Module 4

Global Environmental Issues, Environment Acts and Amendments

Contents: Fluoride problem in drinking water, Acid Rain, Ozone layer depletion, Global warming
and climate change. National forest policy, Environmental laws and acts, international agreements
and protocols.

Fluoride problem in drinking water

Presence of excess fluoride in water causes health hazards to humans and
animals. Like any other pollutant, fluoride pollution can also occur due to, both
natural and man-made sources. Fluoride in drinking water is known for both
beneficial in detrimental effects on human health.

Water is essential natural resource for sustaining life and environment.

However, pure water is scarce and not easily available to all sections of people.
Deprived sections of the society consume contaminated water and take ill
periodically, often resulting in epidemics. The water may be contaminated by
natural sources or by industrial effluents. One of such most significant
contaminants is fluoride. The presence of fluoride, in quantities in excess of
limits, is a serious matter of concern from public health point of view. Fluoride
in drinking water is known for both beneficial and detrimental effects on human
health with only a narrow range between intakes associated with these effects.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a maximum permissible
fluoride level of 1.5 mg/L in drinking water. Water with fluoride concentrations
higher than this may require treatment to reduce levels.

Fluorides like many other minerals are originated in the earth’s crust due to
volcanic and plutonic activities. They exist in many forms viz., fluorspar or
calcium fluoride (CaF2), apatite or rock phosphate [Ca5F(P04)3], cryolite of
sodium aluminium fluoride (Na3AlF6), topaz (Al2SiO4(OH,F)2), sellaite
(MgF2), villianmite (NaF), fluorine hydro silicates, etc.
As fluorspar is found in sedimentary rocks and as cryolite in igneous rocks,
these fluoride minerals are nearly insoluble in water. The fluoride content in soil
normally ranges from 200 to 300 ppm. It is observed that fluoride content in soil
increase with depth, and only 5 to 10% of the total fluoride in soil is water
soluble. Application of fertilizers for irrigation results in the presence of C1–,
SO4 2– and F– in groundwater. The sources of fluoride in the environment also
include industrial plants manufacturing hydrofluoric acid, phosphate fertilizers,
glass, brick and tile works, textile dyeing, plastic factories and industries
consuming high sulphur non-coking coal like thermal power plants, and
cigarettes with an average 236 ppm fluoride contributing significantly to
fluoride intake by humans. Fluoride in water may initiate leaching of aluminium
from cooking utensils and copper from pipe works at normal and high
concentrations respectively. Fluoride is also present in seawater (0.5-1.4 ppm),
in mica and in many drinking water supplies.

India is one among the 23 nations in the world, where fluoride

contaminated groundwater is creating health problems. surface water in India is
scarce and groundwater is deep and difficult to reach (UNICEF 2002), almost
90% of drinking water needs are met with from groundwater only. The scarcity
of groundwater and presence of excess fluoride can be treated as the two most
crucial issues in the Indian system of sustainable drinking water supply.

Effects Of Fluoride on Human Beings

Effects of fluoride on human beings are in the form of dental effects, skeletal
effects, neurological manifestations, muscular manifestations, allergic
manifestations, gastrointestinal problems, headache and loss of teeth (edentate)
at an early age.
Dental effects of fluoride: Dental Effects of fluoride are broadly classified as
dental caries and dental fluorosis.

Dental caries: It is an infectious and multifactorial disease, which is

characterized by demineralization of inorganic components of teeth and
dissolution of organic substances of microbial aetiology. Caries is the result of
bacterial growth in unhygienic oral cavity, leading to acid (lactic acid, propionic
acid and acetic acid) production by fermentation, which etches away the enamel
leaving black spots or cavity in teeth. The prevalence of these cavities can be
effectively qualified by using dmft (number of decayed, missing, or filled teeth)
or dmfs (number of decayed missing, or filled tooth surfaces) index developed
by oral epidemiologists.

Dental fluorosis: It is an irreversible toxic effect on the tooth forming cells,

ameloblasts, which is an early sign of fluoride attack visible to naked eye.
Histologically, it presents a hypocalcification, which clinically ranges from
barely visible white striations on teeth to gross defects and staining of the
enamel. Long term consumption of water containing 1 mg of fluoride per litre
leads to dental fluorosis. White and yellow glistening patches on teeth are seen,
which may slowly turn brown. The yellow and white patches when turned
brown present itself as horizontal streaks. The brown streaks may turn black and
affect the whole tooth and may get pitted, perforated, and chipped off at the
final stage. Dental fluorosis not only poses cosmetic problems but has serious
social problems too, especially in terms of matrimonial problems of children.
Severely fluorised enamel is more porous, pitted, discoloured and is prone to
wear and fracture because the well mineralized zone is very fragile to
mechanical stress.

Skeletal effects of fluoride: Fluoride is one of the consistent elements of

human skeletal system and its long-term chronic intoxication leads to skeletal
fluorosis. It has been observed in persons when water contains more than 3-6
mg/L of fluoride. Skeletal fluorosis affects young and old alike. Fluoride can
also damage the fetus if the mother consumes water and food with high
concentration of fluoride during pregnancy/breast feeding. Infant mortality due
to calcification of blood vessels can also occur. Other symptoms of fluoride
toxicity include severe pain in backbone, joints and the hip region, shiftiness of
backbone, immobile/stiff joints, increased density of bones, calcification of
ligaments, constriction of vertebral canal and intervertebral pressure on nerves,
and paralysis. Effects on bones (skeletal fluorosis)s and fracture are considered
as the most relevant outcomes in assessing the adverse effects of long term
exposure of human to excess fluoride

Non-skeletal effects of fluoride: This aspect of fluorosis is, sometimes, ignored

because of the misconception prevailing that fluoride will only affect bone and
teeth. Fluoride, when consumed in excess, can cause several other ailments
besides skeletal and dental fluorosis.

Some important fluoride related ailments are as below.

Neurological manifestations: Nervousness, depression, tingling sensation in

fingers and toes, excessive thirst, tendency to urinate frequently (polydypsia and
polyurea are controlled by brain-appears to be adversely affected).

Muscular manifestations: Muscle weakness and stiffness, pain in muscles and

loss of muscle power.

Allergic manifestations: Very painful skin rashes, which are per vascular
inflammation - present in women and children, pinkish, red or bluish red spots
on the skin that fades and clear up in 7-10 days.

Gastrointestinal problem: Acute abdominal pain, diarrhoea, constipation, blood

in stools, bloated feeling (gas), tenderness in stomach, feeling of nausea and
mouth sores.
Headache: Excess fluoride in water leads to constant headache for long period.

Loss of teeth (edentate) at an early age: Excess fluoride in water leads to loss
of teeth at an early age.

Fluoride Removal from Water

The process of fluoride removal is generally termed as defluoridation or

defluorination. Numerous methods have been described employing various
materials for the fluoride removal.

There are many techniques for removing fluoride from water, including:

 Reverse osmosis

A semi-permeable membrane is used to separate water molecules from

contaminants, including fluoride. This is considered one of the most effective
methods, but it can be expensive and requires high energy input and
maintenance.

 Ion exchange

A bed of resin beads exchanges fluoride ions for other ions, like calcium or
sodium.

 Adsorption

A low-cost method that uses local adsorbent materials, such as biomass from
plants, industrial by-products, and agricultural wastes.

 Distillation

Contaminated water is boiled, and the steam is captured and condensed into
pure distilled water.

 Activated alumina
A very absorbent form of aluminum oxide with a large surface area and
microporous nature that's used as a water filter.

 Electrocoagulation

A low-voltage direct current is used to remove fluoride from water. This method
is economical and environmentally friendly.

 Defluoridation

Tamarind fruit cover is used to reduce the concentration of fluoride in water.

Acid Rain
When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are burned, chemicals like
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are produced. These chemicals react with
water and other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other
harmful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates. These acid pollutants spread
upwards into the atmosphere, and are carried by air currents, to finally return to
the ground in the form of acid rain, fog or snow. The corrosive nature of acid
rain causes many forms of environmental damage. Acid pollutants also occur as
dry particles and gases, which when washed from the ground by rain, add to the
acids in the rain to form a more corrosive solution. This is called acid
deposition. Damage from acid rain is widespread in North America, Europe,
Japan, China and Southeast Asia. In the US coal burning power plants
contribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In Canada oil refining, metal
smelting and other industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur dioxide
pollution. Motor vehicle exhaust fumes are the main source of nitrogen oxides.
The acids in acid rain chemically react with any object they come in contact
with. Acids react with other chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms.

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain is known to cause widespread environmental damage.
1. Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil which are
needed by plants. It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic substances
like aluminium and mercury, freeing them to pollute water or poison
plants.
2. Acid rain indirectly affects plants by removing nutrients from the soil in
which they grow. It affects trees more directly by creating holes in the
waxy coating of leaves, causing brown dead spots which affect the plant’s
photosynthesis. Such trees are also more vulnerable to insect infestations,
drought and cold. Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations seem to be
most at risk. Farm crops are less affected by acid rain than forests.
3. Acid rain that falls or flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes and
wetlands, causes the water in them to become acidic. This affects plant
and animal life in aquatic ecosystems.
4. Acid rain also has far reaching effects on wildlife. By adversely affecting
one species, the entire food chain is disrupted, ultimately endangering the
entire ecosystem. Different aquatic species can tolerate different levels of
acidity. For instance clams and mayflies have a high mortality when
water has a pH of 6.0, while frogs can tolerate more acidic water,
although with the decline in supply of mayflies, frog populations may
also decline. Land animals that are de- pendent on aquatic organisms are
also affected.
5. Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages buildings, automobiles, and
other structures made of stone or metal. The acid corrodes the materials
causing extensive damage and ruins historic buildings. For instance, the
Parthenon in Greece and the Taj Mahal in India have been affected by
acid rain.
6. Although surface water polluted by acid rain does not directly harm
people, the toxic substances leached from soil can pollute water supply.
 Fish caught in these waters may be harmful for human consumption.
Acid, along with other chemicals in the air, produces urban smog, which
causes respiratory problems.

Ozone Layer Depletion

What is the Ozone Layer?

Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen. It forms a layer 20 to
50kms above the surface of the earth. This action takes place naturally in the
atmosphere, but is very slow. Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong
odour. It is a form of oxygen that has three atoms in each molecule. It is
considered a pollutant at ground level and constitutes a health hazard by causing
respiratory ailments like asthma and bronchitis. It also causes harm to
vegetation and leads to a deterioration of certain materials like plastic and
rubber. Ozone in the upper atmosphere however, is vital to all life as it protects
the earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, preventing it from
reaching the earth’s surface. This layer in the atmosphere protects life on earth
from the dangerous UV radiation from the sun. In the 1970s, scientists
discovered that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were used
as refrigerants and aerosol spray propellants, posed a threat to the ozone layer.
The CFC molecules are virtually indestructible until they reach the stratosphere,
where UV radiation breaks them down to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine
atoms react with ozone molecules which break down into oxygen molecules,
which do not absorb UV radiations. Since the early 1980s, scientists detected a
thinning of the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. This
phenomenon is now being detected in other places as well including Australia.
Although the use of CFCs has been reduced and now banned in most countries,
other chemicals and industrial compounds such as bromine, halocarbons and
nitrous oxides from fertilizers
may also attack the ozone layer.

What is Ozone Layer Depletion?

“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds
containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human
activities.”

Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper
atmosphere. This happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the
atmosphere come in contact with ozone and destroy the ozone molecules. One
chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is destroyed more quickly
than it is created. Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to
high ultraviolet light, which then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such
compounds are known as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).
The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include
chlorofluorocarbon, carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl
chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting substances that contain bromine are
halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is
only when the chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react
with ozone. Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production
and import of ozone-depleting substances and minimise their concentration in
the atmosphere to protect the ozone layer of the earth.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of
factors. The main causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are
listed below:

Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion.
These are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners,
etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by
ultraviolet radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone
and destroy it.

Unregulated Rocket Launches

Research says that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more
depletion of the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might
result in a huge loss of the ozone layer by the year 2050.

Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for
the depletion of the ozone layer.

Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such
as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of
the ozone layer depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Ozone-Depleting Sources
Substances
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-cleaning
(CFCs) agents, etc.
Halons Fire-extinguishers
Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents
Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols
Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion:

1. Health Impacts on Humans:

  Increased UV Exposure: The depletion of the ozone layer results in
more ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
 Skin Cancer: Increased exposure to UV-B rays raises the risk of skin
cancers, including melanoma and non-melanoma types.
 Eye Damage: UV radiation increases the risk of cataracts, a condition
that clouds the lens of the eye and can lead to blindness.
 Immune System Suppression: UV-B radiation can weaken the immune
system, reducing the body's ability to fight off infections and diseases.

2. Environmental and Ecological Effects:

 Damage to Marine Ecosystems: Phytoplankton, which are essential for
the marine food chain and for carbon cycling, are sensitive to UV-B
radiation. Increased UV exposure can reduce their populations, impacting
the entire marine ecosystem.
 Disruption of Food Chains: Since phytoplankton form the base of
aquatic food chains, their decline affects higher-level organisms,
including fish and marine mammals.
 Effect on Terrestrial Ecosystems: Increased UV radiation can harm
plant life, affecting photosynthesis, growth, and the productivity of crops,
forests, and natural ecosystems. Some species may become more
vulnerable, leading to biodiversity loss.
3. Impact on Materials:
 Degradation of Materials: UV-B radiation accelerates the degradation
of plastics, paints, rubber, and other materials used in outdoor
applications. This results in increased maintenance costs and reduced
lifespan of these materials.
4. Climate Change Link:
 While ozone depletion and climate change are driven by different
mechanisms, they are interconnected. Certain ODS are also potent
 greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Conversely, climate
change can affect the dynamics of the stratosphere and influence the
recovery of the ozone layer.

Global Efforts to Address Ozone Depletion:

1. Montreal Protocol (1987):

o A landmark international treaty aimed at phasing out the
production and use of ODS like CFCs and halons. The protocol has
been highly successful, with over 190 countries participating, and
has led to a significant reduction in ozone-depleting substances.
2. Ozone Layer Recovery:
o Since the adoption of the Montreal Protocol, the ozone layer has
shown signs of recovery, and it is projected to return to pre-1980
levels by the mid-21st century, although recovery over the polar
regions may take longer.

Preventive Measures and Solutions:

 Use of Alternatives to ODS: Developing and adopting substitutes for

CFCs and other harmful chemicals, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
though these too have environmental concerns related to global warming.
 Public Awareness: Educating people on the dangers of ozone depletion
and encouraging responsible usage of products that may release harmful
chemicals.
  Policy Enforcement: Continued enforcement of the Montreal Protocol
and its subsequent amendments, along with promoting sustainable
industrial practices.

Global warming and climate change

Global Warming-
“Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally
due to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,
CFCs, and other pollutants.”

About 75% of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed on the earth’s
surface which increases its temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the
atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by greenhouse gases, mostly carbon
dioxide. As carbon dioxide is released by various human activities, it is rapidly
increasing. This is causing global warming. The average surface temperature is
about 15°C. This is about 33°C higher than it would be in the absence of the
greenhouse effect. Without such gases most of the Earth’s surface would be
frozen with a mean air temperature of -18°C. Human activities during the last
few decades of industrialisation and population growth have polluted the
atmosphere to the extent that it has begun to seriously affect the climate. Carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 31% since pre-industrial times,
causing more heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere. There is evidence to
show that carbon dioxide levels are still increasing. Many countries have signed
a convention to reduce greenhouse gases under the United Nations Convention
on Climate Change. Current international agreements are however not still
effective to prevent the significant changes in climate and a rise in sea levels.
Causes of Global Warming
Following are the major causes of global warming:

Man-made Causes of Global Warming:

Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release
oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted
for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental
imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.

Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous
emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon
dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been
adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer.
The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays
emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for
the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.
Industrial Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been
increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the
increasing temperature of the earth.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the
increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees
Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial
mean temperature.

Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add
to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the
earth.

Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an
increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming,
in the atmosphere.

Natural Causes of Global Warming:

Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash
and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and
affects the climate.

Water Vapour
Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s
temperature, more water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the
atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost
Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several
years and is present below Earth’s surface. It is present in glaciers. As the
permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere, increasing
Earth’s temperature.

Forest Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke.
These gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s
temperature resulting in global warming.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature
Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since
1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by ~1 degrees. This has resulted in
an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea
level. This could have devastating effects on coastal regions.

Threats to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of plant and
animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral
reefs even worse.
Climate Change
Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts
at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of
global warming.

Spread of Diseases
Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has
led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average
death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of
diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and
animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and
many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global
warming on biodiversity.

Climate change

The average temperature in many regions has been increasing in recent decades.
The global average surface temperature has increased by 0.6° + 0.2° C over the
last century. Globally, 1998 was the warmest year and the 1990s the warmest
decade on record. Many countries have experienced increases in rainfall,
particularly in the countries situated in the mid to high latitudes. In some
regions, such as parts of Asia and Africa, the frequency and intensity of
droughts have been observed to increase in recent decades. Episodes of El Niño,
which creates great storms, have been more frequent, persistent and intense
since mid-1970s compared with the previous 100 years. All these are signs that
the earth is sick. Its climate is changing, making it more difficult for mankind to
survive. The earth is losing its ability to balance itself due to the imbalances
created by human activities. Projections of future climate change are derived
from a series of experiments made by computer based global climate models.
These are worked out on estimates of aspects such as future population growth
and energy use. Climatologists of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) have reviewed the results of several experiments in order to
estimate changes in climate in the course of this century. These studies have
shown that in the near future, the global mean surface temperature will rise by
1.4° to 5.8°C. Warming will be greatest over land areas, and at high latitudes.
The projected rate of warming is greater than has occurred in the last 10,000
years. The frequency of weather extremes is likely to increase leading to floods
or drought. There will be fewer cold spells but more heat waves. The frequency
and intensity of El Niño is likely to increase. Global mean sea level is projected
to rise by 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100. More than half of the world’s population
now lives within 60km of the sea. They are likely to be seriously impacted by
an ingress of salt water and by the rising sea. Some of the most vulnerable
regions are the Nile delta in Egypt, the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in
Bangladesh, and many small islands including the Marshall Islands and the
Maldives, (WHO, 2001). Human societies will be seriously affected by
extremes of climate such as droughts and floods. A changing climate would
bring about changes in the frequency and/or intensity of these extremes. This is
a major concern for human health. To a large extent, public health depends on
safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure shelter, and good social conditions.
All these factors are affected by climate change. Fresh water supplies may be
seriously affected, reducing the availability of clean water for drinking and
washing during drought as well as floods. Water can be contaminated and
sewage systems may be damaged. The risk of spread of infectious diseases such
as diarrhoeal diseases will increase. Food production will be seriously reduced
in vulnerable regions directly and also indirectly through an increase in pests
and plant or animal diseases. The local reduction in food production would lead
to starvation and malnutrition with long-term health consequences, especially
for children. Food and water shortages may lead to conflicts in vulnerable
regions, with serious implications for public health. Climate change related
impacts on human health could lead to displacement of a large number of
people, creating environmental refugees and lead to further health issues.
Changes in climate may affect the distribution of vector species (e.g.
mosquitoes) which in turn will increase the spread of disease, such as malaria
and filariasis, to new areas which lack a strong public health infrastructure. The
seasonal transmission and distribution of many diseases. A Task Group set up by
WHO has warned that climate change may have serious impacts on human
health. Climate change will increase various current health problems, and may
also bring new and unexpected ones. Strategies aimed at reducing potential
health impacts of anticipated climate changes should include monitoring of
infectious diseases and disease vectors to detect early changes in the incidence
of diseases and the geographical distribution of vectors; environmental
management measures to reduce risk; disaster preparedness for floods or
droughts; and their health-related consequences. It will be necessary to create
early warning systems and education for epidemic preparedness. Improved
water and air pollution control will become increasingly essential for human
health. Public education will have to be directed at changes in personal
behaviour. Training of researchers and health professionals must become an
essential part of the world becoming more responsible towards the expected
outcome of Global Climate Change (GCC).
Causes of climate change

Solar variability

The luminosity, or brightness, of the Sun has been increasing steadily since its
formation. This phenomenon is important to Earth’s climate, because the Sun
provides the energy to drive atmospheric circulation and constitutes the input
for Earth’s heat budget. Low solar luminosity during Precambrian
time underlies the faint young Sun paradox.

Radiative energy from the Sun is variable at very small timescales, owing
to solar storms and other disturbances, but variations in solar activity,
particularly the frequency of sunspots, are also documented at decadal to
millennial timescales and probably occur at longer timescales as well. The
“Maunder minimum,” a period of drastically reduced sunspot activity between
1645 and 1715, has been suggested as a contributing factor to the Little Ice Age.

Volcanic activity

Volcanic activity can influence climate in a number of ways at different

timescales. Individual volcanic eruptions can release large quantities of sulfur
dioxide and other aerosols into the stratosphere, reducing
atmospheric transparency and thus the amount of solar radiation reaching
Earth’s surface and troposphere. A recent example is the 1991 eruption in
the Philippines of Mount Pinatubo, which had measurable influences on
atmospheric circulation and heat budgets. The 1815 eruption of Mount
Tambora on the island of Sumbawa had more dramatic consequences, as the
spring and summer of the following year (1816, known as “the year without a
summer”) were unusually cold over much of the world. New England and
Europe experienced snowfalls and frosts throughout the summer of 1816.
Volcanoes and related phenomena, such as ocean rifting and subduction,
release carbon dioxide into both the oceans and the atmosphere. Emissions are
low; even a massive volcanic eruption such as Mount Pinatubo releases only a
fraction of the carbon dioxide emitted by fossil-fuel combustion in a year. At
geologic timescales, however, release of this greenhouse gas can have important
effects. Variations in carbon dioxide release by volcanoes and ocean rifts over
millions of years can alter the chemistry of the atmosphere. Such changeability
in carbon dioxide concentrations probably accounts for much of the climatic
variation that has taken place during the Phanerozoic Eon.

Tectonic activity

Tectonic movements of Earth’s crust have had profound effects on climate at

timescales of millions to tens of millions of years. These movements have
changed the shape, size, position, and elevation of the continental masses as
well as the bathymetry of the oceans. Topographic and bathymetric changes in
turn have had strong effects on the circulation of both the atmosphere and
the oceans. For example, the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau during the Cenozoic
Era affected atmospheric circulation patterns, creating the South
Asian monsoon and influencing climate over much of the rest of Asia and
neighbouring regions.

Tectonic activity also influences atmospheric chemistry, particularly carbon

dioxide concentrations. Carbon dioxide is emitted from volcanoes and vents in
rift zones and subduction zones. Variations in the rate of spreading in rift zones
and the degree of volcanic activity near plate margins have influenced
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations throughout Earth’s history. Even the
chemical weathering of rock constitutes an important sink for carbon dioxide.
(A carbon sink is any process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
by the chemical conversion of CO2 to organic or inorganic carbon compounds.)
Carbonic acid, formed from carbon dioxide and water, is a reactant in
dissolution of silicates and other minerals. Weathering rates are related to the
mass, elevation, and exposure of bedrock. Tectonic uplift can increase all these
factors and thus lead to increased weathering and carbon dioxide absorption.
For example, the chemical weathering of the rising Tibetan Plateau may have
played an important role in depleting the atmosphere of carbon dioxide during a
global cooling period in the late Cenozoic Era.

Orbital (Milankovich) variations

The orbital geometry of Earth is affected in predictable ways by the

gravitational influences of other planets in the solar system. Three primary
features of Earth’s orbit are affected, each in a cyclic, or regularly recurring,
manner. First, the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, varies from nearly
circular to elliptical (eccentric), with periodicities of 100,000 and 413,000 years.
Second, the tilt of Earth’s axis with respect to the Sun, which is primarily
responsible for Earth’s seasonal climates, varies between 22.1° and 24.5° from
the plane of Earth’s rotation around the Sun. This variation occurs on a cycle of
41,000 years. In general, the greater the tilt, the greater the solar
radiation received by hemispheres in summer and the less received in winter.
The third cyclic change to Earth’s orbital geometry results from two combined
phenomena: (1) Earth’s axis of rotation wobbles, changing the direction of the
axis with respect to the Sun, and (2) the orientation of Earth’s
orbital ellipse rotates slowly. These two processes create a 26,000-year cycle,
called precession of the equinoxes, in which the position of Earth at the
equinoxes and solstices changes. Today Earth is closest to the Sun (perihelion)
near the December solstice, whereas 9,000 years ago perihelion occurred near
the June solstice.
These orbital variations cause changes in the latitudinal and seasonal
distribution of solar radiation, which in turn drive a number of climate
variations. Orbital variations play major roles in pacing glacial-interglacial and
monsoonal patterns. Their influences have been identified in climatic changes
over much of the Phanerozoic. For example, cyclothems—which are
interbedded marine, fluvial, and coal beds characteristic of the Pennsylvanian
Subperiod (323.2 million to 298.9 million years ago)—appear to represent
Milankovitch-driven changes in mean sea level.

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases are gas molecules that have the property of

absorbing infrared radiation (net heat energy) emitted from Earth’s surface and
reradiating it back to Earth’s surface, thus contributing to the phenomenon
known as the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour are
the most important greenhouse gases, and they have a profound effect on
the energy budget of the Earth system despite making up only a fraction of all
atmospheric gases. Concentrations of greenhouse gases have varied
substantially during Earth’s history, and these variations have driven
substantial climate changes at a wide range of timescales. In general,
greenhouse gas concentrations have been particularly high during warm periods
and low during cold phases. A number of processes influence greenhouse gas
concentrations. Some, such as tectonic activities, operate at timescales of
millions of years, whereas others, such as vegetation, soil, wetland, and ocean
sources and sinks, operate at timescales of hundreds to thousands of years.
Human activities—especially fossil-fuel combustion since the Industrial
Revolution—are responsible for steady increases in atmospheric concentrations
of various greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, methane, ozone,
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Figure: The greenhouse effect on Earth.

Feedback

Perhaps the most intensively discussed and researched topic in climate

variability is the role of interactions and feedbacks among the various
components of the Earth system. The feedbacks involve different components
that operate at different rates and timescales. Ice sheets, sea
ice, terrestrial vegetation, ocean temperatures, weathering rates, ocean
circulation, and greenhouse gas concentrations are all influenced either directly
or indirectly by the atmosphere; however, they also all feed back into the
atmosphere, thereby influencing it in important ways. For example, different
forms and densities of vegetation on the land surface influence the albedo, or
reflectivity, of Earth’s surface, thus affecting the overall radiation budget at
local to regional scales. At the same time, the transfer of water molecules
from soil to the atmosphere is mediated by vegetation, both directly
(from transpiration through plant stomata) and indirectly (from shading and
temperature influences on direct evaporation from soil). This regulation of latent
heat flux by vegetation can influence climate at local to global scales. As a
result, changes in vegetation, which are partially controlled by climate, can in
turn influence the climate system. Vegetation also influences greenhouse gas
concentrations; living plants constitute an important sink for atmospheric
carbon dioxide, whereas they act as sources of carbon dioxide when they are
burned by wildfires or undergo decomposition. These and other feedbacks
among the various components of the Earth system are critical for both
understanding past climate changes and predicting future ones.

Human activities

Figure: Decline in Arctic sea-ice coverage: Sea-ice loss in the Arctic since the
end of the 20th century has lowered the region's albedo (that is, fraction
of light that is reflected by a body or surface), decreasing the region's ability to
reflect incoming sunlight while increasing its ability to absorb energy from
sunlight.

Recognition of global climate change as an environmental issue has drawn

attention to the climatic impact of human activities. Most of this attention has
focused on carbon dioxide emission via fossil-fuel combustion
and deforestation. Human activities also yield releases of other greenhouse
gases, such as methane (from rice cultivation, livestock, landfills, and other
sources) and chlorofluorocarbons (from industrial sources). There is little doubt
among climatologists that these greenhouse gases affect the radiation budget
of Earth; the nature and magnitude of the climatic response are a subject of
intense research activity. Paleoclimate records from tree rings, coral, and ice
cores indicate a clear warming trend spanning the entire 20th century and the
first decade of the 21st century. In fact, the 20th century was the warmest of the
past 10 centuries, and the decade 2011–20 was the warmest decade since the
beginning of modern instrumental record keeping. Many climatologists have
pointed to this warming pattern as clear evidence of human-induced climate
change resulting from the production of greenhouse gases.

A second type of human impact, the conversion of vegetation

by deforestation, afforestation, and agriculture, is receiving mounting attention
as a further source of climate change. It is becoming increasingly clear that
human impacts on vegetation cover can have local, regional, and even global
effects on climate, due to changes in the sensible and latent heat flux to the
atmosphere and the distribution of energy within the climate system. The extent
to which these factors contribute to recent and ongoing climate change is an
important, emerging area of study.

National Forest Policy

The Government of India accounted for a severe and persistent depletion of the
forest resources for a prolonged duration of time. The constant demand for the
procurement of fuel, wood, timber, and fodder for crops and animals had been
imposing great pressure on the forest lands. Moreover, the insufficient measures
of protection, conversion of forest areas into non-forest lands without
implementing the provisions of afforestation and necessary protection measures,
and consideration of such areas as a huge source of revenue have led to the
imbalanced presence of the greens. To counterfeit such illegal measures, the
Government implemented the regulatory strategies under the National Forest
Policy, 1988 in India.

The Government of India introduced its very first national forest policy in India
in 1952 with the key highlights:

 A comprehensive, yet functional approach to the effective management of

forests in India, contributing to the growth and enhancing the independent
functionality of the country.

 It represented a top-down approach to the administration of the forests.

 It highlighted the proposal to expand the forest cover to 1/3rd of the

entire Indian subcontinent landmass.

 It emphasized the guiding principles of the forest management document

both at the state and the local levels.

The National Forest Policy of 1952 sought to contribute either directly or

indirectly to the economy which exploited the forests and deprived them of their
conservation practices and protection which brought the policy to an ineffective
end. The earlier practices were aimed at extracting the maximum use of forest
land.

Thus, the National Forest Policy, 1988 came into existence.

Objectives of the National Forest Policy, 1988:

 Effective maintenance of ecological and environmental stability of the

forest lands through preservation.

 Restoring the ecological balance of the environment that has been

disrupted due to the depletion of resources.

 Conservation of the natural heritage of our country by maintaining the

flora and fauna.
  Checking, controlling and initiating preventive steps for soil erosion
caused due to artificial and natural hazards in the catchment area of the
rivers, reservoirs, and lakes, to prevent droughts and deceleration of
siltation in the reservoirs.

 Increasing the forest population through reforestation, afforestation, and

related social forestry initiatives.

 Efficient utilization of forest resources to avoid wastage.

Strategies under the scheme:

 One-third of the total land area should be under forest cover. Two-thirds
of the area is to be maintained under forest cover in the mountainous and
hilly regions to avoid land and soil erosion, degradation, and slides.

 Initiatives such as Afforestation and Reforestation should be prioritized.

Development of wood, fuel, and fodder development particularly in all
the deprived unproductive lands in the country.

 The unproductive land area of the village areas should be transformed

into areas for growing crops and the Government should encourage such
initiatives financially to provide funds to the people carrying out the jobs.
It helps in generating revenues that should be distributed within the local
communities consisting of the weaker sections of people.

 Projects that are related to areas of steep slopes, uneven terrains,

catchments of lakes, rivers, and reservoirs, moist rain forests, and other
sensitive areas should be entirely guarded properly.

 Government approval for conducting an operation in such areas should be

made mandatory. The Central Government must provide certain
guidelines to the State Government and the latter should ensure
compliance with the said rules.
  The cutting of the practice of shifting agriculture should be substituted by
social forestry and energy plantations.

 Forestry education and research should be conducted to make one aware

of the conservation, protection, and efficient utilization of the resources

 Proper legislation and execution of the policy should be made for the
effective functioning of the strategies undertaken under the scheme.

 The motives/aims of the forest policy should be attained without a

considerable scale of investment in forest resources and finances.

 Controlling the activities that lead to forest fires by adopting special

management practices.

 Controlling agricultural activities such as grazing and browsing.

 Ex-situ and In-situ conservation measures are actively practiced.

 Lead towards an effective mass movement with women supporters for

achieving the policy objectives and minimize the pressures that were
prevalent during the recent years.

With the introduction of the Forest Policy of 1988, the tree cover and the forest
area have increased from 20% to 25% of the geographical area and thus, the
policy is moderately helping India achieve its environmental stability and
balance its ecology.

Conclusion:

Forests are essential for regulating and maintaining the natural ecosystem
which in turn helps in preserving the living diversity. They are not to be
considered a source of revenue. They are natural renewable sources and hence
they need to be properly maintained and protected. In recent times there has
been no proposal for reviewing the National Forest Policy, 1988 as per the
reports of 2006 there is no necessity to amend the recent policy.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and for
matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto with a view to
ensuring the ecological and environmental security of the country.

The rapid decline of India's wild animals and birds, one of the richest and most
varied in the world, has been a cause of grave concern. Some wild animals and
birds have already become extinct in this country and others are in the danger of
being so. Areas which were once teeming with wild life have become devoid of
it and even in Sanctuaries and National Parks the protection afforded to wild life
needs to be improved. The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912 (8 of
1912), has become completely outmoded. The existing State laws are not only
out-dated but provide punishments which are not commensurate with the
offence and the financial benefits which accrue from poaching and trade in wild
life produce. Further such laws mainly relate to control of hunting and do not
emphasis the other factors which are also prima reasons for the decline of
India's wild life, namely, taxidermy and trade in wild life and products derived
there from.

The Bill seeks to-

(a) Constitute a Wild Life Advisory Board for each State;

(b) Regulate hunting of wild animals and birds;

(c) Lay down the procedure for declaring areas as Sanctuaries, National Parks,
etc.;
(d) Regulate possession, acquisition or transfer of, or trade in wild animals,
animal articles and trophies and taxidermy thereof;

(e) Provide penalties for contravention of the Act.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

An Act to provide for the conservation of forests and for matters connected
therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 is a
unique piece of legislation, and a regulatory mechanism that reflects the
collective will of the nation to protect its rich biodiversity and natural heritage
and that permits only unavoidable use of forest land for various developmental
purposes. It embodies the firm commitment of the Government of India to
balance the conservation of forests with the sustainable development need of the
country contributing to better environment, health and economy. The
remarkable feature of this Act is that it is regulatory and not prohibitory.
Concurrent to regulated forest land diversions, the Government of India in the
Ministry of Environment and Forests has also made efforts to consolidate the
forest area and regenerate the forest cover through compensatory afforestation
process.

Objectives

1. Forest dwellers must have access to subsidized sources of fuel, fodder,

building material etc so that they do not cut trees.

2. Modify working plans into environmentally sound action plans based on

scientific research.

1. Protection of standing Forests.

2. Creation of new stock.

3. Building up of information base.

Measures

1. Aquatint yourself with the laws, detailed rules and orders issued by the
government.

2. Create awareness about the existence & value of national parts & sanctuaries.

3. Help to create public pressure to change rules, laws & procedures when
necessary.

4. Do not litter in a forest area.

5. Participate in preservation of greenery, by planting watering & caring for

plants.

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the
maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with
a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and
control of water pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards
powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.
WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for the prevention and control of water
pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the
establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for
the prevention and control of water pollution and for conferring on and
assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto.

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by
industrial, agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our
water sources. Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands,
rivers, lakes, wells as well as the sea are serious health hazards. The main
objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement
of water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of
water. It is designed to assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central
Government and State Government have set up PCBs to monitor water
pollution.

Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different pollutants is

one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do
several things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals
for household use, reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying
polluting sources at work places and in industrial units where oil are or other
petroleum products and heavy metals are used. Excessive organic matter,
sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can also pollute our
water. Citizen needs

to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to appropriate actions against

different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution is better than
trying to cure the problems it has created, or punishing offenders.

The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and
abatement of water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the
wholesomeness of water. It is designed to assess pollution levels and punish
polluters. The Central Government and State Government have set up PCBs to
monitor water pollution.

The Water Act, 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive

legislation with more than sixty sections for the prevention and control of water
pollution. Among other things, the Act provides for constitution of central and
State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to take water samples and
their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision,
minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders, offences
by companies and Government departments, cognizance of offences, water
laboratories, analysis etc.

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for
matters connected there with: WHEREAS the decisions were taken at the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in
June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement of human environment; AND WHEREAS it is
considered necessary further to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as
they relate to the protection and improvement of environment and the
prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and
property.

It was enacted with the main objective to provide the protection and
improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith. The Act is
one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and
improvement of the environment.

The Constitution of India also provides for the protection of the environment.
Article 48A of the Constitution specifies that the State shall endeavor to protect
and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
country. Article 51 A further provides that every citizen shall protect the
environment.

Objectives

As mentioned earlier, the main objective of the Act was to provide the
protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected
therewith. Other objectives of the implementation of the EPA are:
 To implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972.

 To enact a general law on the areas of environmental protection which were

left uncovered by existing laws. The existing laws were more specific in nature
and concentrated on a more specific type of pollution and specific categories of
hazardous substances rather than on general problems that chiefly caused major
environmental hazards.

 To co-ordinate activities of the various regulatory agencies under the existing

laws

 To provide for the creation of an authority or authorities for environmental

protection

 To provide deterrent punishment to those who endanger the human

environment, safety and health

It is the power vested in the central government that they can take any
reasonable and valid steps and measures for the purpose of the protection and
improvement of the quality of the environment. These measures are taken for
the prevention, control and abatement of environmental Pollution.

Biodiversity Act, 2002

An Act to provide for conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its

components and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use
of biological resources, knowledge and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto. WHEREAS India is rich in biological diversity and
associated traditional and contemporary knowledge system relating thereto.
AND WHEREAS India is a party to the United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity signed at Rio de Janeiro on the 5th day of June, 1992.
Biodiversity has been defined under Section 2(b) of the Act as "the variability
among living organisms from all sources and the ecological complexes of which
they are part, and includes diversity within species or between species and of
ecosystems".

The Biological Diversity Act 2002 is a law meant to achieve three main
objectives: ƒ the conservation of biodiversity; ƒ the sustainable use of biological
resources; ƒ equity in sharing benefits from such use of resources. The
Biological Diversity Act 2002 was born out of India's attempt to realize the
objectives enshrined in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) 1992 which recognizes the sovereign rights of states to use their own
Biological Resources. The Act aims at the conservation of biological resources
and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable
manner and through a just process for purposes of implementing the objects of
the Act it establishes the National Biodiversity Authority in Chennai.

Some salient features of the Act are: 1) To regulate access to biological

resources of the country with equitable share in benefits arising out of the use of
biological resources. 2) To conserve and sustainably use biological diversity. 3)
To set up National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) , State Biodiversity Board
(SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC’s) 4) To create
National , State and local biodiversity fund and its use for conservation of
biodiversity. 5) To respect and protect knowledge of local communities and
traditional knowledge related to biodiversity. 6) To conserve and develop areas
of importance from the stand point of biological diversity by declaring them as
biological diversity heritage sites.

Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (the
Montreal Protocol) is an international agreement signed on 16th September
1987. It was designed to stop the production and import of ozone depleting
substances and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to help protect the
earth's ozone layer.

The Montreal Protocol sits under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer (the Vienna Convention). The Vienna Convention was adopted
in 1985 following international discussion of scientific discoveries in the 1970s
and 1980s highlighting the adverse effect of human activity on ozone levels in
the stratosphere and the discovery of the ‘ozone hole’. Its objectives are to
promote cooperation on the adverse effects of human activities on the ozone
layer. The Montreal Protocol is widely considered as the most successful
environment protection agreement. It sets out a mandatory timetable for the
phase out of ozone depleting substances. The United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO) became an implementing agency of the
Montreal Protocol in 1992 and is proud to be associated with its success. Since
then UNIDO has recognized the significance of meeting the global
environmental challenge of ozone depletion while observing national priorities,
and of making meaningful technological adjustments resulting in a higher
standard of living.

The Montreal Protocol has proven to be innovative and successful, and is the
first treaty to achieve universal ratification by all countries in the world.
Leveraging worldwide participation, the Montreal Protocol has sent clear
signals to the global market and placed the ozone layer, which was in peril, on a
path to repair. Full implementation of the Montreal Protocol is expected to
result in avoidance of more than 280 million cases of skin cancer,
approximately 1.6 million skin cancer deaths, and more than 45 million cases of
cataracts in the United States alone by the end of the century, with even greater
benefits worldwide. The Montreal Protocol’s Scientific Assessment Panel
estimates that with implementation of the Montreal Protocol we can expect near
complete recovery of the ozone layer by the middle of the 21st century.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex

ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there
are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aimed to reduce carbon

dioxide (CO2) emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the
atmosphere. The essential tenet of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized
nations needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions. The Protocol was
adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly
threatening our climate, life on the earth, and the planet, itself. Today, the Kyoto
Protocol lives on in other forms and its issues are still being discussed. The
Kyoto Protocol is significant because it introduces, for the first time, legally
binding greenhouse gas emission commitments for the developed countries (this
includes most of the developed countries listed in Annex I of the UNFCCC).
The commitments agreed to should, according to the Protocol, lead to an overall
global reduction of at least five per cent in 1990 levels of greenhouse gases by
2008-2012.

The most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO2), and its biggest
source by far is the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) for energy. Six
billion tons of carbon is released as carbon dioxide every year from this source.
Burning fossil fuels also gives off two other greenhouse gases: methane (CH4)
and nitrous oxide (N2O). Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are also
given off as a result of deforestation, removal of grassland cover and
agricultural practices. Deforestation is responsible for about 1.6 billion tons of
carbon released as CO2 per year. Methane is also emitted during the
management and disposal of waste. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and halons are chemical gases which cause both
ozone depletion and global warming. They are being phased out or controlled
under the Montreal Protocol and so are not included in the UNFCCC or its
Kyoto Protocol. The three industrial global warming gases controlled under the
Kyoto Protocol are hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-

binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable
use of biodiversity; fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the
use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage actions, which will
lead to a sustainable future. It was adopted at the Earth Summit, in Rio de
Janeiro, in 1992.

One of the CBD's greatest achievements so far has been to generate an

enormous amount of interest in biodiversity, both in developed and developing
countries. Biodiversity is now seen as a critically important environment and
development issue.

The Convention sets out general principles for action to achieve its main
objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
components and the equitable sharing of benefits derived from the use of
genetic resources. Over the years, the Conference of the Parties to the
Convention—the body responsible for reviewing and guiding implementation—
has adopted a number of programs of work on a range of thematic and cross-
cutting issues. The thematic issues focus on the biodiversity of particular
biomes or ecosystem types, such as marine and coastal areas, agricultural lands,
dry lands, mountains, inland waters, and so forth. The cross-cutting issues are of
a more general relevance and aim both to support the implementation of the
thematic programmes of work and to implement specific articles of the
Convention. The programs of work on access to genetic resources and benefit-
sharing and indigenous and traditional knowledge fall into the latter category.
The Conference of the Parties has also a number of tools and mechanisms to
advance implementation of the Convention, such as operational guidance and
principles for using the ecosystem approach and guidelines for incorporating
biodiversity considerations into environmental impact assessment.

United Nations’ Role in Combating Climate Change?

The United Nations has been instrumental in facilitating international

negotiations on efforts to combat climate change through the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The UNFCCC brings
together 197 members, including all U.N. member states, for work sessions
throughout the year. During the annual Conference of the Parties (COP), nations
share information on emissions, policies, and practices, and attempt to develop
strategies for addressing climate change. The IPCC consults experts to assess
climate change science and presents policy-relevant information outlining how
nations can mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impact and risks
of this global threat.

In 1997, the members of the UNFCCC negotiated the Kyoto Protocol, a legally
binding agreement that compelled developed nations to reduce greenhouse
emissions over the course of two commitment periods (2008-2012 and 2013-
2020). At the 2015 Conference of the Parties, countries adopted the Paris
Agreement on climate change. The Paris Agreement entered into force in
November 2016, less than a year after it was adopted. As of August 2020, 189
parties (188 countries plus the European Union) have ratified the Paris
Agreement. The parties agree to limit global warming to “well below 2 degrees
Celsius” (3.6 Fahrenheit) this century. Participating countries are expected to
submit their own country-specific emission reduction targets, known
as Nationally Determined Contributions.

In 2015, the United Nations adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

that are meant to serve as a blueprint for action on critical development issues,
such as ending poverty and hunger. Goal number 13 (SDG 13) is "Climate
Action," which calls on nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and to
prepare their communities for the impacts of climate change. The need to
address climate change is also woven throughout the other goals.

The UN Climate Change Conference in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, from

November 30 to December 12, 2023, was a major event in the UN's climate
change efforts. The conference included the first "global stocktake" of the Paris
Agreement, which resulted in an agreement to transition away from fossil fuels
and limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

The UN held a global conference on July 16, 2023, to accelerate action on

climate change and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Question Bank

1. Is fluoride toxic?
2. Where does fluoride come from in water?
3. How can I reduce fluoride in water?
4. What Causes Acid Rain?
5. What are the artificial materials responsible for ozone layer depletion?
6. What do CFCs stand for? What is the role of CFC in global warming?
7. How does global warming affect climate change?
8. How can we control global warming?
9. How is climate change affecting the world?
[Link] is the United Nation doing to combat climate change?
11. What is the Montreal protocol related to?
12. What is the Environment Protection Act?