.
Parts of Parietal lobe
Parietal somatosensory cortex
Parietal somatosensory cortex refers to the area that registers touch sensations.
Example - Identifies the location of a touch sensation and discriminates between sensations such as temperature
and pain.

TEMPORAL LOBE
The Temporal lobe is associated with speech, recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and emotion.
Temporal means ‘near the temples’ which is spatially correct as it is located on either sides of the brain, below the
Parietal lobe.
Damage to the temporal lobe may lead to diminishing of auditory comprehension, prosodic comprehension, facial
recognition, emotional decoding, language and verbal fluency.
Damage could also lead to Prosopagnosia, Wernicke’s Aphasia, Categorization, short-term memory loss,
increased or decreased interest in sexual behavior, increased aggressive behavior and social cognition disorders.
Parts of Temporal lobe
Primary Auditory Hippocampus Wernicke’s area
Cortex Plays a primal role in the formation Plays the central role of speech
Plays a vital role in processing the of memories. comprehension.
sounds heard by us. Location - Middle section of Location - Very end of Temporal
Location - Upper banks of Temporal lobe. lobe.
Temporal lobe. Associated with memory Named after Carl Wernicke.
Receives auditory information formation, emotions and learning. When the Wernicke’s area
from the ears and secondary areas Contains conceptual undergoes a damage, one can
and processes the information representations for semantic produce sensible language, but
received in a manner in which we knowledge. comprehending it is not possible.
understand the auditory stimuli.
For example – a siren blaring, a
baby crying, people laughing, etc.

OCCIPITAL LOBE
The Occipital lobe is responsible for interpreting visual information.
Occipital lobe is located in the forebrain (largest division of the brain) ; posterior to the temporal lobes and inferior
to the parietal lobes.
Functions of occipital lobe are -
a)​ Visual Perception
b)​ Color Recognition
c)​ Reading Comprehension
d)​ Depth Perception
e)​ Recognition of Object Movement
Damage to the occipital lobes leads to inability to identify colors, vision loss, visual hallucinations, inability to
identify words, and distorted visual perception.
Parts of occipital lobe
Primary visual cortex
Primary visual cortex receives visual input in the form of nerve impulses from the eyes. The visual cortex takes
this information and processes it so that we are able to determine colors, identify objects, identify shapes, and
other aspects of visual perception

FUNCTIONAL DIVISION
Motor area Sensory area Association area
The site in the brain that The site in the brain of The site of the higher mental processes, such as
is largely responsible for the tissue that corresponds to thought, language, memory, and speech.
the body’s voluntary each of the senses, with the Association areas controls executive functions
movement. degree of sensitivity related to which include planning, goal setting, judgment,
Includes - the amount of tissue. and impulse control.
Motor cortex in the Includes three religions Association areas make up a large portion of the
frontal lobe. One that corresponds primarily cerebral cortex and consists of sections that are not
to body sensations (including directly involved in either sensory processing or
touch and pressure) directing movement.
which refers to the parietal V important incident
somatosensory cortex Phineas Gage was a railroad worker known to be
One relating to sight which hardworking and cautious. In an explosive
refers to the primary visual accident, a 3-feet-long iron bar drove completely
cortex in the occipital lobe. into his skull. Despite having a rod lodged in his
One relating to sound which skull, he seemed to be fine. But he was not fine as
refers to the primary auditory he began to exhibit traits unlike himself - heavy
cortex in the temporal lobe. drinking, very irresponsible.
The accident injured Gage's association areas in
the cerebral cortex.
Damage to association areas lead to
Aphasia(problems with language) , Broca's
Aphasia(ungrammatical speech that is laborious
 and halting + difficulty in finding the right words),
Wernicke’s Aphasia (difficulty in understanding
others' speech and production of language).

BRAIN LATERALIZATION
Brain lateralization refers to the fact that the two halves of the human brain are not exactly alike
and that each hemisphere has functional specializations. In other words, Brain lateralization
refers to the idea that the right and left sides of the brain are specialized for certain skills. It
represents a basic principle of the brain's organization. The division of labor between the right
and left hemispheres is thought to allow for more complex behavior. Despite the fact that
lateralization is the division of tasks in the brain, there is not a complete separation into the left or
right; both sides of the brain are in constant communication and are almost always involved in any
given task.
Some research suggests that - males show greater lateralization of language in the left hemisphere.
- females show less lateralization, with language abilities more evenly
divided between the two hemispheres.
Some research suggests that - males have a smaller corpus callosum.
- females have a larger corpus callosum

Left Brain- Right Brain Theory

In psychology, the theory is based on the lateralization of brain function. The brain contains two
hemispheres that each perform a number of roles. The two sides of the brain communicate with
one another via the corpus callosum.

Right hemisphere Left hemisphere

Right hemisphere controls the left portion of the body. Left hemisphere controls the right portion of the body.
Concerned with emotions, feelings, intuitions, Concerned with reasoning, rationality, logic, discipline
visualization, spatial knowledge, creativity and & rules and dealing with hard facts.
recognizing patterns. Helps to pay attention to details, handles assignments,
Helps in developing a strong self perception or sense of processes information sequentially and takes care of
self-awareness, helps in making inferences and provides a the tasks like writing, reading and speaking.
holistic perception.

The Right Brain The Left Brain

According to the left-brain, right-brain dominance The left-side of the brain is considered to be adept at
theory, the right side of the brain is best at expressive and tasks that involve logic, language, and analytical
creative tasks. Some of the abilities popularly associated thinking. The left-brain is described as being better at-
with the right side of the brain include-
1.​ Language
1.​ Recognizing faces 2.​ Logic
2.​ Expressing emotions 3.​ Critical thinking
3.​ Music 4.​ Numbers
4.​ Reading emotions 5.​ Reasoning
5.​ Color
6.​ Imagination
7.​ Intuition
8.​ Creativity

According to Roger Sperry -

Right brain Left brain
People are creative, intuitive and visual People are analytical, verbal and methodical
a k.a analog brain a k.a digital brain
Connected to - Connected to -
●​ imagination ●​ logic
●​ holistic thinking ●​ sequencing
●​ intuition ●​ linear thinking
●​ arts ●​ mathematics
●​ rhythm ●​ facts
●​ nonverbal cues ●​ thinking in words
●​ feelings visualization
●​ daydreaming

SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH

In order to study the working of the two hemispheres (Symmetrical left and right halves of the
brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location) the corpus callosum is surgically
cut. In order to stop seizures, corpus callosum is surgically cut, giving rise to split brain patients.
EXPERIMENT
Roger Sperry, a Nobel Prize winning psychologist, developed a number of techniques for studying how each
hemisphere operates. One such experimental procedure -
Blindfolded patients touched an object with their right hand and were asked to name it. As the right side of the
body corresponds to the language-oriented left side of the brain, split-brain patients were able to name it.
However, if blindfolded patients touched the object with their
left hand, they were unable to name it aloud, even though the information had registered in their brains: When the
blindfold was removed, patients could identify the object they had touched. Information can be learned and
remembered using only the right side of the brain.
 BRAIN IMAGING
The most well-known brain-scanning techniques are the electroencephalogram (EEG),
positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and
Computerized Axial Tomography (CT or CAT).
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
EEG is a device that records electrical activity in the brain through small, metal discs called electrodes attached to one's
scalp, that is, the outside of the skull. Brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and this activity shows up as a wavy
lines on the EEG. These wavy lines are translated into line tracings, that is, brain waves.
An EEG is one of the main diagnostic tests for epilepsy or another seizure disorder and provides diagnosis for brain
damage and other neurological disorders.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

PET scan is an imaging test that helps reveal how your tissues and organs are functioning; reveals biochemical activity
within the brain. A PET scan uses a radioactive drug (tracer) to show this activity. The tracer may be injected,
swallowed or inhaled, depending on which organ or tissue is being studied. The tracer collects in areas of your body that
have higher levels of chemical activity, which often correspond to areas of disease. On a PET scan, these areas show up as
bright spots.
Ex - Used cases of memory problems, to identify the presence of brain tumors.
(Records the brain function)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to create clear and detailed
cross-sectional images of organs of the human body. These images can be converted into three-dimensional (3-D) pictures
of the scanned area. An MRI differs from a CAT scan or CT because it does not use radiation and provides better
brain images than CT.
Ex-MRI can detect a variety of conditions of the brain such as cysts, tumors, bleeding, swelling, developmental and
structural abnormalities, infections, inflammatory conditions and problems.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

fMRI refer to new variations on MRI technology that monitor blood and oxygen flow in areas of high activity in the
brain.
(fMRI) scans provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming
a powerful magnetic field at the body.
Ex - fMRI scans are used in the diagnosis of chronic back pain, nervous system disorders such as strokes, multiple
sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s.

Computerized Axial Tomography (CT or CAT)

CT or CAT scan is a diagnostic tool that uses computers and rotating X-ray machines to create detailed, cross-sectional
images of the body. In this brain imaging procedure, multiple X-rays are shot from different angles and sent to the
computer which combines the readings to create a vivid image of a horizontal slice of the brain.
Ex - CT scans helps in the diagnosis of aneurysm, bleeding , stroke, and brain tumors.
(Records the brain structure)
 The Endocrine System

●​ The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via
the bloodstream.
It is the second communication system between the brain and body.
●​ Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or
growth of the body.
It also influences and is influenced by the functioning of the nervous system.
Hormones are similar to neurotransmitters in the nervous [Link] released, they diffuse through the
bloodstream and bind to special receptors on target cells.
Hormones play a double role or duty- as hormones and neurotransmitters.

●​ Endocrine Glands: Glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

●​ The major component of the endocrine system, which secretes hormones that control growth and other
parts of the endocrine system.
●​ It is found near and regulated by the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland has sometimes been called the
“master gland” because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system.
●​ But the pituitary gland is more than just the taskmaster of other glands; it has important functions in its
own right.
●​ For instance, hormones secreted by the pituitary gland control growth. Extremely short people and
unusually tall ones usually have pituitary gland abnormalities.
●​ The pituitary is really two glands in one, the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
●​ Functions:-
a.​ The posterior pituitary releases hormones that regulate reabsorption of water by the kidneys and, in
females, the production and release of milk.
b.​ It is the anterior pituitary that releases the hormones that regulate the activity of other endocrine
glands. One such hormone, ACTH, stimulates the outer layer of the adrenal gland, the adrenal
cortex, causing it to secrete cortisone. Cortisone, in turn, affects cells in many parts of the body.
c.​ The pituitary also secretes hormones that affect sexual development, govern the functioning of the
sexual glands (regulating the amount of hormones they release), and help control basic bodily
functions relating to metabolism and excretion.
 d.​ Blood pressure control
e.​ Stimulating hormones- stimulate other glands to release their hormones into the blood.

The Thyroid Gland

●​ Produces thyroxin, which regulates the rate of metabolism and controls growth.
●​ Has an influence on all the cells of the body
●​ Plays a role in development, growth and metabolism
●​ It regulates the Calcium levels.

The Adrenal Gland

●​ Adrenal medulla- Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine. Both play an important role in reactions to
stress (e.g., increased heartbeat, raised blood pressure).
●​ Adrenal cortex- Produces hormones that promote release of sugar stored in the liver. Also regulates the
excretion of sodium and potassium.

Pancreas

●​ Produces hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon) that regulate metabolism and the levels of blood glucose and
the storage of fats.

Gonads - Sexual Glands

Testes Ovaries

Produce hormones responsible for secondary sex Produce hormones responsible for secondary sex
characteristics of males (e.g., beard growth); also affect characteristics of females (e.g., breast development); also
sperm production and male sex drive. regulate several aspects of pregnancy.

Unit 2- Sensation and Perception

[Link]: sensory receptors, transduction, absolute threshold, difference threshold, JnD,
Psycho-physics, signal detection theory, Subliminal Perception, sensory adaptation.
2. Sensory receptors (vision, hearing, taste, pain, smell, kinaesthetic and vestibular)
Vision: eye structure, visual process,
theories of vision, colour blindness, after image
Hearing: ear structure, process of hearing,
theories
A brief intro to taste, pain, smell, kinaesthetic and vestibular

3. Perception: Difference between sensation and perception, types, organizing principles.

Perceptual organization, gestalt principles-figure and background, grouping principles, constancies:
shape, size and brightness.
[Link], depth perception, monocular and binocular cues, movement perception- real and
apparent

SENSATION
Sensation is concerned with the initial contact between organisms and their physical environment.
It focuses on describing the relationship between various forms of sensory stimulation and how
these inputs are registered by our senses.
●​ Sensory Receptors are specialized cells that accomplish the coding tasks. These Cells are
specialized for the task of transduction. Transduction: the process in which the physical
properties of the stimuli (physical energy) are converted into neutral signals (electrical
signals) which is then transmitted to the brain via specialized sensory nerves.

Sensory Thresholds
●​ Our bodies seem well prepared to deal with an ocean of information; so well prepared that
when deprived of all sensory input, a condition termed sensory deprivation, our brains
may produce hallucinations to fill the void. Although our receptors are remarkably
efficient, they do not register all the information available in the environment at any given
moment.

1.​ ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD:

●​ An absolute threshold is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it
to be detected. Absolute threshold is defined as the smallest level of a stimulus that a person
can detect perfectly 50 percent of the time.
●​ Smallest level of energy required by an external stimulus to be detectable by the human
senses. the absolute thresholds we have been discussing are measured under ideal
conditions. Normally our senses cannot detect stimulation quite as well because of the
presence of noise. Noise, as defined by psychophysicists, is the background stimulation
that interferes with the perception of other stimuli.
Examples of absolute threshold are:
Vision: A candle flame can be seen from 20 miles away on a dark night.
Hearing: the ticking of the watch can be heard 20 feet away under a quite condition
 Taste: sugar can be tasted when one teaspoon is dissolved in 2 gallons of water
Smell: perfume can be detected when one drop is diffused into a 3-room apartment
Touch: A wing of a fly falling on your check from a distance of 1 cm can be felt.

2.​ SINGLE DETECTION THEORY:

●​ Signal detection theory suggests that complex decision mechanisms are involved whenever
we try to determine if we have or have not detected a specific stimulus.
●​ Single detection theory is A theory suggesting that there are no universal absolute
thresholds for sensations. Rather, detection of a stimulus depends on its physical energy
and on internal factors such as the relative costs and benefits associated with detecting the
stimulus.

3.​ DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD:

●​ The difference threshold is the minimum change in stimulation required to detect the
difference between the two stimuli, and so it is also called a just noticeable difference
(jND). . The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change
in stimulation has occurred.
●​ Difference Threshold: The amount of change in a stimulus required before a person can
detect the shift.
●​ Just Noticeable Difference (jnd): The smallest amount of change in a physical stimulus
necessary for an individual to notice a difference in the intensity of a stimulus
●​ Our ability to detect differences in stimulus intensity depends on the magnitude of the
initial stimulus.
●​ The size of a stimulus that constitutes a just noticeable difference depends on the initial
intensity of the stimulus. The relationship between changes in the original size of a
stimulus and the degree to which a change will be noticed forms one of the basic laws of
psychophysics: Weber’s law. Weber’s law states that a just noticeable difference is a
constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus.

4.​ SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION:

●​ The presumed ability to perceive a stimulus that is below the threshold for conscious
experience.
●​ A stimulus is too weak or distorted to be detected through conscious effort

5.​ SENSORY ADAPTATION:

●​ Adaptation is an adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging
stimuli. Adaptation occurs as people become accustomed to a stimulus and change their
frame of reference.
●​ our brain mentally turns down the volume of the stimulation that it’s experiencing.
●​ This apparent decline in sensitivity to sensory stimuli is due to the inability of the sensory
nerve receptors to fire ‘off’ messages to the brain indefinitely.
Sensory Receptors
Sensation: The activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy.
Perception: The sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli by the sense
organs and brain.

Stimulus: Energy that produces a response in a sense organ.

●​ Stimuli vary in both type and intensity.

●​ Different types of stimuli activate different sense organs.
●​ In addition, stimuli differ in intensity, relating to how strong a stimulus needs to be before
it can be detected
●​ Psychophysics is the study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and
our psychological experience of them. (Questions of stimulus type and intensity are
considered in this branch of psychology)

The Eye
Structure of the Eye

Visual Process :
1. Cornea: The ray of light being reflected off an object first travels through the cornea.
What: A transparent, protective window.
Function: Bending light

●​ Because of its curvature it bends (or refracts) light as it passes through, playing a primary
role in focusing the light more sharply.

2. Pupil and Iris: After moving through the cornea, the light traverses the pupil.

What: The pupil is a dark hole in the centre of the iris, the coloured part of the eye, which in
humans ranges from a light blue to a dark brown.

●​ Iris is the muscle surrounding the pupil and controls the size of the pupil.
●​ The pupil is the opening in the centre of the iris that permits light to pass into the rear
chamber of the eye

Function: Controlling the amount of light that enters the eye

●​ The size of the pupil opening depends on the amount of light in the environment.
●​ Like the automatic lighting system on a camera, the pupil in the human eye expands to let
in more light and contracts to block out light
3. Lens: Once light passes through the pupil, it enters the lens, which is directly behind the pupil.

What: The lens is the transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina. It is
made up of relatively soft tissue capable of adjustment.

Function: Accommodation and Focussing

●​ The lens acts to bend the rays of light so that they are properly focused on the rear of the
eye. The lens focuses light by changing its own thickness, a process called accommodation.
●​ Accommodation occurs when the curvature of the lens adjusts to alter visual focus: It
becomes flatter when viewing distant objects and rounder when looking at closer objects.
●​ forms an upside-down image of the object on the retina. This happens due to the physical
properties of light.

4. The Retina:

The part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for
transmission to the brain

OR

The retina is the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes
images, and sends visual information to the brain.

What:

●​ The retina consists of a thin layer of nerve cells at the back of the eyeball.
●​ There are two kinds of light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina: Rods and Cones. Rods
outnumber cones and they are unevenly distributed in the retina.

Function: Rods and Cones, sensing light and colour.

Rods:

●​ Thin, cylindrical receptor cells that are highly sensitive to light.

●​ contain
●​ Rods are related to vision in dimly lit situations and are largely insensitive to colour and to
details. Allow humans to see in black, white, and shades of grey in dim light
●​ The rods play a key role in peripheral vision—seeing objects that are outside the main centre
of focus—and in night vision.

Cones:

●​ Typically cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells that are responsible for sharp focus and
colour perception, particularly in bright light.
 ●​ Cones are concentrated on the part of the retina called the fovea. The fovea is a particularly
sensitive region of the retina.
●​ Responsible for the sharply focused perception of colour, particularly in brightly lit
situations. Enable humans to see fine detail in adequate light, but that do not function in
dim light

Rods Cones
Rods are specialized visual receptors that play a Cones are specialised visual receptors that play a key role
key role in night vision and peripheral vision in daylight vision and colour vision

Rods handle night vision because they are more Cones handle day vision, because bright lights dazzle the rods.
sensitive than cones to dim light.

They handle peripheral vision because they greatly The special sensitivities of cones also allow them to play a
outnumber cones in the periphery of the retina. major role in the perception of colour.

Rods are sensitive to dim light. They allow humans to Cones do not respond well to dim light, which is why you
see in black and white and shade of grey. don’t see colour very well in low illumination

Rods do not pick up visual details. Cones provide better visual acuity—that is, sharpness and
precise detail

The density of the rods is greatest just outside the fovea Cones are concentrated most heavily in the centre of the
and gradu- ally decreases toward the periphery of the retina and quickly fall off in density toward its periphery
retina.

Rods contain a chemical known as rhodopsin- a The fovea is a tiny spot in the centre of the retina that
complex reddish-purple substance whose composition contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot
changes chemically when energised by light

Dark Adaptation: The phenomenon of adjusting to dim light after being in brighter [Link]
process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination

●​ The speed at which dark adaptation occurs is a result of the rate of change in the chemical
composition of the rods and cones.
●​ Although the cones reach their greatest level of adaptation in just a few minutes, the rods
take 20 to 30 minutes to reach the maximum level.

Light adaptation: The process of adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim light (occurs
much faster, taking only a minute or so). The process whereby the eyes become less sensitive to
light in high illumination.
5. Sending message from Eye to Brain:

●​ When light energy strikes the rods and cones, it starts a chain of events that transforms light
into neural impulses that can be communicated to the brain.
●​ Coding of the visual information takes place.
●​ Bipolar cells receive information directly from the rods and cones and communicate that
information to the ganglion cells.
●​ The ganglion cells collect and summarise visual information, which is then moved out the
back of the eyeball and sent to the brain through a bundle of ganglion axons called the
optic nerve.
●​ Opening for the optic nerve passes through the retina, there are no rods or cones in the
area, and that creates a blind spot.
●​ As the optic nerve leaves the eyeball the optic nerves from each eye meet at a point roughly
between the two eyes—called the optic chiasm (pronounced KI-asm)—where each optic
nerve then splits.
●​ The nerve impulses coming from the right half of each retina are sent to the right side of
the brain, and the impulses arriving from the left half of each retina are sent to the left side
of the brain.

Nearsightedness and Farsightedness:

Nearsightedness or Myopia Farsightedness or Hyperopia

In nearsightedness, close objects are seen clearly but In farsightedness, distant objects are seen clearly but
distant objects appear blurry. close objects appear blurry

The focus of light from distant objects falls a little the focus of light from close objects falls behind the
short of the retina. retina

This problem occurs when the cornea or lens This problem typically occurs when the eyeball is too
bends light too much, or when the eyeball is too short.
long.

Theories of Vision:

Feature detection theory:

●​ David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel won the Nobel Prize in 1981
●​ Many neurons rones in the cortex are extraordinarily specialised, being activated only by
visual stimuli of a particular shape or pattern—a process known as feature detection
●​ Some cells are activated only by lines of a particular width, shape, or orientation. Other cells
are activated only by moving, as opposed to stationary stimuli.
 ●​ One system relates to shapes, one to colours, and others to movement, location, and depth
perception of human faces, animals, and inanimate stimuli

Trichromatic theory of colour vision:

●​ Thomas Young and extended by Hermann von Helmholtz in the first half of the 1800s.
●​ There are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific
range of wavelengths. Blue-violet colours, green, and yellow-red.
●​ According to trichromatic theory, perception of colour is influenced by the relative
strength with which each of the three kinds of cones is activated.
●​ If we see a blue sky, the blue-violet cones are primarily triggered, and the others show less
activity.
●​ This theory explains colour vision.

Colour Blindness
Colour blindness encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colours.

●​ Ability to perceive colour is limited

●​ Approximately 7% of men and .4% of women are colour-blind.

Eg. all red and green objects are seen as yellow

unable to tell the difference between yellow and blue.
Most people who are colour blind are dichromats; that is, they make do with only two types of
colour receptors. There are three types of dichromats, and each type is insensitive to a different
colour

Opponent process theory of colour vision:

●​ Ewald Hering in the 19th century.
●​ The theory that receptor cells for colour are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each
other
●​ Blue-yellow pairing, a red-green pairing, and a black-white pairing.
●​ If an object reflects light that contains more blue than yellow, it will stimulate the firing of
the cells sensitive to blue, discouraging or inhibiting the firing of receptor cells sensitive to
yellow and the object will appear blue

The Ear

Hearing: Converting physical energy from the environment into neural signals resulting
in our sensing sounds.
Structure of the ear
The Outer Ear:

●​ The outer ear acts as a reverse mega- phone, designed to collect and bring sounds into the
internal portions of the ear .
●​ The location of the outer ears on different sides of the head helps with sound localization,
the process by which we identify the direction from which a sound is coming.
●​ Wave patterns in the air enter each ear at a slightly different time, and the brain uses the
discrepancy as a clue to the sound’s point of origin.

Auditory Canal:

●​ Sounds, arriving at the outer ear in the form of wavelike vibrations, are funnelled into the
auditory canal, a tubelike pas- sage that leads to the eardrum.

The Eardrum(the Middle Ear):

●​ The eardrum is aptly named because it operates as a miniature drum, vibrating when
sound waves hit it.
●​ The more intense the sound, the more the eardrum vibrates. These vibrations are then
transferred into the middle ear, a tiny chamber containing three bones (the hammer, the
anvil, and stirrup) that transmit vibrations to the oval window, a thin membrane leading
to the inner ear.
●​ Because the hammer, anvil, and stirrup act as a set of levers, they not only transmit
vibrations but also increase their strength.
●​ The opening into the middle ear (the eardrum) is considerably larger than the opening out
of it (the oval window), the force of sound waves on the oval window becomes amplified.
The middle ear, then, acts as a tiny mechanical amplifier.

The Inner Ear:

●​ The portion of the ear that changes the sound vibrations into a form in which they can be
transmitted to the brain.
 ●​ When sound enters the inner ear through the oval window, it moves into the cochlea, a
coiled tube that looks something like a snail and is filled with fluid that vibrates in response
to sound.
●​ Inside the cochlea is the basilar membrane, a structure that runs through the centre of the
cochlea, dividing it into an upper chamber and a lower chamber.
●​ The basilar membrane is covered with hair cells. When the hair cells are bent by the
vibrations entering the cochlea, the cells send a neural message to the brain.

Note -

Sound: The movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration.

Eardrum: The part of the ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it.

Cochlea: (KOKE-lee-uh) A coiled tube in the ear filled with fluid that vibrates in response to sound.

Basilar Membrane: A vibrating structure that runs through the centre of the cochlea, dividing it into
an upper chamber and a lower chamber and containing sense receptors for sound.

Hair Cells: Tiny cells covering the basilar membrane that, when bent by vibrations entering the
cochlea, transmit neural messages to the brain.

Theories of Sound:

Place theory of hearing:

●​ Which states that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies.
●​ However, place theory does not tell the full story of hearing, because very low frequency
sounds trigger neurons across such a wide area of the basilar membrane that no single site is
involved.

Frequency theory of hearing:

●​ Suggests that the entire basilar membrane acts as a microphone, vibrating as a whole in
response to a sound.
●​ According to this explanation, the nerve receptors send out signals that are tied directly to
the frequency (the number of wave crests per second) of the sounds to which we are
exposed, with the number of nerve impulses being a direct function of a sound’s frequency.
●​ Thus, the higher the pitch of a sound (and therefore the greater the frequency of its wave
crests), the greater the number of nerve impulses that are transmitted up the auditory nerve
to the brain.

Neither place theory nor frequency theory provides the full explanation for hear- ing. Place theory
provides a better explanation for the sensing of high-frequency sounds, whereas frequency theory
explains what happens when low-frequency sounds are encountered. Medium-frequency sounds
incorporate both processes
Balance:

Semicircular canals: Three tubelike structures of the inner ear containing fluid that sloshes
through them when the head moves, singling rotational or angular movement to the brain.

Smell(Olfactory):

●​ The sense of smell is sparked when the molecules of a substance enter the nasal passages and
meet olfactory cells, the receptor neurons of the nose, which are spread across the nasal
cavity.
●​ More than 1,000 separate types of receptors have been identified on those cells so far. Each
of these receptors is so specialised that it responds only to a small band of different odours.
●​ The responses of the separate olfactory cells are then transmitted to the brain, where they
are combined into recognition of a particular smell

Smell may also act as a hidden means of communication for humans:

●​ It has long been known that nonhumans release pheromones, chemicals they secrete into the
environment that produce a reaction in other members of the same species, permitting the
transmission of messages such as sexual availability.
●​ The degree to which pheromones are part of the human experience remains an open
question.

Olfaction:
The sensation of smell; the process of smelling
You cannot smell a substance unless some of its molecules vaporise

Olfactory epithelium:
Two 1-square-inch patches of tissue, one at the top of each nasal cavity, which together contain
about 10 million olfactory neurons, the receptors for smell

Olfactory bulbs:
Two matchstick-sized structures above the nasal cavities, where smell sensations first register in the
brain

Taste(Gustation):

●​ The sense of taste (gustation) involves receptor cells that respond to four basic stimulus
qualities: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.
●​ A fifth category also exists, a flavour called umami (although there is controversy about
whether it qualifies as a fundamental taste).
●​ Umami is a hard-to-translate Japanese word, although the English “meaty” or “savoury”
comes close.
 ●​ The receptor cells for taste are located in roughly 10,000 taste buds, which are distributed
across the tongue and other parts of the mouth and throat.
●​ The taste buds wear out and are replaced every 10 days or so.
●​ The sense of taste differs significantly from one person to another, largely as a result of
genetic factors. Some people, dubbed “super-tasters,” are highly sensitive to taste; they have
twice as many taste receptors as “non-tasters,” who are relatively insensitive to taste.
●​ Super-tasters (who, for unknown reasons, are more likely to be female than male) find
sweets sweeter, cream creamier, and spicy dishes spicier, and weaker concentrations of
flavour are enough to satisfy any cravings they may have.
●​ Non-tasters may seek out relatively sweeter and fattier foods in order to maximise the taste.
As a consequence, they may be prone to obesity

Skin:

●​ Our skin senses—touch, pressure, temperature, and pain—play a critical role in

survival, making us aware of potential danger to our bodies.
●​ Most of these senses operate through nerve receptor cells located at various depths through-
out the skin, distributed unevenly throughout the body.

Example: Some areas, such as the fingertips, have many more receptor cells sensitive to touch and as
a consequence are notably more sensitive than other areas of the body

Pain:

●​ Pain is a response to a great variety of different kinds of stimuli. A light that is too bright
can produce pain, and sound that is too loud can be painful.
●​ One explanation is that pain is an outcome of cell injury; when a cell is damaged, regardless
of the source of damage, it releases a chemical called substance P that transmits pain
messages to the brain.
●​ Some people are more susceptible to pain than others. For example, women experience
painful stimuli more intensely than men. These gender differences are associated with the
production of hormones related to menstrual cycles. In addition, certain genes are linked to
the experience of pain, so that we may inherit our sensitivity to pain

Gate controlling theory of Pain: The theory that particular nerve receptors in the spinal cord
lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain.

●​ When these receptors are activated because of an injury or problem with a part of the body,
a “gate” to the brain is opened, allowing us to experience the sensation of pain
●​ However, another set of neural receptors can, when stimulated, close the “gate” to the
brain, thereby reducing the experience of pain. The gate can be shut in two different ways.
●​ First, other impulses can overwhelm the nerve pathways relating to pain, which are spread
throughout the brain. In this case, non-painful stimuli compete with and sometimes
 displace the neural message of pain, thereby shutting off the painful stimulus. The
competing stimuli can overpower the painful ones.

PERCEPTION

Perception is the process through which we select, organize, and interpret the input from our
sensory receptors.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation Perception
●​ Sensation is input about the physical world ●​ Perception is the process by which the brain selects,
obtained by our sensory receptors. organizes and interprets these sensations.
●​ Sensation are the integral elements in perception. ●​ It is a fusion of sensation with ideas.
●​ Sensation does not involve selection and
combination. ●​ Perception involves selection a stimuli and
●​ Sensation is more physical. It entails the simple combination of them into a pattern.
awareness of various stimuli.
●​ Perception gives meaning to what we sense and is a
mix of past experience and connections with objects
or concepts.

PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING AND ORGANISATION:

1.​ Proximity
It is the degree of distance between objects. Those elements that are close together have a tendency
to be grouped together. Objects are favoured according to the nearness of their position. The closer
one’s form groups by visually uniting.
2.​ Similarities
It is the degree of sameness to one another. Objects and figures that are similar in terms of colour,
shape and form tend to be grouped together to form a pattern
3.​ Continuity
This refers to a grouping that results in a continuation of direction.
4.​ Closure
This refers to objects being grouped into recognizable forms of shapes.
5.​ Figure and ground
This is a tendency to group stimuli together into unified form called a figure and distinguish the
figure from other stimuli present, generally referred to as the ground.

PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
The process by which we structure the input from our sensory receptors is called perceptual
organization.
Aspects of perceptual organization were first studied systematically in the early 1900s by
Gestalt psychologists—German psychologists intrigued by certain innate tendencies of the human
mind to impose order and structure on the physical world and to perceive sensory patterns as
well-organized wholes, rather than as separate, isolated parts (Gestalt means “whole” in German).
These scientists outlined several principles that influence the way we organize basic sensory input into
whole patterns.

Gestalt laws of organization: A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of
information into meaningful wholes.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES
1.​ Figure and Ground: What Stands Out?
We tend to divide the world around us into two parts: figure, which has a definite shape and a
location in space; and ground, which has no shape, seems to continue behind the figure, and has no
definite location.
The figure–ground relationship helps clarify the distinction between sensation and perception. While
the pattern of sensory input generated in our receptors remains constant, our perceptions shift
between the two figure –ground patterns. Figure–Ground Relationship: Our tendency to divide
the perceptual world into two distinct parts: discrete figures and the background against which they
stand out.
2.​ Grouping: Which Stimuli Go Together?
It refers to the basic ways in which we group items together perceptually.
The Gestaltists also called attention to a number of principles known as the laws of grouping,
Laws of Grouping: Simple principles describing how we tend to group discrete stimuli together in
the perceptual world.

3.​ Constancies and Illusions: When Perception Succeeds—and Fails

Perception is more than the sum of all the sensory input supplied by our eyes, ears, and other
receptors. It is the active selection, organization, and interpretation of such input. It yields final
products that differ from raw, unprocessed sensations in important ways. On the one hand,
perception helps us adapt to a complex and ever-changing environment. On the other hand,
perception sometimes leads us into error.

CONSTANCIES:

●​ Perceptual Constancies: Stability in the Face of Change:

it refers to our tendency to perceive physical objects as unchanging despite shifts in the
pattern of sensations these objects induce.
●​ Size constancy:
The tendency to perceive a physical object as having a constant size even when the size of the
image it casts on the retina changes.
The principle of size–distance invariance suggests that when estimating the size of an object,
we take into account both the size of the image it casts on our retina and the apparent distance
of the object.
 The relative size of an object compared to objects of known size. This mechanism is especially
useful for estimating the size of unfamiliar things.
Relative Size: A visual cue based on comparison of the size of an unknown object to objects
of known size.
●​ Principle of brightness constancy:
The tendency to perceive objects as having a constant brightness even when they are viewed
under different conditions of illumination.
●​ principle of shape constancy:
The tendency to perceive a physical object as having a constant shape even when the image it
casts on the retina changes.
1. Top to Down Processing:

●​ In top-down processing, perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience,

expectations, and motivations.
●​ Top-down processing is illustrated by the importance of context in determining how we
perceive objects.
●​ However, top-down processing cannot occur on its own. Even though top-down
processing allows us to fill in the gaps in ambiguous and out-of-context stimuli, we would
be unable to perceive the meaning of such stimuli without bottom-up process- ing.

Bottom-up processing:

●​ Consists of the progression of recognising and processing information from individual

components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole.
●​ We would make no headway in our recognition of the sentence without being able to
perceive the individual shapes that make up the letters. Some perception, then, occurs at
the level of the patterns and features of each of the separate letters.

Top-down and bottom-up processing occur simultaneously, and interact with each other, in our
perception of the world around us. Bottom-up processing permits us to process the fundamental
characteristics of stimuli, whereas top-down processing allows us to bring our experience to bear on
perception.

2. Depth Perception:

The ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance- a skill known as depth
perception.

●​ It is due largely to the fact that we have two eyes.

●​ Because there is a certain distance between the eyes, a slightly different image reaches each
retina. The brain integrates the two images into one view, but it also recognises the
difference in images and uses this difference to estimate the distance of an object from us.
●​ The difference in the images seen by the left eye and the right eye is known as
binocular disparity
Binocular Disparity:

●​ The fact that the discrepancy between the images in the two eyes varies according to the
distance of objects that we view provides us with a means of determining distance.
●​ If we view two objects and one is considerably closer to us than the other is, the retinal
disparity will be relatively large and we will have a greater sense of depth between the two.
●​ However, if the two objects are a similar distance from us, the retinal disparity will be
minor, and we will perceive them as being a similar distance from us.

Monocular Cues:

●​ In some cases, certain cues permit us to obtain a sense of depth and distance with just one
eye. These cues are known as monocular cues.
●​ One monocular cue— motion parallax—is the change in position of an object on the
retina caused by movement of your body relative to the object.
●​ Example: suppose you are a passenger in a moving car, and you focus your eye on a stable
object such as a tree. Objects that are closer than the tree will appear to move backward,
and the nearer the object is, the more quickly it will appear to move. In contrast, objects
beyond the tree will seem to move at a slower speed, but in the same direction as you are.
Your brain is able to use these cues to calculate the relative distances of the tree and other
objects.

Linear Perspective:

●​ Anyone who has ever seen railroad tracks that seem to come together in the distance knows
that distant objects appear to be closer together than are nearer ones, a phenomenon called
linear perspective.
●​ People use linear perspective as a mon- ocular cue in estimating distance, allowing the
two-dimensional image on the retina to record the three-dimensional world

3. Perceptual Constancy

●​ A phenomenon in which physical objects are perceived as unvarying and consistent despite
changes in their appearance or in the physical environment.
●​ Perceptual constancy leads us to view objects as having an unvarying size, shape, colour,
and brightness, even if the image on our retina varies.
●​ Example: Despite the varying images on the retina as an airplane approaches, flies overhead,
and disappears, we do not perceive the air- plane as changing shape

4. Motion Perception:

●​ The movement of an object across the retina is typically perceived relative to some stable,
unmoving background.
 ●​ Moreover, if the stimulus is heading toward us, the image on the retina expands in size,
filling more and more of the visual field. In such cases, we assume that the stimulus is
approaching—not that it is an expanding stimulus viewed at a constant distance.
●​ It is not, however, just the movement of images across the retina that brings about the
perception of motion. If it were, we would perceive the world as moving every time we
moved our heads. Instead, one of the critical things we learn about perception is to factor
information about our own head and eye movements along with information about
changes in the retinal image.

Apparent movement:

●​ The perception that a stationary object is moving. It occurs when different areas of the
retina are quickly stimulated, leading us to interpret motion.
●​ Example: The station feels like it's moving when a train begins to slowly move on the
adjacent track.

5. Illusions:

●​ Visual illusions are physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception.

Unit 3
Memory and Forgetting

1.​ Encoding: Getting Information into Memory The Role of Attention ; Levels of
Processing ; Enriching Encoding
2.​ Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory -Sensory Memory;Short-Term Memory;
Long-Term Memory; Are Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Separate?;
How Is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory?
3.​ Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory - Using Cues to Aid Retrieval;
Reinstating the Context of an Event; Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation
Effect; Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring
4.​ Forgetting: When Memory Lapses - How Quickly We Forget: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting
Curve; Measures of Forgetting; Why We Forget
5.​ In Search of the Memory Trace: The Physiology of Memory-The Neural Circuitry of
Memory; The Anatomy of Memory
6.​ Systems and Types of Memory-Declarative Versus Procedural Memory; Semantic Versus
Episodic Memory; Prospective Versus Retrospective Memory;
7.​ Improving Everyday Memory-Engage in Adequate Rehearsal; Schedule Distributed
Practice and Minimize Interference; Engage in Deep Processing and Organize Information;
Enrich Encoding with Mnemonic Devices

1. Encoding: Getting Information into Memory

Encoding involves forming a memory code.

The Role of Attention:

ATTENTION: Attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or
events.
●​ Attention is often likened to a filter that screens out most potential stimuli while allowing a
select few to pass through into conscious awareness.
●​ A great deal of debate has been devoted to where the filter is located in the
information-processing system.
●​ The key issue in this debate is whether stimuli are screened out early, during sensory input,
or late, after the brain has processed the meaning or significance of the input the “cocktail
party phenomenon” suggests the latter.
●​ This cocktail party phenomenon suggests that attention involves late selection, based on
the meaning of input.
●​ Findings have led some theorists to conclude that the location of the attention filter may be
flexible rather than fixed.
●​ Wherever filtering occurs, it is clear that people have difficulty if they attempt to focus their
attention on two or more inputs simultaneously

Models of selective attention

●​ Early-selection models propose that input is filtered before meaning is processed.

●​ Late-selection models hold that filtering occurs after the processing of meaning.
●​ There is evidence to support early, late, and intermediate selection, suggesting that the
location of the attentional filter may not be fixed.

Summary: Attention, which facilitates encoding, is inherently selective and has been compared to a
filter. The cocktail party phe- nomenon suggests that input is screened late in mental processing. The
empirical evidence indicates that people may have some flexibility in where they place their attention
filter

Levels of Processing
Levels-of-processing theory: Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing
result in longer-lasting memory codes.
According to Craik and Lockhart, structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding involve
progressively deeper levels of processing, which should result in more durable memories.

●​ Incoming information can be processed at different levels.

●​ For instance, they maintained that in dealing with verbal information, people engage in
three progressively deeper levels of processing: structural, phonemic, and semantic
encoding

According to levels-of-processing theory, structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding represent

progressively deeper levels of processing. Deeper processing results in better recall of information.

I.​ Structural Encoding: Structural encoding is relatively shallow processing that emphasises
the physical structure of the stimulus. For example, if words are flashed on a screen,
structural encoding registers such things as how they were printed (capital, lowercase, and
so on) or the length of the words (how many letters)
II.​ Phonemic Encoding: Further analysis may result in phonemic encoding, which emphasises
what a word sounds like. Phonemic encoding involves naming or saying (perhaps silently)
the words.
III.​ Semantic Encoding: Finally, semantic encoding emphasises the meaning of verbal input; it
involves thinking about the objects and actions the words represent.

Deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes

Craik and Tulving compared the durability of structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding. They
directed subjects’ attention to particular aspects of briefly presented stimulus words by asking them
questions about various characteristics of the words. They directed subjects’ attention to particular
aspects of briefly presented stimulus words by asking them questions about various characteristics
of the words. The questions were designed to engage the subjects in different levels of processing.
After responding to 60 words, the subjects received an unexpected test of their memory for the
words. As predicted, the subjects’ recall was low after structural encoding, notably better after
phonemic encoding, and highest after semantic encoding
Critics of the Levels of Processing Theory:

●​ What exactly is a “level” of processing? And how do we determine whether one level is
deeper than another?
●​ Efforts to find an objective index of processing depth have failed, leaving the levels in
levels-of-processing theory vaguely defined
Enriching Encoding
Enrich the encoding process and thereby improves memory.

Elaboration:
Semantic encoding can often be enhanced through a process called elaboration. Elaboration is
linking a stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding.

Visual Imagery:
Imagery—the creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered

Allan Paivio points out that it is easier to form images of concrete objects than of abstract concepts.
He believes that this ease of image formation affects memory.​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

➔​ If you were asked to remember the word juggler, you could readily form an image
of someone juggling balls. However, if you were asked to remember the word truth,
 you would probably have more difficulty forming a suitable image. The difference
is that juggler refers to a concrete object, whereas truth refers to an abstract concept.
​ ​ ​

Experiment by Paivio, Smythe, and Yuille (1968). They asked subjects to learn a list of 16 pairs
of words. They manipulated whether the words were concrete, high-imagery words or abstract,
low-imagery words. In terms of imagery potential, the list contained four types of pairings:
high-high ( juggler-dress), high-low (letter-effort), low-high (duty-hotel), and low- low
(quality-necessity). The results showed that high- imagery words are easier to remember than low-
imagery words.

According to Paivio (1986): Imagery facilitates memory because it provides a second kind of memory
code, and two codes are better than one. His dual coding theory holds that memory is enhanced by
forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.

Self Referent Encoding:

Making material personally meaningful can also enrich encoding.

Self Referent encoding involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant.
Promoting additional elaboration and better organization of information

2. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory

According to Robert Sternberg, ‘Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present.’ Memory is the term given to
the structures and processes involved in storage and subsequent retrieval of information.

The 3 main forms of memory storage are sensory memory, short - term memory and long -
term memory.

Wax Tablet: Both Aristotle and Plato compared memory to a block of wax that differed in size
and hardness for various individuals. According to this analogy, remembering was similar to
stamping an impression into the wax. As long as the image remained in the wax, the memory
would remain intact.

●​ Modern Psychologists: Modern theories of memory reflect the technological advances

of the 20th century. Many theories formulated at the dawn of the computer age drew an
analogy between information storage by computers and information storage in human
memory.

Information processing theories contributed to the subdivision of memory into 3

separate memory parts or stores. A sensory memory, a short - term memory and long - term
memory.
 ●​ According to Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, incoming information passes through two
temporary storage buffers—the sensory store and short-term store—before it is transferred
into a long-term store

Atkinson and Shiffrins’s model of memory storage:

​ ​ ​

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) proposed that memory is made up of three information stores.
Sensory memory can hold a large amount of information just long enough (a fraction of a second)
for a small portion of it to be selected for longer storage. Short-term memory has a limited capacity,
and unless aided by rehearsal,its storage duration is brief. Long-term memory can store an
apparently unlimited amount of information for indeterminate periods.

According to Robert Sternberg, ‘Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present.’ Memory is the term given to
the structures and processes involved in storage and subsequent retrieval of information.

The 3 main forms of memory storage are sensory memory, short - term memory and long -
term memory.

Sensory Memory:

●​ The sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time,
usually only a fraction of a second.
●​ Sensory memory allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a
brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over.
●​ In the case of vision, people really perceive an afterimage rather than the actual stimulus.
●​ The brief preservation of sensations in sensory memory is adaptive in that it gives you
additional time to try to recognize stimuli.​ ​ ​

This brevity was demonstrated in a classic experiment by George Sperling (1960).

 ●​ His subjects saw three rows of letters flashed on a screen for just 1⁄20 of a second.
●​ A tone following the exposure signaled which row of letters the subject should report to
the experimenter .
●​ Subjects were fairly accurate when the signal occurred immediately.
●​ However, their accuracy steadily declined as the delay of the tone increased to one second.
Why? Because memory traces in the sensory store decay in about 1⁄4 of a second.

Criticism:

●​ Does stimulus persistence really involve memory storage?

●​ Artifact of the perceptual processing of incoming stimuli caused by excitatory feedback in
specific neural circuits?
●​ Stimulus persistence may be more like an echo than a memory.

Summary: The sensory store preserves information in its original form, probably for only a
fraction of a second. Short-term memory has a limited capacity of about seven chunks of
information. STM can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds.

Short Term Memory:​​

Short-term memory (STM) is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information
for up to about 20 seconds. There is a way that you can maintain information in your short-term
store indefinitely by engaging in rehearsal.

Rehearsal: The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information.

Durability of Storage:

Without rehearsal, information in short-term memory is lost in 10 to 20 seconds

Study by Peterson and Peterson (1959):

●​ They measured how long undergraduates could remember three consonants if they
couldn’t rehearse them.
●​ To prevent rehearsal, they required the students to count backward by threes from the time
the consonants were presented until they saw a light that signaled the recall test .
●​ Their results showed that subjects’ recall accuracy was pretty dismal after only 15 seconds.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Theorists originally believed that the loss of information from short-term memory was due purely
to time-related decay of memory traces, but follow-up research showed that interference from
competing material also contributes.

Capacity Storage:​ ​ ​
Short-term memory is also limited in the number of items it can hold.

The small capacity of STM was pointed out by George Miller (1956) in a famous paper called “The
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing In-
formation.”

●​ Miller noticed that people could recall only about seven items in tasks that required the use
of STM.(George Miller - The Magical Number 7+ 2)
●​ When short-term memory is filled to capacity, the insertion of new information “bumps
out” some of the information currently in STM.
●​ The limited capacity of STM constrains people’s ability to perform tasks in which they
need to mentally juggle various pieces of information.
●​ Some approaches to this issue suggest that the capacity of short-term memory may even be
less than widely assumed.
●​ Nelson Cowan asserts that the evidence indicates that the capacity of STM is four plus or
minus one. (Nelson Cowan- capacity of STM 4+ 1)

You can increase the capacity of your short-term memory by combining stimuli into larger, possibly
higher-order units, called chunks . A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single
unit.

Short term Memory as “Working Memory”:

●​ Short-term memory is not limited to phonemic encoding as originally thought and that
decay is not the only process responsible for the loss of information from STM.
●​ Other findings suggested that short-term memory involves more than a simple rehearsal
buffer, as originally envisioned.
●​ To make sense of such findings, Alan Baddeley proposed a more complex, modular model
of short-term memory that characterizes it as “working memory.”

Baddeley’s model of working memory consists of four components .

 1.​ The first component is the phonological loop that represented all of STM in earlier models.
This component is at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold on to a phone
number. Baddeley believes that the phonological loop evolved to facilitate the acquisition
of language.
2.​ The second component in working memory is a visuospatial sketchpad that permits people
to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images. This element is at work when you try to
mentally rearrange the furniture in your bedroom or map out a complicated route that you
need to follow to travel somewhere. Researchers investigate this module of working
memory by showing subjects visual sequences and spatial arrays, which they are asked to
recreate.
3.​ The third component is a central executive system. It controls the deployment of attention,
switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed. The central executive
also coordinates the actions of the other modules.
4.​ The fourth component is the episodic buffer, a temporary, limited-capacity store that allows
the various components of working memory to integrate information and that serves as an
interface between working memory and long-term memory.

The two key characteristics that originally defined short-term memory— limited capacity and
storage duration—are still present in the concept of working memory, but Baddeley’s model
accounts for evidence that STM handles a greater variety of functions than previously thought.

Baddeley’s model of working memory has generated an enormous volume of research. Much of the
early research demonstrated that the separate modules work independently, as hypothesized. For
example, studies showed that visual processing tasks that engaged the visuospatial sketchpad did
not interfere much with verbal processing tasks that engaged the phonological loop, and vice versa

Long Term Memory​ ​ ​

●​ Long-term memory (LTM) is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over
lengthy periods of time.
●​ LTM can store information indefinitely. In fact, one point of view is that all information
stored in long-term memory is stored there permanently. According to this view, forgetting
occurs only because people sometimes cannot retrieve needed information from LTM.

Types of long term memory:

1.​ Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected;

also called declarative memory.
2.​ Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot
consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory(Procedural memory)
Wilder Penfield:

●​ Reported triggering long-lost memories through electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
during brain surgeries.
●​ When Penfield used ESB to map brain function in patients undergoing surgery for
epilepsy, he found that stimulation of the temporal lobe sometimes elicited vivid
descriptions of events long past.
●​ Patients would describe events that apparently came from their childhood—such as “being
in a lumberyard” or “watching Mom make a phone call”—as if they were there once again.
●​ Penfield and others inferred that these descriptions were exact playbacks of long-lost
memories unearthed by electrical stimulation of the brain.
●​ No convincing evidence that memories are stored away permanently
○​ and not that forgetting is all a matter of retrieval failure

Wilder Penfield and his associates conducted a series of studies with human subjects undergoing brain
surgery for medical reasons. In these studies they used electrical stimulation of the brain to map out
brain function in the cortex. In the course of these studies they thought they triggered long-lost mem-
ories when they stimulated areas in the temporal lobe (seen near the bottom of the photo). However, as
your text explains, subsequent evidence led to a reinterpretation of their findings.

●​ The second line of research has centered on the phenomenon of flashbulb memories, which
are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events.
Q. Are Short Term Memory and Long Term Memory Really Separate?

The view of short-term memory and long-term memory as independent systems was originally
based, in part, on the belief that they depended on different types of encoding and were subject
to different mechanisms of forgetting.

Short Term Memory Long Term Memory

STM was thought to depend on phonemic encoding LTM encoding was thought to be largely semantic
(based on sound). (based on meaning).

Information loss from STM was believed to be due to Interference was viewed as the principal mechanism
time-related decay. of LTM forgetting.

However, decades of research have shown that these distinctions are not absolute, as both semantic
encoding and interference effects have been found in research on short-term memory. ​ ​
​ ​

●​ Short-term memory as a tiny and constantly changing portion of long-term mem- ory that
happens to be in a heightened state of activation.
●​ There is a single, unitary, “generic” memory store that is governed by one set of rules and
processes.
●​ The outcome of the debate about whether there are separate memory stores is difficult to
predict.
●​ At present, the multiple stores viewpoint remains dominant, but alternative approaches are
be- coming increasingly influential.

Q. How is Knowledge Represented and Organised in Memory?​ ​ ​

●​ Most theorists seem to agree that our mental representations probably take a variety of
forms, depending on the nature of the material that needs to be tucked away in memory.
●​ Most of the theorizing to date has focused on how factual knowledge may be represented in
memory.

Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies:​ ​ ​

A conceptual hierarchy is a multi level classification system based on common properties

among items.
People spontaneously organize information into categories for storage in memory. Some types of
information can be organized into a multilevel hierarchy of concepts, like the one shown here (in
the diagram), which was studied by Bower and others. They found that subjects remember more
information when they organize it into a conceptual hierarchy.

Study by Bousfield:

●​ Asked subjects to memorize a list of 60 words.

●​ Although presented in a scrambled order, each of the words in the list fit into one of four
categories: animals, men’s names, vegetables, or professions.
●​ Bousfield showed that subjects recalling this list engage in clustering—the tendency to
remember similar or related items in groups.
●​ Even though the words were not presented in organized groups, participants tended to
remember them in bunches that belonged in the same category.
●​ Thus, when applicable, factual information is routinely or- ganized into simple categories.

According to Gordon Bower, organizing information into a conceptual hierarchy can

improve recall dramatically.

Schemas:​ ​ ​ ​

A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event

abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.

●​ People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas than things
that are not.
●​ The inverse is also true: People sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their
schema-based expectations.
●​ If information really clashes with a schema, it may attract extra attention and deeper
processing and thus become more memorable.
●​ In short, the impact of schemas on memory can be difficult to predict, but either way it is
apparent that information stored in memory is often organized around schemas.

Semantic Networks:​ ​ ​
A semantic network consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways
that link related concepts.

The Diagram:

●​ The ovals are the nodes, and the words inside the ovals are the interlinked concepts.
●​ The lines connecting the nodes are the pathways.
●​ The length of each pathway represents the degree of association between two concepts.
●​ Shorter pathways imply stronger associations. ​
●​ Semantic networks have proven useful in explaining why thinking about one word (such as
butter) can make a closely related word (such as bread ) easier to remember. ​ ​
​

Spreading activation within a semantic network:

●​ They assume that activation spreads out along the pathways of the semantic network
surrounding the word.
●​ The strength of this activation decreases as it travels outward, much as ripples decrease in
size as they radiate outward from a rock tossed into a pond.

Connectionist or Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models:​ ​ ​

Connectionist models of memory take their inspiration from how neural networks appear to handle
information.

●​ The human brain appears to depend extensively on parallel distributed processing—that is,
simultaneous processing of the same information that is spread across networks of neurons.
●​ Based on this insight and basic findings about how neurons operate, connectionist or
parallel distributed processing (PDP) models assume that cognitive processes depend on
patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble
neural networks
 ●​ A PDP system consists of a large network of interconnected computing units, or nodes,
that operate much like neurons.
➔​ These nodes may be inactive or they may send either excitatory or inhibitory signals
to other units.
➔​ Like an individual neuron, a specific node’s level of activation reflects the weighted
balance of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from many other units.

Given this framework, PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of
activation in these networks. ​

Difference Between Connectionist networks and Semantic networks:

Connectionist Network Semantic Network

In connectionist networks, a piece of knowledge is In semantic networks, specific nodes represent specific
represented by a particular pattern of activation across concepts or pieces of knowledge.
an entire network. Thus, the information lies in the
strengths of the connections, which is why the PDP
approach is called “connectionism.”

Strength of Connectionist Network Method:

●​ Connectionist models provide a highly plausible account for how mental structures may be
derived from neural structures. In other words, they make sense in light of what research
has revealed about neurophysiology.
●​ Another strength is that the emphasis on parallel processing seems to explain the blazing
speed of humans’ cognitive functioning more persuasively than alternative models do.
●​ You may not always feel like your mental processes are blazingly fast, but the reality is that a
routine act like recogniz- ing a complex visual stimulus typically takes a scant 300
milliseconds.
●​ Most other models implicitly as- sume that thinking involves serial processing, which
requires executing operations in a single sequence.

3. Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory

Retrieval Cue Reinstating the Reconstructive memory Misinformation

Context of an Event Effect
 It is a stimulus that It is a method used to It is a theory of memory recall, in This effect takes place
allows us to recall more aid the retrieval of which the act of remembering is when a person's recall
easily information that memories. In the case influenced by various other of episodic memories
is in long-term memory. of eyewitness recall, cognitive processes including becomes less accurate
It may be a word, an the individual is asked perception, imagination, semantic because of post-event
emotion, or a sound; to re-create the event to memory and beliefs, amongst information. It can
whatever the specific be remembered in its others. According to Bartlett, we lead to inaccurate
cue, a memory will original context and is do this using schemas which are memories and, in
suddenly come to mind encouraged to think our previous knowledge and some cases, even
when the retrieval cue is about a variety of experience of a situation and we result in the
present. They help one stimuli surrounding the use this process to complete the formation of false
access memories stored event (e.g., smells, memory. Barlett made his subjects memories
in long-term memory sounds) in the hope of read ‘War of Ghosts’ as an
and bring them to one’s providing additional experiment, where they condensed
conscious awareness. retrieval cues. the story leaving out all the boring
details.

Source Monitoring Reality Monitoring

Refers to the process of deciding whether memories are

Occurs when a memory derived from one source is
based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual
misattributed to another source.
events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and
Mix up fictional information with factual information. imaginations)
Example- –“Did I pack the umbrella or only think
Example- cryptomnesia
about packing it?”

4. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses

According to Robert Sternberg, ‘Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present.’ Memory is the term given to
the structures and processes involved in storage and subsequent retrieval of information.
 EBBINGHAUS’ FORGETTING CURVE

●​ He studied the working of memory systematically, in a controlled environment in his laboratory.

●​ He made the first attempts to study forgetting by memorising lists of 3 letter nonsense syllables- 2
consonants with a vowel in between. For example; CEY, BAP.
●​ By measuring how easy it was to relearn a given list of words after varying periods of time had passed
since the initial learning.
●​ He found that the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first 9 hours, particularly in the first hour.
●​ After 9 hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines a little, even after many days.

MEASURES OF FORGETTING
It involves Retention which refers to the proportion of material retained. There are three principal
measures of retention.

Recall Recognition Relearning

Requires subjects to reproduce Requires subjects to select Tends to yield higher scores than
information on their own without previously learned information recall measures of memory for the
any cues from an array of options/ cues. same information

WHY DO WE FORGET?
Decay Theory
A memory trace is created every time a new memory is formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these
memory traces begin to fade and disappear. If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be
lost. Memories fade away rapidly when not reviewed or used. The curve of forgetting is like a playground slide;
we forget most immediately after we learn - in the first 24 hours; then it proceeds slowly.

Interference Theory
Motor learning seems to be better retained than verbal learning because a motor act has to be completely done to
be done at all and so requires a higher degree of organization and competency which involves over learning.
Interference is assumed to be greatest when intervening material is most similar to the test material.
McGeoch and McDonald (1931)- as the similarity of the intervening material decreased, the amount of
forgetting also decreased
There are two basic types of interference: Proactive and retroactive

●​ Proactive interference is when information learned earlier disrupts the recall of new
information
●​ A task you have done for years makes it more difficult to make minor changes. This is also known
as “habit capture.”
●​ Retroactive interference is when new information makes it more difficult or impossible to
remember previously learned info. It is the difficulty in the recall of info because of later exposure
to different material.
●​ You learn your new phone number and forget your old one.

Retrieval failure
Why does an effort to retrieve something fail on one occasion and succeed on another?
1. encoding specificity principle- the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the
memory code
●​ Mismatch between retrieval cues and the encoding of the information
–explanation for the inconsistent success of retrieval efforts
●​ Cue dependent forgetting, forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient
retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
●​ Eg. retrieval cue –library
– encoding- desk in the library
2. Transfer-appropriate processing occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the
type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention
●​ “fit” between the processing during encoding and retrieval.
5. In search of the Memory Trace: The Physiology of memory

The neural circuitry of memory

●​ Neurons are the basic means of information transfer within the nervous system
●​ Information in the form of a stimulus is detected by a specific type of neuron called sensory
neuron
●​ The information is then is passed to an adjacent neuron (interconnecting neuron)and so on
till it gets to where it’s going in the brain
●​ It is an electro-chemical process that allows this to happen

●​ All stimulus or nerve messages are picked up by the dendrites protruding from the cell
body.
●​ When the stimulus is strong enough, the cell body fires an electrical impulse.
●​ An electrical impulse travels down the axon or “outgoing branch”. Then the axon terminals
and buds at the end are stimulated to release chemicals called neurotransmitters (tiny
molecules that send specific messages).
●​ Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals
between a neuron and another cell.
●​ The dendrites or “incoming branches” of other neurons pick up these chemicals as they
cross the synapse.
●​ The synapse is the space between the buds of one neuron and dendrites of the adjacent
neuron. What it comes down to is brain cells, or neurons, communicating with each other
through electro-chemical pathways.
●​ Most nerve messages from the senses are first routed to the frontal lobe of the brain).
●​ Types of Storage Types of Storage Neurologists divide memory into sensory storage,
short-term memory, or "working" memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Storage
●​ In the sensory storage the stimulus is held for a fraction of a second. If the information has some
meaning it will be moved to short-term [Link] it has no importance it will be dumped.

Short-term memory
(STM) is the brain's system for remembering information in use. Most people can only hold five to nine items in
their short-term memory at one time. If they try to remember more than that, they will often end up forgetting
the middle items. Unless an individual pays attention to encode the stimulus into short-term memory, it will be
 lost. The memory is stored on something simiiar to an electronic tape loop. Once a complete loop is made, three
things can happen
[Link] information can be "rehearsed" (repeated) silently or aloud, which will provide auditory cues and the tape
loop continues. This will keep the information in short-term memory.
[Link] information can be transferred into long-term memory.
[Link] information can be [Link] has shown that short-term memory involves chemical modifications that
strengthen existing connections, called synapses, between neurons.

Long-Term Memory
●​ In the past, it was thought that all memory was stored in the cerebral cortex of the brain. We have now
learned that long-term memories are stored in multiple regions throughout the nervous system. (In other
words, they are not localized but stored through circuitry)
●​ Research has also shown that some memory is stored throughout the body. So every thought you have is
“felt” throughout your entire body because the receptors for the chemicals in your brain are found on
the surfaces of cells throughout your body.
●​ Thus when the chemicals are activated across synapses in the brain, the message is communicated to
every part of your body by chemotaxis, a process that allows cells to communicate by
“neurotransmitters” or remote travel using blood and cerebrospinal fluid.
●​ Research has shown that some memory may even be stored in muscle tissue.
●​ This became evident with organ transplants. People who have received donor organs have reported
experiencing cravings or emotional reactions to certain incidents that they never had before

Primary Storage Area

The cerebral cortex is the primary area of storage in the brain. The cerebral cortex is often
referred to as gray matter and covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the brain.

For learning to “stick”, the synapses need time to “gel” (create new connections and synapses). If
the synapse doesn’t “gel” then recreating the event (recalling the memory) is difficult, if not
impossible.

Simply put, memories are stored in subgroups of neurons that are activated in response to various
sensory experiences. The interconnections which are formed are subject to continual [Link]
neurons start to line up and new connections are formed. The storage of information in LTM is a
function of new interconnections and synapses and the production of new protein molecules.

Implications
●​ Training leads to denser dendrite growth. This is important because we now know that
areas of the brain continue to produce new neurons even as we age.
●​ Recent studies have found patterns of neural activity during sleep that is identical to those
seen when learning a new task. It is believed that this aids in the consolidation and storage
of memory. Adequate sleep is important to memory.
●​ Excessive stress and obesity produce an over-production of a complex set of stress
hormones called glucocorticoids (cortisol being one example). Over exposure to
 glucocorticoids damages and destroys neurons in the brain’s hippocampus – a region
critical to learning and memory. One really good way to burn off excess cortisol is through
exercise. So for those experiencing particularly high stress levels exercise is not only
beneficial, it is necessary.

Anatomy of Memory

Organic amnesia is a form of memory loss due to head injury. There are two forms of amnesia:
1.​ Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories of events that have occurred prior to the onset of
amnesia. For example, a 25-year-old gymnast who sustains a head trauma might find the
prior three years, or seven years, or her entire lifetime erased.
2.​ Anterograde amnesia : the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of
amnesia. For instance, after her accident, the injured gymnast might suffer impaired ability
to remember people she meets, where she has parked her car, and so on.

Anterograde amnesia is a useful area of study to figure out the working of the brain and memories.
A particular case of H.M who had a surgery to relieve debilitating seizures, wiped out his ability to
form long term memories. His short term memories are fine but he cannot recollect any
information that was previously stored in his long term memory.
H.M’s memory losses were attributed to the removal of his hippocampus. They found out that
the hippocampal region along with its adjacent areas are critical for many types of long
term memory. They called this entire system the ‘Medial temporal lobe memory system’.

Consolidation is a hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into

durable memory codes stored in long-term memory. Theorists believe that the hippocampus is
critical in consolidation of information.

One recent advance has been the demonstration that the amygdala seems to be critical to
the formation of
memories for learned fears.

●​ Central executive component of working memory may be localized in the prefrontal

cortex
●​ The storage and rehearsal facets of the phonological loop are thought to be localized in
several cortical areas in the left hemisphere
●​ The visuospatial sketchpad is thought to depend on activity in several areas of the right
hemisphere.
SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF MEMORY
 DECLARATIVE MEMORY PROCEDURAL MEMORY

1.​ Declarative memory (“knowing what”) is the 1.​ Procedural memory (“knowing how”) is the
memory of facts and events and refers to those unconscious memory of skills and how to do
memories that can be consciously recalled (or things, particularly the use of objects or
“declared”). It is sometimes called explicit movements of the body, such as tying a
memory since it consists of information that is shoelace, playing the guitar or riding a bike.
explicitly stored and retrieved, although it is These memories are typically acquired through
more properly a subset of explicit memory. repetition and practice and are composed of
Declarative memory can be further subdivided automatic sensorimotor behaviours that are so
into episodic memory and semantic memory deeply embedded that we are no longer aware
of them. Once learned, these “body memories”
allow us to carry out ordinary motor actions
more or less automatically. Procedural memory
is sometimes referred to as implicit memory,
because of previous experiences aid in the
performance of a task without explicit and
conscious awareness of these previous
experiences, although it is more properly a
subset of implicit memory.

2.​ Declarative memories are encoded by the 2.​ Procedural memories, on the other hand, do
hippocampus, entorhinal cortex and perirhinal not appear to involve the hippocampus at all
cortex (all within the medial temporal lobe of and are encoded and stored by the cerebellum,
the brain), but are consolidated and stored in putamen, caudate nucleus and the motor
the temporal cortex and elsewhere cortex, all of which are involved in motor
control
 SEMANTIC MEMORY EPISODIC MEMORY

1.​ Semantic memory is recall of general facts 1.​ episodic memory is recall of personal facts
2.​ Semantic memory is a more structured record 2.​ Episodic memory represents our memory of
of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge experiences and specific events in time in a
about the external world that we have acquired. serial form, from which we can reconstruct the
It refers to general factual knowledge, shared actual events that took place at any given point
with others and independent of personal in our lives. It is the memory of
experience and of the spatial/temporal context autobiographical events (times, places,
in which it was acquired. Semantic memories associated emotions and other contextual
may once have had a personal context, but now knowledge) that can be explicitly stated.
stand alone as simple knowledge. It, therefore, Individuals tend to see themselves as actors in
includes such things as types of food, capital these events, and the emotional charge and the
cities, social customs, functions of objects, entire context surrounding an event is usually
vocabulary, understanding of mathematics, etc. part of the memory, not just the bare facts of
Much of semantic memory is abstract and the event itself.
relational and is associated with the meaning of
verbal symbols.

3.​ Semantic memory mainly activates the frontal

and temporal cortices. 3.​ episodic memory activity is concentrated in the
hippocampus, at least initially. (Once processed
in the hippocampus, episodic memories are
then consolidated and stored in the neocortex.
The memories of the different elements of a
particular event are distributed in the various
visual, olfactory and auditory areas of the
brain, but they are all connected together by
the hippocampus to form an episode, rather
than remaining a collection of separate
memories.)
 PROSPECTIVE MEMORY RETROSPECTIVE MEMORY

1.​ Prospective memory is where the content is to [Link] memory is where the content to be
be remembered in the future and may be remembered (people, words, events, etc) is in the past,
defined as “remembering to remember” or i.e. the recollection of past episodes. It includes
remembering to perform an intended action. It semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory, and
may be either event-based or time-based, often declarative memory in general, although it can be
triggered by a cue, such as going to the doctor either explicit or implicit.
(action) at 4 pm (cue), or remembering to post
a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue).

2.​ Time Based Prospective Memory

2. Episodic Memory
Time based prospective memory is the type of
memory you use when you want to do Episodic memory is memories of things you have done
something at a specific time in the future. This or that have happened to you throughout your life.
type of prospective memory is usually the first Episodic memory includes autobiographical memory,
to fail in memory disorders. It requires such as remembering your wedding day. Episodic
attention and recollection of a set time and is memory is also responsible for being able to remember
therefore more difficult to remember. Even what you ate for breakfast this morning or
people without memory deficits tend to test remembering opening a package you got in the mail.
lower on time based prospective memory tests.
Semantic Memory
Event Based Prospective Memory
Semantic memory is your memory of facts and
Event based prospective memory is the type of knowledge that you have learned throughout your
memory you use when you want to do lifetime. When you remember sitting in class and your
something at a point in the future and you are professor saying something specific about a topic, that
reminded by an event. It can be a planned is episodic memory. But when you don't recall
event, such as going to bed or eating a meal, or necessarily the actual gaining of the information, just
it can be an unplanned event, such as seeing the the information itself, that is semantic memory. For
mailbox reminding you to send a letter. This is example, knowing all the state capitals is semantic
a much more common and easier to remember memory.
type of prospective memory.
Procedural Memory

Procedural memory is your memory of how to do

things. It is automatic and does not require specific
recall. Procedural memory is responsible for allowing
you to remember how to walk, talk, run, skip, ride a
bike, and drive a car. You don't really have to think
about how to do these things because procedural
4. FOR EXAMPLE memory steps in along with muscle memory and your
 ●​ Remembering to watch a sports game at 3 pm body just does them.
on the following Saturday
●​ Remember a doctor's appointment at a specific 4. FOR EXAMPLE
time on a specific day ●​ Remembering how to ride a bike when you
●​ Remembering to mail a letter when you see the have not ridden a bike in many years
mailbox ●​ Remembering how to drive a car
●​ Remembering to brush your teeth before bed ●​ Remembering how to eat with a fork and knife

IMPROVING EVERYDAY MEMORY

[Link] in adequate rehearsal

•Practice makes perfect (improved retention)
–transfer information into long-term memory
–informally test yourself on information
•Overlearning -continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it
Krueger found that greater overlearning was related to better recall of the list
•The serial-position effect occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list
than for items in the middle.

2. Schedule Distributed Practice and Minimize Interference

●​ Studies show that cramming a lot of information in a short period of time reduces retention capacity.
●​ However, if the same information is fed in certain intervals of time, regularly, there will be greater
retention. This is called distributed practice.
●​ Interference also reduces retention. For example, studying two subjects simultaneously will probably lead
to reduced retention for both subjects. However, studying one subject at a time will increase a person’s
capability of holding the information for a longer duration.

[Link] in Deep Processing and Organize Information

●​ The depth of processing of information relies on how often one rehearses and recalls what they have
learnt. This is mainly dependent on the encoding of the information
●​ Organizing material in your memory the first time you read it helps in retention. One can organize
material on the basis of advance information and its arrangement. You can then make connections and
relationships among the various facts and process the material at a deeper level, which will later aid in
recall.
●​ Organization can be- hierarchical, or simply an outline of the various sub topics covered.
 4. Enrich encoding with mnemonic devices
●​ Mnemonic devices, sometimes simply called mnemonics, are one way to help encode simple material
into memory. A mnemonic is any organization technique that can be used to help remember something.
●​ Acronyms, acrostics are simple ways to recall information
For example: BODMAS,VIBGYOR,EveryGood Boy Does Fine
●​ Narrative Methods- create a story that includes the words in the appropriate order
●​ Rhymes

Unit 4
Intelligence

DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence can be defined as the "aggregate or global capacity of an individual to think
purposefully, act rationally and to deal with his/ her environment more effectively".

Intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to :

●​ understand complex ideas
●​ adapt effectively to the environment
●​ learn from experience
●​ engage in various forms of reasoning
●​ overcome the obstacles by careful thinking.

Q. Elaborate on any 3 theories of intelligence.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Binet - Simon E scale of intelligence

●​ Alfred Binet was a French psychologist best-remembered for developing the first widely used intelligence test. The
test originated after the French government commissioned Binet to develop an instrument that could identify
school kids that needed remedial studies. With his collaborator Theodore Simon, they created the Binet-Simon
Intelligence Scale.
●​ Lewis Terman later revised the scale and standardized the test with subjects drawn from an American sample and this
American adaptation came to be known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. The test is still in use today and
remains one of the most widely used intelligence tests
●​ Purpose: [Link] Binet - Simon Intelligence Scale was originally developed to help place children in appropriate
educational settings.
2. It can help determine the level of intellectual and cognitive functioning in preschoolers, children,
adolescents and adults, and assist in the diagnosis of a learning disability, developmental delay, mental retardation , or
giftedness.
●​ Subjects of the test : children who were know to be 'feeble-minded'
●​ The scale consisted of 30 test items arranged in the order, from simplest to the most difficult
●​ The Binet - Simon Intelligence Scale is composed of four cognitive area scores which together determine the
composite score and factor scores. These area scores include: Verbal Reasoning, Abstract/Visual Reasoning,
Quantitative Reasoning, and Short-Term Memory.

●​ Criticism:
1.​ The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale has been criticized as being insensitive to age.
2.​ There are studies done, stating that a person's ability to score high in verbal reasoning is not affected by the presence
of psychosis.
3.​ Binet himself did not believe that his psychometric instruments could be used to measure a single, permanent, and
inborn level of intelligence.
4.​ Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is far too broad a concept to quantify with a
single number.

Stanford - Binet individual intelligence test

●​ The Stanford-Binet is the American adaptation of the original French Binet-Simon intelligence test.
It was first introduced in 1916 by Lewis Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University.
●​ The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a standardized test that assesses intelligence and cognitive abilities in children,
beginning at age two, and in adults.
●​ Purpose: The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is used as a tool in school placement, in determining the presence of a
learning disability or a developmental delay , and in tracking intellectual development.
●​ The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales are designed to measure five factors of cognitive ability.
These five factors include:

1.​ Fluid reasoning : Fluid reasoning is the ability to solve (usually abstract) problems in which
no prior knowledge is required. Nonverbal aspect of fluid reasoning is tested
with object series matrices
 2.​ Knowledge Knowledge is defined as someone’s accumulated stock of general
information that has been committed to long-term memory. The nonverbal
sub-tests from this factor are tested with procedural knowledge and visual
absurdities

3.​ Quantitative Quantitative reasoning measures a person’s numeracy. Depending on a test

reasoning subject’s level, questions in this section can include basic counting, addition
and subtraction. At higher levels, measurement, geometry and word
problems are included.

4.​ Visual-spatial Visual-spatial processing involves the recognition of both patterns and
processing spatial relationships and the ability to recognize the whole from its
constituent parts. The nonverbal portion of this sub-test usually includes
assembling puzzles and patterns

5.​ Working memory: Working memory is defined as the multiple processes that capture, sort
and transform information in a person’s short-term memory.
Nonverbal working memory is assessed using delayed response and block
span techniques

CRITICISM
●​ Test scores can be influenced by many factors; because of this, more than one instrument may be necessary to
properly measure an individual's intelligence.
●​ It is also a difficult test.
●​ Has been criticized for being too insensitive to age.
●​ The test's ability to diagnose mental issues has also come into question!

Spearman's 2 factor theory

●​ British Psychologist Charles Spearman, believed that performance on any cognitive task was dependent upon two
factors : 'g' factor / 'general factor and 's' factor/'specific' factor.

●​ General factor : which are primary and common to all tasks. Maintained that all intellectual activities share a single
common factor (called “g”) which is characterized as mental energy.
 ●​ Specific factor : are special abilities that are related to a particular task. Each specific factor is strictly specific to a
single activity.

●​ General factor was associated with mental processes that were distinct from memory, physical abilities, and the
senses. Example - athleticism. He demonstrated that intelligence tests, in addition to measuring "g," also measured
specific abilities that he called Specific factors, such as verbal, mathematical, and artistic skills.

●​ CRITICISM :
1.​ Criticism came from one of Spearman’s own students, Raymond Cattell, who thought that intelligence could be
understood as two main capacities: “fluid" (Gf) and “crystallized" (Gc).
2.​ Gardner argued that the academic environment over-emphasized verbal and logical skill while ignoring these other
forms of intelligence.
3.​ Criticism for the reductive nature of g, including psychologist L.L. Thurstone and J. P Guilford. Both believed that
there were several, irreducible and independent domains of intelligence, however many have since found correlations
between their tests which strongly suggest a general factor.

Thorndike's stimulus response theory

●​ Stimulus response theory founded by Ivan Pavlov proposes that all learning primarily consists of strengthening the
relationship between the stimulus and the response. Further developing this theory, Edward Thorndike proposed
three laws: the law of effect, the law of exercise, and the law of readiness.

The Law of effect : which stated that any behaviour that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated, and any behaviour followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be
stopped.

The Law of exercise that sustains that the exercise or the practice of the appropriate response contributes to
: strengthening the connection between the stimulus and the corresponding response.

The Law of that affirms that the preparation or disposition of the subject contributes to the
readiness: learning. In other words, the self imposed expectations of the subject constitute the
intrinsic reinforcement of all action.
Readiness depends on three main factors such as:
Maturation
Experiences—training or previous learning
 Favourable physical, psychological and environmental elements conducive for learning.

L.L Thurstone multiple factor theory of intelligence

●​ Louis Leon Thurstone proposed the theory in 1930, that intelligence is composed of several different factors.
●​ According to Thurstone, intelligence is composed of seven primary mental abilities.
●​ The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model were

1.​ Verbal The ability to understand the meaning of [Link] factor involves a person’s
comprehension: ability to understand verbal material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and
reading comprehension.

2.​ Word fluency: The ability to rapidly produce words, sentences, and other verbal material. It is
measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many
words as possible beginning with a common letter in a short amount of time.

3.​ Number facility: The ability involved in rapid arithmetic computation and in solving simple
arithmetic word problems

4.​ Spatial This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how pieces of
visualization a puzzle fit together

5.​ Associative The ability to recall verbal or visual stimuli such as word pairs, sentences, objects
memory: and so

6.​ Perceptual speed: This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid recognition of letters and
numbers. It is measured by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of 'A' in a
long string of letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of several pictures at
the right is identical to the picture at the left.

7.​ Reasoning: This ability requires generalization—reasoning from the specific to the general. It
is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and word classifications, in
which the examinee must indicate which of several words does not belong with the
others.
CRITICISM:
●​ Thurstone rejected the idea that any one factor had more general application than others.
●​ Evaluated all factors influencing performance on a given test at one time, devising new statistical techniques to
perform the factor analysis.
●​ Researchers rejected his use of statistical methods.

Q. Give two differences between Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence.

Cattell's theory on fluid and crystallized intelligence

Raymond B. Cattell is one of the most well-known authors in the psychology of individual differences. Cattell has studied
intelligence in depth. He developed a model based on two central factors: fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence
(Gc). Cattell’s model differs from Spearman’s conception of intelligence as a single unit. He explored the difference between
two independent but correlated factors of general intelligence - Gf and Gc are both factors of g (general intelligence)
g or g -factor -The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of
intelligence.

Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence

●​ Intelligence that reflects information-processing ●​ Intelligence that is an accumulation of information,
capabilities, reasoning, and memory. skills, and strategies that are learned through
●​ Fluid intelligence reflects a general kind of experience and can be applied in problem-solving
intelligence. situations.
●​ Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to reason ●​ Crystallized intelligence reflects the culture in which
abstractly. a person is raised.
●​ Ex: If we were asked to solve an analogy, solve puzzles, ●​ Ex: If we were asked to participate in a discussion
come up with problem solving strategies ,or about the solution to the causes of poverty, a task
remember a set of numbers, we would be using fluid that allows us to draw on our own past experiences
intelligence. and knowledge of the world.
●​ Intelligence tends to decline during late adulthood. ●​ Intelligence does not decline during any stage of life.
Certain cognitive skills associated with fluid ●​ Crystallized Intelligence refers to accumulated
intelligence tend to decline as people reach later knowledge, i.e, information we store over a lifetime
adulthood. of experience.
 Criticism
●​ It is shown that Cattell's research strategy can be reduced to accepting the model of factor analysis.
●​ In particular, it is discussed why Cattell did not succeed with complete verification of his main hypothesis.
●​ Possess Methodical weakness.

Guilford theory on structure of intellect

According to J. P. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, an individual’s performance on intelligence tests can be
traced back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 150 different intellectual
abilities organized along three dimensions—Operations, Content, and Product.

Operations dimension Content dimension Product dimension

SI includes five operations or general SI includes five broad areas of As the name suggests, this dimension
intellectual processes: information to which the human contains results of applying particular
intellect applies the operations: operations to specific contents. The SI
1.​ Cognition—The ability to model includes 6 products, in increasing
understand, comprehend, discover, complexity:
1.​ Visual—Information
and become aware of information. 1.​ Units—Single items of
perceived through seeing.
2.​ Memory recording and knowledge.
2.​ Auditory—Information
retention—The ability to encode 2.​ Classes—Sets of units sharing
perceived through
and recall information respectively. common attributes.
hearing.
3.​ Divergent production—The ability 3.​ Relations—Units linked as
3.​ Symbolic—Information
to generate multiple solutions to a opposites or in associations,
perceived as symbols or
problem; creativity. sequences, or analogies.
signs that have no
4.​ Convergent production—The 4.​ Systems—Multiple relations
meaning by themselves;
ability to produce a single solution interrelated to comprise
e.g., Arabic numerals or
to a problem; rule-following or structures or networks.
the letters of an alphabet.
problem-solving. 5.​ Transformations—Changes,
4.​ Semantic – Information
5.​ Evaluation—The ability to judge perspectives, conversions, or
concerned with verbal
whether or not information is mutations to knowledge.
meaning and ideas.
 accurate, consistent, or valid. 5.​ Behavioral—Information 6.​ Implications—Predictions,
perceived as acts of people. inferences, consequences, or
anticipations of knowledge.

Criticism

●​ Guilford’s approach is rejected by intelligence researchers who support the existence of a general factor of mental
ability.
●​ Several researchers have criticized the statistical techniques used by Guilford.
●​ Guilford’s Structure-of-Intellect model of human abilities has few supporters today.

Q. Explain Steemberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence.

Sternberg Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg proposed yet another important modern theory of intelligence. According to this theory,there are three
basic types of human intelligence.
Triarchic Theory: A theory suggesting that there are three basic forms of intelligence: componential (analytic), experiential
(creative), and contextual (practical) intelligence.

Componential /Analytic Experiential/ Creative Intelligence Contextual /Practical Intelligence

Intelligence

●​ It involves the ●​ It involves the ability to think ●​ It involves the ability to think
abilities to think creatively. practically.
critically and ●​ It emphasizes insight and the ability ●​ Intelligence is useful in solving everyday
analytically. to formulate new ideas. problems.
●​ Persons who rate ●​ Persons who rate high on this ●​ Persons who rate high on this dimension
high on this dimension excel in directing are intelligent in a practical, adaptive
dimension usually attention to what information is sense.
excel on standard crucial in a given situation, and at ●​ many would term them “street smarts.”
tests of academic combining seemingly unrelated ●​ Tacit Knowledge is knowledge that
potential and make facts. plays an important role in practical
excellent students. ●​ This is the kind of intelligence intelligence. Such knowledge is
shown by many scientific geniuses action-oriented and goal-directed, and is
and inventors, such as Einstein, usually acquired without direct help
Newton,etc. from others.
 Criticism

●​ Robert Sternberg’s definition of Intelligence is too broad as there are only 3 components.
●​ The 3 components making up this theory can be attributed to being social skills rather than being a form of
intelligence.
●​ It suffers from the lack of supporting empirical research; unempirical in nature.
●​ It is not accurate to assume traditional IQ tests to measure practical intelligence.

Q. Explain any 5 forms of intelligence described by Gardner in his theory of multiple

intelligences.

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence

●​ Theory of multiple intelligences :Gardner’s intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres
of intelligence.
●​ Howard Gardner argues that we have a minimum eight different forms of intelligence, each relatively independent
of the others: musical, bodily kinesthetic, logical mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalist.
a.​ Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in
their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning
lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio,
stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
b.​ Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They
like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and are taught
through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real
objects.
c.​ Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and
explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be
taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can
deal with details.
d.​ Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in
words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by
encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia,
books, tape recorders, and lectures.
e.​ Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They
like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, and daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and
 physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video,
videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
f.​ Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have
many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars,
dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video
conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.
g.​ Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others.
They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will,
confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include
books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
h.​ Naturalist- The ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature.

●​ In Gardner’s view, each of the multiple intelligences is linked to an independent system in the brain. Furthermore, he
suggests that there may be even more types of intelligence, such as existential intelligence, which involves
identifying and thinking about the fundamental questions of human existence. For example, the Dalai Lama might
exemplify this type of intelligence.

Criticism
●​ Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad.
●​ His eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities.
●​ Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research.

Q. What is a psychological test?

 Key concepts in psychological testing
A psychological test or psychological assessments are a standardized measure of a sample of a person’s behavior to
measure the individual differences that exist among people in abilities, aptitudes, and aspects of personality.

Psychological tests are used to assess many areas, including:

●​ Traits such as introversion and extroversion

●​ Certain conditions such as depression and anxiety

●​ Attitudes and feelings such as how individuals feel about the treatment that they received from their therapists

●​ Interests such as the careers and activities

●​ Specific abilities, knowledge or skills such as cognitive ability, memory and problem-solving skills

Examples of Psychological tests or Psychological assessments are - Intelligence tests such as Stanford - Binet
Intelligence Scale (SB) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) , Personality tests such as Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) and Rorschach ‘Inkblot Test’, Aptitude Tests and Achievement Tests.

Key concepts of psychological tests or psychological assessments are -

Standardization - Refers to the uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test.
Norms - Provides information about where a score in a psychological test ranks in relation to the other scores on that
test.
Reliability - Refers to the measurement consistency of a test.
Validity - Refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.

IQ- INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT

●​ A score that takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages.
●​ IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.
Thus a 10-year-old child who does as well as the average 10-year-old child has an IQ of 100 (10 ÷ 10 × 100),
whereas an eight-year-old child who does as well as the average 10-year-old child would have an IQ of 125 (10 ÷
8 × 100).
●​ Mental Age (MA): The age for which a given level of performance is average or typical.
●​ IQ is used to describe the calculated value of a person's mind.

Difference Between IQ and Intelligence

Q. “IQ is not intelligence, it is one index of intelligence.” State two points to validate your answer.
Intelligence refers to the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to think purposefully, act rationally and adapt to
his or her environment more effectively.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) refers to the score that takes into account a person’s mental age and chronological age. IQ
is used to describe the calculated value of a person's mind.
 1.​ Intelligence is a broad term whereas IQ is a specific term.
2.​ Intelligence determines the overall personality and specialization of a person whereas IQ concentrates on
only study.
3.​ Intelligence is of various types but IQ does not have many types.
4.​ IQ is a ratio. There is no such ratio for intelligence.
5.​ There are various theories for intelligence but no such theory for IQ.
6.​ There are various tests done to know the intelligence of a person and then the IQ score is calculated.

Intelligence tests: Type of psychological tests or psychological assessments devised to quantify a person’s level of
intelligence.
There are 3 types of intelligence tests -

Verbal Tests Non- verbal Tests Performance Tests

Verbal intelligence tests require verbal Nonverbal intelligence tests measure Performance test is any test that
skills (e.g., the comprehension of nonverbal reasoning. They are used to requires the ability of primarily
spoken instructions) but primarily are assess students who have language motor, rather than verbal,
considered measures of other abilities, processing problems or those with responses, such as a test
such as visuospatial perception or limited English proficiency. They are requiring manipulation of
processing speed. meant for students who have speech, different objects or completion
language, or hearing impairments or who of a task that involves physical
Examples : - are not verbally communicative. movement.
1.​ Army alpha test (developed
during World War I) Examples :- Some of the famous tests are:
2.​ Army general classification Test 1.​ The Comprehensive Test of (a) Koh’s Block Design Test,
(World War II). Nonverbal Intelligence (b) The Cube Construction
(C-TONI) Tests, and
2.​ Universal Nonverbal Intelligence (c) The Pass along Tests.
Test (UNIT)
3.​ the Raven's Progressive Matrices
(RPM)

Limitations of Intelligence Testing

 ●​ IQ Tests Do Not Measure Every Kind of Intelligence- IQ is different from intelligence.
●​ Familiarity with the test items/ test taking abilities.
●​ Limited Measurement: Intelligence tests measure specific thinking skills, such as reasoning and comprehension.
However, intelligence consists of multiple skills and ways of thinking that are affected by genetics, environment,
opportunities and experiences.
●​ Measure of Experience, Not Biology: Intelligence tests feature questions about concepts and objects based on
context. Just because someone might not give the "correct" answer because the question is about something
unfamiliar does not mean she isn't intelligent.
●​ Biased Norms : Intelligence tests are normed on students with relatively privileged backgrounds and
experiences, and this creates a bias in scoring. These norms put students from higher income families at an
advantage over students from lower income families, because the advantaged students have more access to
resources and enriching experiences.
●​ Cultural Bias : They do not produce consistent scores across cultural groups.

Hereditary and Environmental Effect on Intelligence

Human intelligence is clearly the result of the complex interplay between genetic factors and a wide range of
environmental conditions (e.g., Plomin & Bergeman, 1991).
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes definitely influence intelligence along with other
factors like nutrition and hormones released by glands. Many researches are being conducted on this topic.

Evidence for the Role of Heredity

Heritability- A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors.
Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons of Varying Relationships
Higher correlations indicate stronger relationships between variables.
First, consider findings with respect to family relationships and measured IQ. If intelligence is indeed determined in part
by heredity, we would expect that the more closely two persons are related, the more similar their IQs will [Link]
prediction has generally been confirmed (e.g., McGue et al., 1993; Neisser et al., 1996). The closer the biological
relationship of two individuals, the higher the correlation between their IQ scores. This finding provides support for the
role of genetic factors in intelligence. For example, the IQs of identical twins raised together correlate almost +0.90, those
of brothers and sisters about +0.50, and those of cousins about +0.15.

Twin Studies -Identical Twins Reared Apart

Perhaps the most dramatic evidence for the role of genetic factors in intelligence has been provided by research on
identical twins separated early in life who were then raised in different homes (e.g., Bouchard et al., 1990). Such persons
have identical genetic inheritance but have been exposed to different environmental conditions—in some cases, sharply
contrasting conditions; so studying their IQs provides a powerful means for comparing the roles of genetic and
environmental factors in human intelligence. The results of such research are very clear: The IQs of identical twins
reared apart (often, from the time they were only a few days old) correlate almost as highly as those of identical
twins reared together. Moreover, such individuals are also amazingly similar in many other characteristics, such as
physical appearance, preferences in dress, mannerisms, and even personality. The IQ scores of identical twins separated at
birth and raised in different homes are highly correlated. This finding provides evidence for the impact of genetic factors
on intelligence

Higher similarity / correlation in intelligence were found among identical twins. Lower correlation was found
in fraternal twins.

Correlation is highest for identical twins reared together.

Adoption studies
Additional support for the impact of heredity on intelligence is provided by studies involving adopted children. If
intelligence is strongly affected by genetic factors, the IQs of adopted children should resemble those of their biological
parents more closely than those of their adoptive parents. In short, the children should be more similar in IQ to the
persons from whom they received their genes than to the persons who raised them. This prediction, too, has been
confirmed. While the IQs of adopted children correlate about +0.40 to +0.50 with those of the children’s biological
parents, they correlate only about +0.10 to +0.20 with those of their adoptive parents (Jencks, 1972; Munsinger, 1978).
Thus, there is more chance that adopted children and their biological parents have more similarities with respect to
intelligence, rather than their adoptive parents.
 Evidence for the Role of Environment
The environment in which we grow up, family conditions, school, parents, siblings, education level of parents, economic
background, religion and customs play an important role in influencing intelligence.

Adoption Studies
Adoption studies look at the impact of nurture on children who are raised by parents who are not their biological
parents.
If an adopted child scores just as highly for IQ as his or her adoptive parents or step-brothers or step-sisters, this suggests
that intelligence is down to nurture. If the adopted child's biological parents scored very differently on IQ tests, this
strengthens the conclusion that upbringing, not genetics, is responsible for intelligence.
On the other hand, if the adopted child's IQ scores do not resemble those of the adoptive family, this suggests nurture is
not such a strong influence on intelligence. If the adopted child's IQ more closely resembles the biological parents, this
further weakens the idea that nurture can influence intelligence.

Flynn Effect

James Flynn was a professor in New Zealand who became famous for his research and findings in intelligence.
In his study of IQ tests scores for different populations over the past sixty years, Flynn discovered that IQ scores
increased from one generation to the next around the world at all age levels. This interesting phenomena has been
called "the Flynn Effect." Such increases have averaged about three IQ points per decade.

Flynn recently proposed that people are getting smarter at skills that are more important in our society today, particularly
abstract thinking. In the past century, our society has progressed from being agricultural to being industrial and is now
information-based. As our society has progressed, people have become better at thinking in abstract, scientific terms.

His theory is supported by the fact that these increases in IQ points are largely on intelligence subtests that focus on
abstract thinking, while the gains on traditional subjects, such as vocabulary and mathematics, have been very small.

Environmental deprivation and Environmental enrichment

Environmental deprivation : intelligence can be reduced by the absence of certain forms of environmental stimulation
early in life.

Environmental enrichment: removing children from sterile, restricted environment and placing them in more
favorable settings seems to enhance their intellectual growth.
 Unit 5
Cognitive Processes

[Link]- Concepts: Logical concepts, natural concepts, Propositions:mental models, Images ,

Reaction time

[Link] - Errors in reasoning: Role of mood states, role of beliefs, confirmation bias,
hindsight, Physical reasoning, Making Decisions: Heuristics, Escalation of commitment, Emotions
and decision making, naturalistic decision making.

3. Problem Solving: Types of problems (Themes and variations) Methods for solving problems,
Factors that interfere with problem solving, functional fixedness, mental set

4. Artificial intelligence: neural networks

5. Creativity divergent thinking & convergent thinking

Steps in creativity: Preparation, Incubation, Insight, Evaluation, Elaboration,

[Link]: What is Language, Structure of language, Bilingualism, Can animals develop

language (Themes and variations), Theories of Language Development: Social learning view,
language acquisition device, cognitive theory (Baron), Nativist Theories(Themes and variations),
Language and thought: linguistic-relativity hypothesis.

Cognitive Processes
 Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks the brain does continuously. They refer to
procedures in charge of processing all the information we receive from the environment. They
refer to the mental activities associated with thought, decision making, language and other higher
mental processes.
There are 6 types of Cognitive Processes.

ATTENTION – Attention refers to the focusing of awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or

events. It refers to selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of a stimulus, while ignoring other
perceivable aspects in the environment. 3 Types – Selective, Sustained and Divided Attention.

THINKING – Thinking refers to the manipulation of mental representations of information.

These representations may be in the form of visual images, sounds, touch or other distinct sensory
form in our brain. Thinking involves manipulating representations from old to new, so that we can
question it to solve problems and make decisions. Factors of thinking – Mental images, Concepts
(Logical & Neutral), Prototypes and Propositions.

REASONING – Reasoning refers to the process of thinking of something in a logical way to form
conclusions or judgments; it refers to the ability of the mind to think in a logical way. 3 types –
Formal, Every day and Physical Reasoning. Errors in Reasoning – Role of mood states, Role of
beliefs, Confirmation bias and Hindsights.

DECISION MAKING – Decision making refers to the course of action among several alternative
possibilities. Factors influencing Decision making – Heuristic, Escalation of commitment,
Emotions and Naturalistic behavior.

PROBLEM SOLVING – Problem solving refers to the efforts to develop or choose among
various responses to attain desired goals. 3 types – Arrangement, Transformation and Problems of
inducing structures. Methods of problem solving – Trial & Error, Analogy, Insight, Algorithm,
Means- ends analysis and Forming subtopics. 2 interferences – Functional Fixedness and Mental
Set.

LANGUAGE – Language is the communication of information through symbols according to

systematic rules. Basic structure of language rests on Grammar, a set of rules that dictate how
thoughts must be expressed. Grammar has 2 components – Morphology and Syntax. Levels of
language – Phonology (Phonetics/Phonemes), Morphology (Morphemes), Syntax and Semantics.

Attention Thinking Reasoning Decision Making Problem Solving Language

The process The ability to process It is the process by The cognitive It is a cognitive The processes to
for selecting information, hold which knowledge process resulting in process of the understand and
an object on attention, store and is applied to the selection of a brain that searches communicate
which to retrieve memories achieve most of belief or a course of a solution for a through language
concentrate. and select our goals. The action among given problem or via reading,
appropriate central activity in several alternative finds a path to writing, speaking,
responses and actions intelligent possibilities. reach a given goal. and listening.
thinking.

Attention

Attention refers to focusing our awareness to a narrowed range of stimuli or events.

Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of
information, whether considered subjective or objective, while ignoring other perceivable
information. There are 3 types of Attention.

Selective Attention Sustained Attention Divided Attention

Selective attention takes place when Sustained attention is commonly Divided attention refers to the
we block out certain features of our referred to as one's attention span. It ability to attend to two
environment and focus on one takes place when we can continually different things at the same
particular feature, like the focus on one thing happening, rather time.
conversation you are having with your than losing focus and having to keep
friend. bringing it back.

Thinking

Thinking refers to the manipulation of mental representations of information. A

representation may take the form of a word, a visual image, a sound, or data in any other sensory
modality stored in memory. Thinking transforms a specific representation of information into new
and different forms, allowing us to answer questions, solve problems, or reach goals.

Basic elements of thought are Mental Images, Concepts and Prototypes, Propositions.

Concepts Prototypes
Mental images Propositions

Representations in the mind They are categorizations of objects, The proposition is Prototypes are typical,
that resemble the object or events, or people that share common the most basic unit highly representative
event being represented. properties. of meaning in a examples of a concept
representation. It that correspond to our
Logical Natural is the smallest mental image or best
Research has found that our Clearly defined Not based on a statement that can example of the concept.
mental images have many of by a set of rules precise set of be judged either
the properties of the actual true or false. For instance, although
and properties. attributes or a robin and an ostrich
stimuli they represent. For Object’s properties.
example, it takes the mind Sentences that are both examples of
membership in a Does not have relate one concept birds, the robin is an
longer to scan mental images category is clear- cut
of large objects than of small to another and can example that comes to
unambiguous. boundaries. stand as separate most people’s minds
ones, just as the eye takes Eg- Geometrical Relevance to daily
longer to scan an actual large assertions far more readily.
shape- square life. Consequently, robin is
object than an actual small triangle. Defined by Eg. Ram greeted a prototype of the
one. prototypes. Sam – relation concept “bird.”
between friends
and affection.

Reaction time refers to time that elapses between the presentation of a stimulus and a person’s
reaction to it. Example- React to the presentation of a visual stimulus, identify letters presented on
a screen, decide whether a letter is a vowel or a consonant.

Reasoning

The process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or
judgment. : the ability of the mind to think and understand things in a logical way.

Formal Everyday Reasoning Physical Reasoning

Formal reasoning is used to The everyday reasoning can be defined as

evaluate the form of an argument, a way to solve the problems corresponding Physical reasoning is used to perceive
and to examine the logical to a form of logic different from the formal physical objects and allows people to
relationships between conclusions logic. This type of logic is individual and make predictions about events
and their supporting statements. contextual, related to the person's history involving these objects.
as well as his/her own way of previous
successful steps when solving problems.

Errors in Reasoning

Role of mood states Role of beliefs Confirmation bias Hindsights

Participants in positive One’s personal beliefs Confirmation bias occurs when A.K.A the knew-it-all-along
mood conditions were less contribute to the way we selectively notice or focus phenomenon.
effective in solving he or she reasons. on evidence which tends to Focus only on successful outcomes
problems compared to support the things we already and ignoring other possible
those in negative and believe or want to be true while outcomes.
neutral moods. ignoring that evidence which When people have a tendency to
would serve to disconfirm those view events as more predictable
beliefs or ideas. than they really are.

Decision Making

Decision Making refers to the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a
course of action among several alternative possibilities.

Factors influencing Decision Making

Emotions Naturalistic behaviour

Heuristic Escalation of commitment

Escalation of commitment Emotions influence the depth Involves intuition as based

It is a cognitive short- cut happens when someone of information processing. on large numbers of
that may lead to a solution. continues to dedicate Study by Metter and colleagues patterns gained through
Heuristics enhance the resources, including time and (1997) experience, resulting in
likelihood of success in money, to a failing course of Unexpected loss- great different forms of tacit
coming to a solution, but, action. disappointments knowledge.
unlike algorithms, they Unexpected gains- greater
cannot ensure it. happiness.

Problem Solving

Problem Solving refers to the efforts to develop or choose among various responses in order
to attain desired goals.

Types of Problems
 Arrangement Problems Problems of Inducing Structures Transformation Problems

It requires the problem solver to It requires the problem solver to It requires the problem solver to
rearrange or recombine elements in a way determine not only the relationships pass through an initial state, a goal
that will satisfy a certain criterion. among the elements but also the state, and a method for changing
Usually, several different arrangements structure and size of the elements the initial state into the goal state.
can be made, but only one or a few of the involved.
arrangements will produce a solution. Example- The Water Jar Problem
Examples- Analogies, Series
Examples- Anagram problems, jigsaw Completion
puzzles

Methods of Problem Solving

Trial and Error Algorithm Analogy

Means-ends analysis Forming Subgoals Insight

Solving problems
through repeated Solving problems by Dividing a problem A sudden It is a Solving problems
attempts, trying repeated testing for into intermediate awareness of the methodical, by applying
something differences between steps, or subgoals, relationships step-by-step solutions that
different every the desired outcome and solving each of among various procedure for were previously
time until you are and what currently those steps. elements that trying all successful with
successful exists. previously possible other problems
appeared to be alternatives in in underlying
independent of searching for a structure
one another solution to a
problem

Factors that interfere with problem solving

Functional Fixedness Mental Set

It is the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its Functional fixedness is an example of a broader
typical use. For instance, functional fixedness probably leads phenomenon known as mental set, the tendency for old
you to think of this book as something to read, instead of its
potential use as a doorstop or as kindling for a fire. patterns of problem solving to persist.

Example- The Water Jar Problem

Artificial
intelligence
Artificial intelligence is defined as an interdisciplinary branch of science in which
psychologists study the capacity of computers to demonstrate performance that, if it were
produced by human beings, would be described as showing intelligence.
The new computer systems, called neural networks, are structures consisting of highly
interconnected elementary computational units that work together in parallel. The primary
advantage of neural networks comes from the overall pattern resulting from millions of individual
units working together. In addition, neural networks have the capacity to learn from experience by
adjusting the strength of the output from individual units based on new information.

Creativity

Creativity refers to the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways.
Creativity is shown by highly creative people, for example, Pablo Picasso, Albert Einstein.
Creativity is associated with several characteristics, which include Flexibility, Sense of intense
curiosity, Positive attitude, Fearlessness, Strong motivation and determination, etc.

The creative process can be divided into 5 stages: Preparation, Incubation, Insight, Evaluation
and Elaboration.
●​ PREPARATION
The first stage is the idea of PREPARATION, the idea that you are immersing yourself in the
domain. In this stage, one attempts to absorb as much information as possible in order to allow the
second process to take off.
Example - If you are a musician you are absorbing a lot of the music that is inspiring you to create
this new piece / If you’re a writer you are reading other writers in this area /If you are an artist you
are looking at other artist’s work in the area that you are looking at creating something in.

●​ INCUBATION
The second stage is what we call the Incubation stage. In this stage all the information that one
has gathered in the Preparation stage begins to churn in the back of one's mind, in the
sub-consciousness. This is an extremely important stage as sometimes it can take days, or weeks, or
months or sometimes even years and is completely out of our control.

●​ INSIGHT
 The third stage is what most of the public think as a sign of a creative person and is called the
Insight stage or the insight step. With insight it is really the idea of the ‘Aha’ moment, the
‘Eureka’ moment. Although it is probably the smallest part of the five steps, it is possibly one of
the most important parts. This is because your subconsciousness in the previous stages is bubbling
away and in this stage our mind is allowed to work and eventually brings these ideas to the
forefront of your mind.

●​ EVALUATION
The fourth stage is the idea of Evaluation. The evaluation stage is important because this is where
one partakes in self-criticism and reflection. Further,this stage is very important because we only
have a limited amount of time to do certain things. Often you find that people who are called the
most ‘creative people’ are very good at this stage, as they are able to use self-criticism and reflect on
the numerous ideas they have efficiently.

●​ ELABORATION
The final stage is called Elaboration. This is where Edison said that it’s “1% inspiration and 99%
perspiration”. Now the elaboration stage is the 99% perspiration stage. This is where you are
actually doing the work. In this stage, thoughts are transformed into final products.
For example - a painter may begin outlining shapes on a canvas with pencil before applying paints.

Two primary characteristics of creativity are a)Divergent Thinking b) Cognitive Complexity

Divergent Thinking Convergent Thinking

●​ The ability to generate unusual, yet nonetheless ●​ -The ability to produce responses that are based
appropriate, responses to problems or questions. primarily on knowledge and logic.
●​ Process that refers to opening the mind in various ●​ It’s a straightforward process that focuses on
directions and trying out multiple solutions for a figuring out the most effective answer to a
problem. problem.
●​ Example - ●​ Example -
Divergent thinking does not consider the world to always Convergent thinking only considers the world as
be Black and/or White, a divergent thinker keeps the Black and/or White, with no other possibilities.
options open. ●​ Its characteristics include
●​ Its characteristics include -​ Speed
-​ Spontaneous -​ Accuracy
-​ Free-flowing -​ Logic
-​ Non-linear

b)
Cognitive Complexity
Cognitive complexity is a psychological characteristic or variable that indicates how complex or
simple the frame and perceptual skill of a person truly is.

Research suggests that critical and creative thinkers are made, not born. Ways to increase creativity -
• Redefine problems
• Use subgoals
• Adopt a critical perspective
• Use analogies.
• Think divergently
• Experiment with various solutions

Language

The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic

rules.

STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE
The basic structure of language rests on grammar, that is, a system or set of rules dictating how
words should be combined into sentences in a given languagej.
Grammar involves 2 parts - syntax, is the rules in which words are arranged into sentences. The
second, morphology, is the use of grammatical markers (indicating tense, active or passive voice,
etc.).
Grammar deals with three major components of language: phonology, syntax, and semantics.

Levels of language include-

Phonemes / Phonetics : A set of sounds basic to a given language. English has forty-six separate
phonemes: vowels, a, e, i, o, and u; consonants, such as p, m, k, and d; and blends of the two. Other
languages have more or fewer basic sounds.
Morphemes / Morphology: The smallest units of speech that convey meaning. This refers to
forms and words. English has about 100,000 morphemes.
Syntax: Clauses and Rules about how units of speech can be combined into sentences in a given
language.
Semantics: The rules governing the meanings of various words and sentences.

BILINGUALISM
Acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and
 grammatical rules.
Bilinguals who are highly proficient in two or more languages are reported to have enhanced
executive function and are better at some aspects of language learning compared to monolingual.

Q. What abilities are involved in the production of language and how is language acquired
in humans?
Production of language includes the abilities to produce and to comprehend speech. Language
seems to involve more than mere spoken words and rules of grammar, or surface structure; the
underlying meaning, or deep structure, is important too. Existing evidence on language
development suggests that language is acquired by children through complex interactions
among (1) social learning, (2) innate mechanism, (3) cognitive mechanisms.

Learning Theory Approach Nativist Approach Interactionist Approach

Social learning view or Nativist Approach is a different approach Interactionist approach or

Behavioural Theory or proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky. It views Cognitive Theory is an approach
Learning Theory Approach Language as an Innate skill. Chomsky argued proposed by Slobin. He
views Language as a Learned that humans are born with an innate linguistic recognizes the importance of both
Skill. Learning theorists propose capability that emerges primarily as a function innate mechanisms and learning.
that speech is acquired through a of maturation. According to his nativist This approach suggests that
combination of operant approach to language, all the world’s languages language development is produced
conditioning and imitation. share a common underlying structure called through a combination of
Children are praised or otherwise universal grammar. Chomsky suggested that genetically determined
rewarded by their parents for the human brain has a built in neural system predispositions and
making sounds approximating that provides an intuitive grasp of grammar - environmental circumstances
those of their native language. the language-acquisition device that not only that help teach language.
Moreover, parents often model lets us understand the structure language Specifically, Interactionist
sounds, words, or sentences for provides, but also gives us strategies and theorists suggest that the brain’s
them. The more that parents speak techniques for learning the unique language-acquisition device that
to their young children, the more characteristics of our native language. Chomsky and geneticists point
proficient the children become in Some findings suggest that there may be a towards our innate urge to acquire
language use. critical period for language development language, whereas the exposure to
The social learning view is during which children find it easiest to acquire language in our environment that
supported by research showing various language components. If for some learning theorists support allows
that parents provide differentiating reason children are not exposed to normal us to develop the appropriate
feedback to their children, praising speech at this time, they may find it increasingly software.
or rewarding them for correct difficult to master language. The possibility of a This theory suggests that children
grammar and syntax and critical period for language development is also possess certain
correcting them when they make supported by research on adults who information-processing abilities or
mistakes and in every culture, communicate via American Sign Language. strategies that they use in
children’s speech resembles that of Adults who acquire sign language early in life acquiring language. These are
their parents in many important seem to be more proficient, on average, than termed operating principles and
ways, so learning does seem to play those who learn to sign later in life. seem to be present, or to develop,
an important role. very early in life.
 Q. What basic components are involved in language acquisition?
Language acquisition development involves phonological development learning to produce the
sounds of words; semantic development learning to understand the meaning of words; and
acquisition of grammar—the rules through which words can be combined into sentences in a
given language.

Phonological Development: The Semantic Development: The The Development of Grammar

Spoken Word Acquisition of Meaning

An early stage of speech Children’s vocabulary increases rapidly Every language has grammar, a set of
development in which infants emit after they reach the age of two, and they rules dictating how words can be
all known sounds of human speech learn many new words each day. Thus, by combined into sentences. At first
is termed as babbling and at some the time they are six, most have a grammar poses little problem, since,
point between three and six vocabulary of several thousand words. as noted above, children’s earliest
months, babies begin babbling. By They acquire many adjectives and speech uses single words,
nine or ten months, however, the prepositions. Children also learn to use accompanied by pointing and other
range of babbling narrows and question words. Why? When? Who? gestures. By the time most children
consists mainly of sounds used in the Where? are key words children acquire are two, two-word sentences make
language of the child’s native between the ages of two and three. They their appearance—a pattern
culture. Between the ages of one and often demonstrate several interesting sometimes known as telegraphic
two, childrens’ vocabularies increase forms of error. One such error involves speech. Generally at ages two to
rapidly. With words that include the overextensions—a tendency to extend three, children’s grasp of grammar
names of familiar objects important the meaning of a word beyond its continues to increase as they move to
in the children’s own lives— for actual usage. For example - they may use longer sentences of three words or
instance, foods (juice, cookie), animals “meow” as a shorthand word for all small more. From then on, they begin to
(cat, dog), toys (block, ball), body furry animals—dogs as well as cats. link two or more ideas in a single
parts (ear, eye), clothing (sock, hat, utterance and partake in the
shoe), and people (momma, dadda). production of ever more complex
At this time, children’s pronunciation sentences.
leaves much to be desired; many of Language development is
their words take a simple form, definitely a continuing feature of
consisting of a consonant and a vowel. cognitive development
throughout childhood.
There are various language development theories that have been propagated by various
psychologists.
Language development is a complex and a unique human quality that no theory is as yet able to
completely explain.

Q. Do animals possess language?

Growing evidence suggests that some species of animals, including bonobo chimpanzees and
dolphins, are capable of grasping basic aspects of language including word order and grammar; but
these findings remain highly controversial.
Early efforts to teach chimpanzees to speak failed miserably. For example, during the 1940s Keith
and Cathy Hayes raised a chimp named Vicki from infancy in their home and provided her with
intensive speech training; but she was eventually able to utter only a few simple words such as
mama, papa, and cup. These disappointing results were due to the fact that animals lack the vocal
control necessary to form words and hence spoken language. The ability to speak is not
essential for the use of language. For example, persons who have lost the power of speech
through accident or illness can still
communicate by writing or sign language. The fact that chimps cannot learn to speak, then, does
not rule out the possibility that they or other animals can learn to use some form of language.
●​ Beatrice and Allen Gardner succeeded in teaching Washoe, a female chimp, to use and
understand almost two hundred words in American Sign Language (ASL), which is used
by many deaf persons.
●​ Francine Patterson taught Koko, a female gorilla, a vocabulary of several hundred signs.
Patterson reported th at Koko showed great flexibility in using signs, constructing original
sentences,remembering and describing past events, and even creating her own signs for new
objects and events
●​ Irene Pepperberg has trained an African gray parrot named Alex to use speech in
highly complex ways. Alex can name more than eighty objects and events, frequently
requests things he wants and has been known to give directions to his human trainers.
●​ For example, the CASE STUDY of Kanzi, the 12 year old bonobo.
While attempting to teach Kanzi’s mother to use an artificial language made up of
abstract visual symbols, psychologist Sue Savage-Rumbaugh noticed that Kanzi (then
an infant) had learned several symbols just by watching. Intrigued by the possibilities
raised by this discovery, Savage-Rumbaugh and her colleagues continued to train Kanzi in
this informal way—speaking to him throughout the day, while simultaneously pointing to
the corresponding word symbols on language boards they carried with them. Kanzi quickly
learned to combine the symbol-words to request tasty snacks and preferred activities, such
as watching Tarzan movies. Since then, Kanzi has demonstrated a grasp of grammatical
concepts, and he now comprehends several hundred spoken words.
In one experiment, Savage-Rumbaugh and her colleagues compared Kanzi and a 2-year-old
girl in terms of their ability to respond to commands expressed in spoken sentences. The
sentences consisted of familiar words that were combined to produce commands that
Kanzi and the little girl had never heard before. Surprisingly, Kanzi's progress in
comprehending the novel commands paralleled the little girl's throughout most of the
experiment, although her language abilities eventually surpassed Kanzi's. Psychologists are
now more willing to accept that Kanzi was responding solely to the requests.
Many psychologists believe that the animals in these studies, while exhibiting impressive learning,
are not really demonstrating use of language. It is still unclear whether animals are capable of
mastering several basic features of human languages; for example, syntax—the rules by which
words are arranged to form meaningful sentences.

Q. What is the linguistic-relativity hypothesis?

Linguistic-relativity hypothesis refers to the notion that language shapes and may determine
the way people in a particular culture perceive and understand the world.
According to this view, language provides us with categories that we use to construct our view
of people and events in the world around us. For example, Eskimos, who have many different
words to describe snow, may perceive this aspect of the physical world differently from
English-speaking people, who have only one word. Consequently, language shapes and produces
thought.
Existing evidence does not offer strong support for this hypothesis.
The opposing view is that thought shapes language. Most evidence suggests that although
language does not determine thought, it does affect the way people store information in memory
and how well they can retrieve it, but merely reflect the way we think. So, while it may indeed be
easier to express a particular idea or concept in one language than another, this in no way implies
that our thoughts or perceptions are strongly shaped by language.

ESE Basic Psychological Process - II

Questions related to ESE in the previous papers (only End Semester Papers)

1.​ "IQ scores predict school performances". Do you think the given statement is
true or false? Given reasons to support your answer.
As we know, intelligence tests were first designed to predict a student's
performance in school. This is the driving principle of IQ tests as
[Link], there have been positive correlations in the 0.40s and 0.50s
found between IQ scores and school grades (Kline,1991). As the number of
years of schooling increased, it was found that there were higher positive
correlations between the two. Therefore it is safe to say that IQ scores can
be determined to predict school performance keeping in mind that
schooling also has an effect on the IQ score. Correlations that are high,
given many other external factors that are likely to affect a student's grades,
show that IQ tests are reasonably valid indexes of academic intelligence.

2.​ What are cognitive maps?

A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout of one's
environment. The concept of cognitive map originates from the work of the
psychologist Edward Tolman. For example, when a friend asks you for
 directions to your house, you are able to create an image in your mind of the
roads, places to turn, landmarks, etc., along the way to your house from your
friend's starting point.

3.​ What kind of evidence can be used to support genetic and environmental
influences on intelligence. (Repeated over the years)
Evidence for the Role of Heredity
Heritability- A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to
genetic, inherited factors.
●​ Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons of Varying Relationships
○​ Higher correlations indicate stronger relationships between variables.
○​ The closer the biological relationship between two individuals, the
closer their IQ scores are.
●​ Twin studies
○​ Perhaps the most dramatic evidence for the role of genetic factors in
intelligence has been provided by research on identical twins separated
early in life who were then raised in different homes (e.g., Bouchard et
al., 1990). Such persons have identical genetic inheritance but have
been exposed to different environmental conditions—in some cases,
sharply contrasting conditions; so studying their IQs provides a
powerful means for comparing the roles of genetic and environmental
factors in human intelligence. The results of such research are very
clear: The IQs of identical twins reared apart (often, from the
time they were only a few days old) correlate almost as highly as
those of identical twins reared together.
●​ Adoption studies
○​ To study the role of Nature vs Nurture, psychologists studied the
difference in IQ of an adopted child in comparison with its biological
parents vs that of the adopted parents. The results of the same were
that the IQ had correlations of about +0.60 to +0.70 with the
biological parents while only +0.40 to +0.50 to the adoptive parents.
Evidence for the Role of Environment
●​ Flynn discovered that IQ scores increased from one generation to the
 next around the world at all age levels. This interesting phenomena has
been called "the Flynn Effect." Such increases have averaged about three IQ
points per decade.
●​ Environmental deprivation : intelligence can be reduced by the absence of
certain forms of environmental stimulation early in life.
●​ Environmental enrichment: removing children from sterile, restricted
environments and placing them in more favorable settings seems to enhance
their intellectual growth.

4.​ What is a psychological test?

Psychological test or Psychological assessment refer to those standardized
measures of a sample of a person's behavior in order to measure the individual
differences that exist among people in abilities, aptitudes and aspects of
personality. It tests various areas including - Traits, Certain conditions,
Specific abilities, knowledge or skill, Attitudes and feelings and interests.
Examples - Intelligence tests (SB) (WDIS), Personality tests (TAT)
(Roschach's Inkblot test), Aptitude tests and Appreciation tests.

5.​ What are the characteristics of a good psychological test?

A good psychological test or psychological assessment consists of -
a)​ Standardization - It refers to uniform procedures used in administration and
scoring of the test.
b)​ Norms - It gives information about where the score in a psychological test
ranks in comparison to the other scores on the test.
c)​ Reliability - It refers to consistent measurement of a test.
d)​ Validity - It refers to the ability of the test to measure what it was designed to
measure.

6.​ What is your opinion of the statement "IQ is not intelligence, it is one index of
intelligence"? State two points to validate your answer.
Intelligence is not the same Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
 Intelligence refers to the aggregate or Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a score that
global capacity of an individual to think takes into account a person's mental and
purposefully, act rationally and adapt to chronological ages and is used to describe
his or her environment more effectively.
the calculated value of a person's mind.

Intelligence describes the overall IQ concentrates on only study.

personality and specialization of a person.

7.​ Explain Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence.

Robert Sternberg proposed yet another modern theory of intelligence. He proposed
the 'Triarchic theory of intelligence' that states that there are 3 basic forms of
intelligence - Componential (Analytical), Experimental (Creative) and Contextual
(Practical)

Componential (Analytical) Experimental (Creative) Contextual (Practical)

Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence
It involves the ability to It involves the ability to It involves the ability to
think critically and think abstractly and think practically.
analytically. creatively. People who rate high on
People who rate high on It emphasizes on insight this dimension are
this dimension excel in and formulation of new considered as 'Street
academics and are ideas. smarts'.
considered as excellent People who rate high on They possess 'Tacit
students. this dimension have the knowledge' which is a goal
ability to direct their directed and action
attention to what oriented knowledge that is
information is crucial in a acquired without direct
given time and can connect help from others. This
two or more unrelated plays an important role in
concepts. practical intelligence.
Examples - Isaac Newton
and Albert Einstein are
prime examples of this type
of intelligence.
Criticisms -
 ●​ Robert Sternberg's definition of intelligence is too broad
●​ The 3 dimensions can attribute to being social skills rather than forms of
intelligence.
●​ The theory suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research; unempirical
in nature.

8.​ Identify the following examples of proactive or retroactive interference.

a)​ You remember your old school friend’s number but you forget your recent
college friend’s number. Proactive Interference (when earlier learnt
information disrupts recall of new information)
b)​ You learned the combination for a new lock at the gym and now you cannot
remember the combination for your bicycle lock. Retroactive Interference
(when exposure to new information disrupts the recall of old information)

9. Briefly discuss the term 'attention'?

Attention refers to focusing one’s awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli. It is a
cognitive process that refers to selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of a
stimulus, while ignoring all other perceivable stimuli in the environment. There are 3
types of attention - Selective attention, Sustained attention and Divided attention.

10. What are mental images?

Mental images are an element of thought that refer to the representations in the
mind that resemble the object or event being represented. Mental images possess
similar properties of the stimuli they are representing. For example - The mind takes
longer to scan mental images of larger stimulus as compared to smaller mental
images, similar to how our eyes take longer to scan larger objects as compared to
smaller objects.

11. Are working memory and short term memory the same? Justify your answer.
Short term memory and Working memory are different theoretical concepts that are
assumed to reflect different cognitive functions. However, studies have not been able
to separate both structures and there is evidence for a complete overlap. Alan
Beddeley proposed a more complex, modular model of the short term memory
 which characterizes it as ‘working memory’. He believed that the short term memory
handles a variety of functions than previously thought. Short term memory is also
known as working memory in some theories.

12. A group of researchers were interested to understand why some children

remembered materials they studied for a test better, than other children. Some
researchers used the biological perspective, while others used the cognitive
perspective to understand this issue. How would each of these perspectives differ in
their explanation of psychological phenomena?
Identify the factors that will affect forgetting?

13. Soon after World War I an experiment was conducted on chimpanzees in which
the elements of a solution to a problem were all present. Name the cognitive
phenomenon underlying the chimpanzees behaviour and discuss the experiment
conducted.

[Link] is it important for us to know the characteristics of attention? Give a suitable

example to substantiate your answer.
Attention refers to focusing our awareness to a narrow range of stimuli. There are 3
types of attention:
Selective Attention Sustained Attention Divided Attention

Selective attention takes place Sustained attention is commonly Divided attention refers to
when we block out certain features referred to as one's attention the ability to attend to two
of our environment and focus on span. It takes place when we can different things at the
one particular feature, like the continually focus on one thing same time.
conversation you are having with happening, rather than losing
your friend. focus and having to keep bringing
it back.

From these, we can derive that

●​ Attention is selective
●​ It is always changing
●​ It is continuous
 ●​ Attention can increase the clarity of an object
●​ It is the active center of our experience
Example: Attention plays a vital role in the teaching learning process. Without
attention learning cannot be effective. It helps a child to grasp things better. It is a
must to learn a skill. Lessons studied with greater attention last long. Thus, attention
is quite vital to learning.

15. What is sensory memory? Explain the biological bases of memory.

Sensory Memory:

●​ The sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a
brief time, usually only a fraction of a second.
●​ Sensory memory allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to
linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over.
●​ In the case of vision, people really perceive an afterimage rather than the
actual stimulus. The brief preservation of sensations in sensory memory is
adaptive in that it gives you additional time to try to recognize stimuli.​
​

Biological basis of memory:

●​ The cerebral cortex is the primary area of storage in the brain

●​ memories are stored in subgroups of neurons that are activated in response to
various sensory experiences
●​ The hippocampal region along with its adjacent areas are critical for many
types of long term memory. They called this entire system the ‘Medial
temporal lobe memory system’.
●​ Training leads to denser dendrite growth.
●​ Central executive component of working memory may be localized in the
prefrontal cortex
●​ The storage and rehearsal facets of the phonological loop are thought to be
localized in several cortical areas in the left hemisphere
●​ The visuospatial sketchpad is thought to depend on activity in several areas
of the right hemisphere.

16. Analyze problem solving method with suitable steps and examples.
Problem solving refers to the cognitive process wherein one makes an effort to
develop or choose among various responses in order to attain a desired goal.
There are six methods to problem solving:
●​ Trial and Error
This method involves solving a problem repeatedly with slight differences
until a successful solution is attained.
●​ Means-ends Analysis
This method refers to repeatedly testing the differences between the final
outcome and the existing problem
●​ Forming subgoals
This method involves dividing the problem into subgoals and individually
solving each of it step by step.
●​ Algorithms
It is a methodical step by step procedure wherein one tries all possible
alternatives in order to find a solution to the problem.
●​ Analogy
This method involves using successful solutions for problems solved
previously to the current problem.
●​ Insight
This refers to the sudden awareness of a relationship with the various elements
that previously seemed to be independent.

17. What is meant by a retrieval cue?

A stimulus that allows us to recall information more easily from the long term
memory. It may be a word, touch, sound, emotion or whatever specific cue, a
memory will suddenly appear when the retrieval cue is present. It is a method of
retrieving information from memory.

18. What are mnemonics? Give an example.

A mnemonic is a memory device, a learning technique that aids information
retention or retrieval of memory. A common example - The first letter of each word
is combined into a new word. For example: VIBGYOR

19. Name the three storage systems in the working memory.

In Alan Baddeley's model of working memory, there are three main functional
components or storage systems: the phonological loop, visual sketchpad, and the
central executive.

20. What is selective attention?

Selective attention is a type of attention in which we concentrate on only one
stimulus while ignoring all other perceivable stimuli in the environment. Example -
Having a conversation with a friend in a crowded place, Listening to music in a
crowded bus.

21. Differentiate between inductive and deductive reasoning.

Reasoning refers to one’s ability to think logically. There are 3 types of reasoning -
Formal, Everyday and Physical reasoning.

Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the form of valid Inductive reasoning arrives at a

reasoning, to deduce new information or conclusion by the process of

conclusion from known related facts and generalization using specific facts or data.

information.
 Deductive reasoning reaches from general Inductive reasoning reaches from specific

facts to specific facts. facts to general facts

Deductive reasoning starts from Inductive reasoning starts from the

Premises. Conclusion.

22. ‘Creative thinking is spontaneous and automatic’. Evaluate this statement with
reference to the steps in creative thinking.
The creative process can be divided into 5 stages: Preparation, Incubation,
Insight, Evaluation and Elaboration.
●​ PREPARATION
The first stage is the idea of PREPARATION, the idea that you are immersing
yourself in the domain. In this stage, one attempts to absorb as much information as
possible in order to allow the second process to take off.
Example - If you are a musician you are absorbing a lot of the music that is inspiring
you to create this new piece / If you’re a writer you are reading other writers in this
area /If you are an artist you are looking at other artist’s work in the area that you are
looking at creating something in.

●​ INCUBATION
The second stage is what we call the Incubation stage. In this stage all the
information that one has gathered in the Preparation stage begins to churn in the
back of one's mind, in the sub-consciousness. This is an extremely important stage as
sometimes it can take days, or weeks, or months or sometimes even years and is
completely out of our control.

●​ INSIGHT
The third stage is what most of the public think as a sign of a creative person and is
called the Insight stage or the insight step. With insight it is really the idea of the
‘Aha’ moment, the ‘Eureka’ moment. Although it is probably the smallest part of
the five steps, it is possibly one of the most important parts. This is because your
subconsciousness in the previous stages is bubbling away and in this stage our mind
is allowed to work and eventually brings these ideas to the forefront of your mind.
 ●​ EVALUATION
The fourth stage is the idea of Evaluation. The evaluation stage is important because
this is where one partakes in self-criticism and reflection. Further,this stage is very
important because we only have a limited amount of time to do certain things. Often
you find that people who are called the most ‘creative people’ are very good at this
stage, as they are able to use self-criticism and reflect on the numerous ideas they have
efficiently.

●​ ELABORATION
The final stage is called Elaboration. This is where Edison said that it’s “1%
inspiration and 99% perspiration”. Now the elaboration stage is the 99%
perspiration stage. This is where you are actually doing the work. In this stage,
thoughts are transformed into final products.
For example - a painter may begin outlining shapes on a canvas with pencil before
applying paints.

[Link] is it important for us to know the characteristics of attention? Give a suitable

example to substantiate your answer.

24. Compare and contrast levels of processing theory of memory and the Atkinson-
Shiffrin Model of memory.
According to CRAIK & LOCKHEART, levels – of processing theory, structural,
phonemic and semantic encoding represent deeper levels of processing. Deeper
processing results in better recall of information.

STRUCTURAL PHONEMIC SEMANTIC

ENCODING ENCODING ENCODING

Shallow processing that

emphasizes the physical
Further analysis that Final analysis that
structure of the
emphasizes on what the emphasizes the meaning
stimulus.
words sound like. of the verbal input.
Example – If placards
with words are flashed,
 Structural encoding
It involves the naming or It involves thinking of
registers such things as
saying of words. objects and actions that
they are printed (lower
the words represent.
case, upper case) or the
length of the words (how
many letters).

Criticisms of Levels – of processing theory:

· Vaguely defined.

· Failed to produce an objective index of processing depth.

· Unanswered questions, such as, what is ‘level’ of processing?

Modern psychologists Atkinson and Shiffirin proposed that memory is made up of

3 INFORMATION STORES. 1. Sensory memory: Can hold onto a large amount
of information just long enough (couple of seconds) for a small portion of it to be
selected for longer storage. 2. Short - term memory: Limited capacity, and unless
aided with rehearsal, its storage duration is brief. 3. Long - term memory:
Unlimited capacity with indeterminate storage duration.

SENSORY MEMORY SHORT - TERM LONG - TERM

MEMORY MEMORY
Sensory memory preserves
information in its original Short-term memory (STM) Long-term memory (LTM)
form, probably for only a is a limited-capacity store is an unlimited capacity
fraction of a second. that can maintain store that can hold
Sensory memory allows the unrehearsed information information over lengthy
sensation of a visual for up to about 10 to 20 periods of time. LTM can
pattern, sound, or touch seconds. Rehearsal refers store information
to linger for a brief to the process of repeatedly indefinitely.
moment after the sensory verbalizing or thinking
stimulation is over. This about information which There are 2 types of LTM -
brief preservation of will allow one to maintain
 sensations gives one information indefinitely in 1.​ Explicit memory
additional time to try to short-term memory. Semantic memory
recognize stimuli. Memory (general memory)
traces in sensory memory Loss of information from and b) Episodic
decay in about 1⁄4 of a short-term memory is due memory (personal
second. to time-related decay of knowledge)
memory traces and 2.​ Implicit memory
interference from
competing material.

25. Does language influence thinking or vice versa? Substantiate each perspective
with relevant studies or theories.
Linguistic-relativity hypothesis refers to the notion that language shapes and
may determine the way people in a particular culture perceive and
understand the world.
According to this view, language provides us with categories that we use to
construct our view of people and events in the world around us. For example,
Eskimos, who have many different words to describe snow, may perceive this aspect
of the physical world differently from English-speaking people, who have only one
word. Consequently, language shapes and produces thought.
Existing evidence does not offer strong support for this hypothesis.
The opposing view is that thought shapes language. Most evidence suggests that
although language does not determine thought, it does affect the way people store
information in memory and how well they can retrieve it, but merely reflect the way
we think. So, while it may indeed be easier to express a particular idea or concept in
one language than another, this in no way implies that our thoughts or perceptions
are strongly shaped by language.

26. Read the following paragraph and answer the questions carefully. 1X15=15
"Twenty five year old Phineas Gage, a rail - road employee, was blasting rock one day
in 1848 when an accidental explosion punched a 3 foot long spike, about an inch in
diameter, completely through his skull. The spike entered just under his left cheek,
came out the top of his head, and flew into the air. Gage immediately suffered a series
of convulsions, yet a few minutes later was talking with rescuers. In fact, he was able
to walk up a long flight of stairs before receiving any medical attention. Amazingly,
after a few weeks his wound healed and he was physically close to his old self again.
Mentally, however there was a difference: once a careful and hardworking person,
[Link] now became enamored with wild schemes and was flighty and often
irresponsible. As one of his physicians put it, “Previous to his injury, though
untrained in the schools he possessed a well balanced mind, and was looked upon by
those who knew him as a shrewd, smart, businessman, very energetic and persistent
in executing all plans of operation. In this regard his mind was radically changed, so
decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was ‘no longer Gage’”. Keeping
in mind the case study of 25 year old Phineas Gage answer the following questions:
A)​Which are the research methods a psychologist could choose to obtain the
above mentioned information about P. Gage? Explain(5).
B)​ Science being what it was in the 1800s and now with the help of new scientific
techniques we can conclude what area of the brain was damaged in case of
Phineas Gage. Discuss about the area damaged in case of P. Gage and what
kind of mental processes are controlled by this area(5).
Association areas of Gage’s cerebral cortex were likely to be affected. Association
areas are considered to be the site of higher mental processes such as thinking,
language, memory and speech.
C)​As a result of the damage he was facing a lot of memory difficulties. Explain
briefly the three systems of memory through which information must travel if
it is to be remembered(5).

1. Sensory memory: Can hold onto a large amount of information just long
enough (couple of seconds) for a small portion of it to be selected for longer
storage. 2. Short - term memory: Limited capacity, and unless aided with
rehearsal, its storage duration is brief. 3. Long - term memory: Unlimited
capacity with indeterminate storage duration.

SENSORY MEMORY SHORT - TERM LONG - TERM

MEMORY MEMORY
Sensory memory preserves
information in its original Short-term memory (STM) Long-term memory (LTM)
form, probably for only a is a limited-capacity store is an unlimited capacity
 fraction of a second. that can maintain store that can hold
Sensory memory allows the unrehearsed information information over lengthy
sensation of a visual for up to about 10 to 20 periods of time. LTM can
pattern, sound, or touch seconds. Rehearsal refers store information
to linger for a brief to the process of repeatedly indefinitely.
moment after the sensory verbalizing or thinking
stimulation is over. This about information which There are 2 types of LTM -
brief preservation of will allow one to maintain Explicit memory
sensations gives one information indefinitely in
additional time to try to short-term memory. Implicit memory
recognize stimuli. Memory
traces in sensory memory Loss of information from
decay in about 1⁄4 of a short-term memory is due
second. to time-related decay of
memory traces and
interference from
competing material.

27. Imagine you are narrating to your friend an argument that took place between
two people. While you happen to like one of the persons involved in the argument,
you also dislike the other one. You notice that while recalling the argument, you
added more negative aspects in describing the views held by the person whom you
dislike. Why has this kind of memory distortion taken place?
This type of memory distortion can be attributed to the methods of information
retrieval from memory. In this example, the two methods - RECONSTRUCTIVE
MEMORY and SOURCE MONITORING justifies the memory distortion.
Reconstructive memory is a theory of memory recall, in which the act of
remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including
perceptions, imaginations, semantic beliefs and memory, amongst other things.
According to Bartlet, reconstructive memory takes place using schemas which refers
to an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted
from past experiences with the particular object or event. With the given information
about my like for my friend and dislike for the other friend, my schema about these
two individuals greatly affects my recall of information from [Link]
monitoring occurs when memory derived from one source is misattributed to
another source. Mix up of fictional information with factual information. With the
given information about my act of adding more negative aspects describing the views
of the person I dislike, my fictional information and the actual factual information is
clearly being mixed up due to the play of my emotions.

28. Define autobiographical memory.

Autobiographical memory is also known as EPISODIC MEMORY. It is derived
from declarative memory and refers to personal knowledge. It refers to the recall of
personal facts. It is a memory of autobiographical events that include time, place,
emotion associated and other contextual information that can be explicitly stated.
Episodic memories represent our memory of experiences and specific events, from
which we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point of time in
our lives. Individuals tend to view themselves as actors in these events, and the
emotional charge and the entire context surrounding the event is part of the memory.
Episodic memories are encoded and indexed for later access in the hippocampus.
Ex: Remembering one’s wedding day, remembering what breakfast one had,
remembering to attend to one’s mail.

29. How can we explain the enduring vividness of flashbulb memories?

Overall, research on flashbulb memories has suggested that they are not any more
accurate than other memories, but the findings have been somewhat inconsistent,
probably because the studies have focused on different notable events, used different
types of samples, and varied methods of measuring memory accuracy. A research
conducted on students from Duke University about the 9/11 terrorist attack, after
the incident showed that that there was no appreciable difference in consistency
between subjects’ flashbulb memories of the terrorist attacks and their everyday
memories over time. The consistency between participants’ original reports and their
retest reports declined over time at about the same rate for both types of memories .
In contrast, after six weeks, participants viewed their flashbulb memories as being
more vivid than their everyday memories, and they had more confidence in the
accuracy of their flashbulb memories.
[Link] the experiment done by Edward Colin Cherry (1953) on auditory
attention. Based on your understanding, explain why his contribution was a value
addition to the research done in the area of attention.
●​ Attention is often likened to a filter that screens out most potential stimuli
while allowing a select few to pass through into conscious awareness.
●​ A great deal of debate has been devoted to where the filter is located in the
information-processing system.
●​ The key issue in this debate is whether stimuli are screened out early, during
sensory input, or late, after the brain has processed the meaning or
significance of the input the “cocktail party phenomenon” suggests the
latter.
●​ The experiment done by Edward Colin Cherry (1953) on auditory
attention- Cherry used shadowing tasks to study this problem, which
involved playing two different auditory messages to a participant's left and
right ears and instructing them to attend to only one. The participant must
then shadow this attended message.
●​ This cocktail party phenomenon suggests that attention involves late
selection, based on the meaning of input.
●​ Findings have led some theorists to conclude that the location of the attention
filter may be flexible rather than fixed.
●​ Wherever filtering occurs, it is clear that people have difficulty if they attempt
to focus their attention on two or more inputs simultaneously

[Link] all information get transferred to LTM? With regards to the nature of the
information being learnt, discuss rehearsal techniques and personal characteristics of
the learner.

29. (a) What is decision making? (3 marks)

Decision making is a cognitive process that refers to the course of action among
several alternative possibilities. Factors that affect decision making are - Heuristic,
Escalation of commitment, Emotions and Naturalistic behaviour.
(b) Discuss how it can be both a scientific and subjective process with regard to
utility and cognitive shortcuts. (12 marks)

32. Which network is responsible for pieces of information to be stored in LTM?

Parallel Distributed Processing is responsible. Connectionist or Parallel Distributed
Processing (PDP) models of memory take their inspiration from how neural
networks appear to handle information, that is, simultaneous processing of
the same information that is spread across networks of neurons.
Connectionist or parallel distributed processing (PDP) models assume that
cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected
networks that resemble neural networks. A PDP system consists of a large
network of interconnected units, or nodes, that operate much like neurons. The
information lies in the strengths of the connections, which is why the PDP
approach is called “connectionism.”

33. What is meant by 'span of attention' ?

Attention refers to focusing our awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.
A type of attention known as ‘Sustained attention’ which is commonly referred to as
one’s attention span.
‘Span of attention’ or ‘attention span’ refers to the length of time for which a person
is able to concentrate on a particular activity or subject.

34. Briefly discuss Ebbinghaus' contribution to understanding memory and

forgetting.
The forgetting curve shows how information or knowledge in the brain is lost
overtime if an individual makes no attempt to return it. Ebbinghaus’s forgetting
curve describes the decrease in the brain’s ability to retain memory overtime. This
issue was hypothesized by Hermann Ebbinghaus, which is why it is called
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.

35. Compare and contrast intelligence and creativity. Examine the characteristics of
creative thinkers.
 Intelligence Creativity

Intelligence refers to the aggregate or Creativity refers to the ability to generate

global capacity of an individual to think original ideas or solve problems in novel
purposefully, act rationally and adapt to ways.
his or her environment more effectively.

Intelligence includes - understanding Creativity is associated with several

complex ideas, adapting effectively to characteristics such as Flexibility,
one’s environment, overcoming obstacles, fearlessness, sense of curiosity, strong
engaging in reasoning and learning from motivation and determination, etc.
new experiences.

Intelligence is the ability to acquire Creativity is the ability to perceive

knowledge and utilise it accordingly. something in a novel manner and create
something new.
The characteristics of creative thinkers include - Dynamic, Flexible, Original or
Novel, Curiosity, Receptivity, Complexity, Attentiveness, Wide range of interest,
Risk taking, etc.
Examples - Pablo Picaso, Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton.

[Link] memory. How do retrieval cues, flashbulb memories and schemas help
people to recall long term memories?
According to Robert Sternberg, ‘Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to apply the information to the present.” Memory refers to those
structures and procedures in charge of storage and subsequent information retrieval.
There are several methods to retrieve information from memory and the three
mentioned below are methods to help people recollect information.
1.​ Retrieval cues refer to stimulus that allows us to recall information more easily
from our long term memory. It may be a word, sound, touch, emotion or
whatever the specific cue, a memory will suddenly come to mind when the
retrieval cue is present.
2.​ Flashbulb memories are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of
important events that are stored in the long term memory and can be recalled.
 3.​ Schemas are organized clusters of knowledge about a particular object or event
abstracted from previous experiences with that object or event. According to
Bartlet, we retrieve information from the long term through a method known
as Reconstructive memory by using schemas.

37. Explain LAD. (Language Acquisition Development)

Language acquisition development involves a) phonological development learning
to produce the sounds of words; b) semantic development learning to understand
the meaning of words; and c) acquisition of grammar that are the system or set of
rules through which words can be combined into sentences in a given language.

Phonological Development: Semantic Development: The The Development of

The Spoken Word Acquisition of Meaning Grammar

At an early stage of speech Children’s vocabulary increases Every language has grammar, a
development, infants emit all rapidly after they reach the age of set of rules dictating how
known sounds of human two, and they learn many new words can be combined into
speech termed as babbling and words each day. Thus, by the time sentences. At first grammar
at some point between three they are six, most have a poses little problem, since, as
and six months, babies begin vocabulary of several thousand noted above, children’s earliest
babbling. By nine or ten words. They acquire many speech uses single words,
months, however, the range of adjectives and prepositions. accompanied by pointing and
babbling narrows and consists Children also learn to use question other gestures. By the time
mainly of sounds used in the words. Why? When? Who? most children are two,
language of the child’s native Where? are key words children two-word sentences make
culture. Between the ages of acquire between the ages of two their appearance—a pattern
one and two, childrens’ and three. sometimes known as
vocabularies increase rapidly. They often demonstrate several telegraphic speech. Generally
With words that include the interesting forms of error. One at ages two to three, children’s
names of familiar objects such error involves grasp of grammar continues to
important in the children’s own overextensions—a tendency to increase as they move to longer
lives— for instance, foods (juice, extend the meaning of a word sentences of three words or
cookie), animals (cat, dog), toys beyond its actual usage. For more. From then on, they begin
(block, ball), body parts (ear, example - they may use “meow” as to link two or more ideas in a
eye), clothing (sock, hat, shoe), a shorthand word for all small furry single utterance and partake in
and people (momma, dadda). animals—dogs as well as cats. the production of ever more
Many of their words take a complex sentences.
simple form, consisting of a Language development is
consonant and a vowel. definitely a continuing
feature of cognitive
development throughout
childhood.