1.

Defining Democracy: The Core Concept

1.​The word Democracy comes from the Greek word

'Demokratia'.
'Demos': People
'Kratia': Rule

2.​Simple Definition: Democracy is a form of government

in which the rulers are elected by the people

●​ Major decision by elected leader

3.​The Four Pillars (Features) of Democracy

A simple election isn't enough to make a country
democratic. It must meet these four criteria:
Major Decisions by Elected Leaders

4.​Description: Final decision-making power must rest

with those elected by the people.

5.​Example of Failure: In Pakistan under General

Musharraf, elected representatives existed, but the
military and the National Security Council had the real
power.

●​ Free and Fair Electoral Competition

 Description: Elections must offer a real choice
between political alternatives, where those currently in
power have a fair chance of losing.

Example of Failure: In China, only the Communist

Party is allowed. In Mexico, the PRI used "dirty tricks"
(shifting polling booths, forcing government
employees to attend meetings) to ensure they never
lost.
1.​One Person, One Vote, One Value

Description: Each adult citizen must have one vote

and each vote must have equal value.

2.​Example of Failure: In Saudi Arabia, women didn't

have the right to vote for a long time. In Estonia,
citizenship rules made it hard for the Russian minority
to vote. In Fiji, the vote of an indigenous Fijian has
more value than that of an Indian-Fijian.

3.​Rule of Law and Respect for Rights

Description: The government must stay within limits

set by constitutional law and respect citizens' rights
(like freedom of speech and an independent
judiciary).
 4.​Example of Failure: In Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe’s
government harassed opposition workers, controlled
the media, and ignored court judgments.

2. Why Democracy? (Arguments For and Against)

Arguments Against Democracy (Criticism)

Instability: Leaders keep changing, leading to frequent

policy shifts.

No Morality: It’s all about political competition and power

play; there is no scope for morality.

Delays: Many people have to be consulted, which leads to

delays in decision-making.

Bad Decisions: Elected leaders don't always know the

best interest of the people.

Corruption: Because it is based on electoral competition, it

leads to corruption.

Arguments For Democracy (Merits)

More Accountable: It is a better government because it is
more accountable to the people (e.g., India’s response to
the 1958-61 famine compared to China).

Quality Decisions: Consultation and discussion reduce the

chances of rash or irresponsible decisions.

Conflict Management: Provides a peaceful method to deal

with differences in a diverse society like India.
Enhances Dignity: It recognizes that even the poorest and
least educated have the same status as the rich.

Room for Correction: It allows the government to admit

mistakes and correct them—either the rulers change their
decisions, or the rulers themselves can be changed.

3. Key Differences: Democratic vs. Non-Democratic

Democratic Government

Rulers are elected by the people.

Citizens have freedom of speech, assembly, and protest.

The government is responsible to the people and can be
changed in the next election.
The government follows the rules laid down in the
Constitution.

Non-Democratic Government

Rulers are not elected (Dictators, Monarchs, or Military

leaders).

Freedom is restricted; opposition is usually suppressed or

declared illegal.

Rulers are not accountable to the people.

Rulers are often above the law or change the law to suit
their needs.

4. Important Flashcards for Revision

Flashcard 1: What is the 'Legal Framework Order' (2002)?

Answer: An order issued by General Musharraf in
Pakistan that amended the Constitution, giving the
President power to dismiss national and provincial
assemblies and putting a military-heavy Council in charge.

Flashcard 2: Why is Mexico's PRI party criticized?

Answer: Because they used unfair practices to win every
election until 2000, such as forcing teachers to influence
parents, using government assets for campaigning, and
media bias.

Flashcard 3: What is the difference between a 'Minimal'

and 'Ideal' democracy?
Answer: A minimal democracy is one that simply holds
elections. An ideal democracy is a goal where no one
goes hungry, every citizen has equal information, and
everyone plays an equal role in decision-making.
Flashcard 4: How does democracy improve the quality of
decision-making?
Answer: By involving many persons, discussions, and
meetings, which allows potential mistakes to be pointed
out before a final decision is made.

5. Broader Meaning of Democracy

Democracy is not just about the state; it is a principle that

can be applied to any sphere of life.
A "democratic family" is one where everyone sits down
and reaches a consensus.
A "democratic classroom" is one where students can ask
questions and teachers encourage participation.
​1. Defining a Constitution: Core Concepts
​ constitution is a set of written rules accepted by all
A
people living together in a country. It is the supreme law
of the land and determines the rights of citizens, the
powers of the government, and how it should function.

​Why do we need a Constitution?

​ constitution is necessary because it performs several
A
key functions:
●​ ​Trust and Coordination: It generates the trust
needed for different kinds of people to live together
peacefully.
●​ ​Government Structure: It specifies how the
government will be formed and who will have the
power to take which decisions.
●​ ​Limits on Power: It sets limits on the powers of the
government and defines the rights of the citizens.
●​ ​Aspirations: It expresses the aspirations of the
people about creating a good society.

​2. The Struggle Against Apartheid in South Africa

​ partheid was a system of racial discrimination unique to
A
South Africa, imposed by white Europeans.

​Key Features of Apartheid

 ●​ ​Segregation: All public facilities—trains, buses,
hospitals, schools, beaches, and even toilets—were
separate for whites and blacks.
●​ ​Living Restrictions: Blacks were forbidden from
living in white areas and could only work there with a
permit.
●​ ​Political Denial: Non-whites did not have voting
rights and were forbidden from forming associations
or protesting.

​The Transition to Democracy

●​ ​The African National Congress (ANC) led the
struggle against segregation.
●​ ​Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment
in 1964 for opposing the regime and spent 27 years in
Robben Island prison.
●​ ​On April 26, 1994, South Africa became a newly born
democracy.
●​ ​Black leaders appealed to their followers to forgive
the whites for past atrocities and build a new nation
based on equality of all races.

​3. Making of the Indian Constitution

​ he Indian Constitution was drawn up under difficult
T
circumstances, including the trauma of partition.

​The Path to the Constitution

 ●​ ​Early Drafts: In 1928, Motilal Nehru and eight others
drafted a constitution. In 1931, the Karachi session of
the Congress outlined the vision for an independent
India.
●​ ​Colonial Influence: Experience in colonial legislative
institutions helped Indians design their own
institutions, adopting details from laws like the
Government of India Act, 1935.
●​ ​Global Inspiration: Leaders were inspired by the
French Revolution, British parliamentary democracy,
the US Bill of Rights, and the Socialist Revolution in
Russia.

​The Constituent Assembly

●​ ​The Constituent Assembly consisted of elected
representatives who drafted the document.
●​ ​It had 299 members and was chaired by Dr.
Rajendra Prasad.
●​ ​The Drafting Committee, chaired by Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, prepared the draft for discussion.
●​ ​The Constitution was adopted on November 26,
1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950.

​ . Guiding Values of the Indian Constitution (The

4
Preamble)
​ he Preamble is an introductory statement that contains
T
the philosophy and basic values of the Constitution.
​Key Terms in the Preamble
●​ ​Sovereign: People have the supreme right to make
decisions; no external power can dictate to India.
●​ ​Socialist: Wealth should be shared equally;
government should regulate land and industry to
reduce inequality.
●​ ​Secular: Citizens have complete freedom to follow
any religion; there is no official religion.
●​ ​Democratic: A government where people enjoy equal
political rights and elect their rulers.
●​ ​Republic: The head of the state is an elected person,
not a hereditary position.
●​ ​Justice: Citizens cannot be discriminated against
based on caste, religion, or gender.
●​ ​Liberty: No unreasonable restrictions on what
citizens think or how they express themselves.
●​ ​Equality: All are equal before the law.
●​ ​Fraternity: All should behave like members of the
same family.

​5. Revision Flashcards

​Flashcard 1: What is a Constitutional Amendment?
Answer: A change in the constitution made by the
supreme legislative body of a country to keep it updated
with society’s aspirations.
​Flashcard 2: Who was Nelson Mandela?
Answer: The leader of the South African struggle against
apartheid and the first president of democratic South
Africa.
​ lashcard 3: What is the significance of the 42nd
F
Amendment (1976)?
Answer: The terms 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were added to
the Preamble of the Indian Constitution through this
amendment.
​ lashcard 4: What are the 'Constituent Assembly
F
Debates'?
Answer: 12 bulky volumes containing every document
presented and every word spoken during the three years
of drafting the Indian Constitution.

​6. Comparison Table: South Africa vs. India

​South Africa
●​ ​Challenge: Overcoming a system of extreme racial
segregation (Apartheid).
●​ ​Constitution Basis: Negotiated between the
oppressor (whites) and the oppressed (blacks).
●​ ​Symbol: Known as the "Rainbow Nation" to celebrate
diversity.
​India
●​ ​Challenge: Overcoming the trauma of partition and
integrating princely states.
●​ ​Constitution Basis: Consensus evolved over years
of the national movement and learning from global
models.
●​ ​Symbol: Republic Day (Jan 26) marks the
implementation of the Constitution.
 ​Chapter 1: What is Democracy? Why Democracy?

​Short Answer Questions (3 Marks)

​ 1. "Elections in China do not offer a real choice."
Q
Explain.
●​ ​In China, elections are held regularly every five years
to elect the National People's Congress.
●​ ​However, only those who are members of the
Chinese Communist Party or eight smaller parties
allied to it are allowed to contest elections.
●​ ​Since the government is always formed by the
Communist Party, the people have no real choice but
to vote for the ruling party.
​ 2. How did Robert Mugabe's government ignore the
Q
'Rule of Law' in Zimbabwe?
●​ ​Mugabe’s government changed the constitution
multiple times to increase the power of the President
and make him less accountable.
●​ ​Public protests and demonstrations against the
government were declared illegal.
●​ ​The government ignored court judgments that went
against it and even pressurized judges.
​ 3. Why is democracy considered a more
Q
'accountable' form of government?
 ●​ ​A democratic government responds to the needs of
the people because of political pressure from the
opposition and the press.
●​ ​For example, during the famine of 1958-1961, India's
democratic system forced the government to act on
food scarcity, whereas China's non-democratic
system did not.

​Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

​ 4. Explain the four main features of democracy with
Q
examples.
1.​​Major Decisions by Elected Leaders:
Decision-making must rest with those elected by the
people. In Pakistan under Musharraf, power rested
with military officers, not elected representatives.
2.​​Free and Fair Elections: There must be a real
chance for the ruling party to lose. In Mexico, the PRI
used dirty tricks for 70 years to stay in power.
3.​​One Person, One Vote, One Value: Every adult must
have one vote of equal value. In Fiji, the vote of an
indigenous Fijian is worth more than that of an
Indian-Fijian.
4.​​Rule of Law: The government must respect basic
rights and follow the constitution, unlike in Zimbabwe
where the ruling party harassed the opposition.

​Chapter 2: Constitutional Design

 ​Short Answer Questions (3 Marks)
​Q1. What was the 'Apartheid' system in South Africa?
●​ ​Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination where
people were labeled based on skin color.
●​ ​The native 'black' population (3/4th of the population)
were forbidden from living in white areas.
●​ ​All public facilities like hospitals, schools, and
beaches were separate, a system known as
segregation.
​ 2. Mention three difficulties faced by the makers of
Q
the Indian Constitution.
●​ ​The country was huge and diverse, making it hard to
reach a consensus.
●​ ​India was emerging from being colonial subjects to
becoming free citizens.
●​ ​The country was born through a traumatic and violent
partition based on religious differences.
​ 3. Why is the Preamble called the 'Soul' of the Indian
Q
Constitution?
●​ ​It contains the philosophy on which the entire
Constitution has been built.
●​ ​It provides a standard to evaluate every law and
action of the government to see if it is good or bad.
 ●​ ​It expresses the fundamental values like Justice,
Liberty, and Equality that guide the nation.

​Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

​ 4. Why should we accept a Constitution made over
Q
75 years ago?
1.​​Broad Consensus: It does not reflect the views of its
members alone but expresses a broad consensus of
its time.
1.​​No Legitimacy Challenge: While many groups have
questioned specific provisions, no large social group
or party has ever questioned the legitimacy of the
Constitution itself.
1.​​Representative Body: The Constituent Assembly
represented people from all regions, language
groups, castes, and occupations.
1.​​Systematic Working: The Assembly worked in an
open and consensual manner, with every word
spoken recorded in the 'Constituent Assembly
Debates'.
​ 5. Define the following terms mentioned in the
Q
Preamble:
1.​​Sovereign: People have the supreme right to make
decisions; no external power can dictate to India.
1.​​Secular: Citizens have complete freedom to follow
any religion; government treats all religions with equal
respect.
1.​​Republic: The head of the state is an elected person
and not a hereditary position.
1.​​Fraternity: All should behave as if we are members
of the same family; no one should treat a fellow
citizen as inferior.
1.​​Justice: Citizens cannot be discriminated against on
grounds of caste, religion, or gender.
1. Overview of Constitutional Design
In a democracy, the rulers are not free to do whatever they
like.
There are basic rules that both the citizens and the
government must follow.
All such rules together are called the Constitution.
As the supreme law of the country, it determines the rights
of citizens and the powers of the government.
2. Democratic Constitution in South Africa
The Apartheid System
Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination unique to
South Africa, imposed by white Europeans.
The system divided people and labeled them based on
their skin color.
Native people were called 'blacks' and made up
three-fourths of the population.
Mixed races were called 'coloured,' alongside people who
migrated from India.
Non-whites did not have voting rights and were treated as
inferiors.
Segregation: Trains, buses, hotels, hospitals, schools,
libraries, and even public toilets were separate for whites
and blacks.
The Struggle and Transition
The African National Congress (ANC) was the umbrella
organization that led the struggle against segregation.
Nelson Mandela and seven other leaders were sentenced
to life imprisonment in 1964 for opposing apartheid.
Mandela spent 27 years in Robben Island, South Africa's
most dreaded prison.
On April 26, 1994, the new national flag was unfurled,
marking the birth of democracy.
The new constitution was drawn up by both the party that
ruled through oppression and the party that led the
freedom struggle sitting together.
3. Why Do We Need a Constitution?
A constitution does many things for a society:
First, it generates a degree of trust and coordination
necessary for different kinds of people to live together.
Second, it specifies how the government will be
constituted and who will have the power to take decisions.
Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the government
and tells us what the rights of citizens are.
Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people about
creating a good society.
4. Making of the Indian Constitution
Challenges and Advantages
India’s Constitution was drawn up under difficult
circumstances, including a traumatic partition based on
religious differences.
At least ten lakh people were killed on both sides of the
border in partition-related violence.
British rulers left it to the princely states to decide whether
to merge with India, Pakistan, or remain independent.
Advantage: Unlike South Africa, Indian leaders already
had a consensus on what a democratic India should look
like.
In 1928, Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders
drafted a constitution for India.
The Constituent Assembly
The drafting was done by an assembly of elected
representatives called the Constituent Assembly.
Elections were held in July 1946, and the first meeting was
in December 1946.
The Assembly that wrote the Indian constitution had 299
members.
It adopted the Constitution on November 26, 1949, but it
came into effect on January 26, 1950.
5. Important Differences
Difference 1: The Nature of the Struggle
South Africa: The struggle was against an internal system
of racial discrimination (Apartheid) imposed by a white
minority that had settled locally.
India: The struggle was primarily against a foreign colonial
power (Great Britain) that treated India as a colony to be
occupied with force.
Difference 2: The Path to Consensus
South Africa: The oppressors and the oppressed had to
negotiate a peaceful transition from scratch because they
were historical enemies.
India: Much of the consensus on democratic values had
already evolved during the decades of the freedom
struggle before independence.
Difference 3: Colonial Institutional Influence
South Africa: Created a brand new multi-racial
government structure after the total collapse of the
apartheid regime.
India: Adopted many institutional details and procedures
from existing colonial laws, such as the Government of
India Act, 1935.
6. Self-Created Questions and Answers
Q1: Why is the Indian Constitution called a "Living
Document"?
A: Because it is not a sacred, static, or unalterable law.
The makers made provisions to incorporate changes from
time to time, called constitutional amendments, to keep it
updated with people's aspirations.
Q2: What was the compromise reached between the
whites and blacks in South Africa?
A: The whites agreed to the principle of majority rule and
one person one vote. The blacks agreed that majority rule
would not be absolute and they would not take away the
property of the white minority.
Q3: Explain the term 'Constituent Assembly Debates'.
A: Every document presented and every word spoken in
the Assembly was recorded and preserved. These
debates, printed in 12 bulky volumes, provide the rationale
behind every provision of the Constitution.
7. 20 Important Flashcards
Q: What is the supreme law of a country? A: The
Constitution.
Q: Name the system of racial discrimination in South
Africa. A: Apartheid.
Q: Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee? A:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Q: Where was Nelson Mandela imprisoned for 27 years?
A: Robben Island.
Q: When did the South African Constitution come into
effect? A: April 26, 1994.
Q: How many members were in the Indian Constituent
Assembly? A: 299.
Q: What is a Preamble? A: A short statement of basic
values that begins a constitution.
Q: Who was the President of the Constituent Assembly?
A: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
Q: What does 'Sovereign' mean? A: People have the
supreme right to make decisions; no external power can
dictate to the government.
Q: What is an 'Amendment'? A: A change in the
constitution made by the supreme legislative body.
Q: What does 'Secular' mean? A: There is no official
religion; government treats all religious beliefs with equal
respect.
Q: Define 'Treason'. A: The offense of attempting to
overthrow the government of the state.
Q: Who drafted a constitution for India in 1928? A: Motilal
Nehru.
Q: What is 'Universal Adult Franchise'? A: The right of all
adult citizens to vote.
Q: What does 'Republic' mean? A: The head of the state is
an elected person, not a hereditary position.
Q: What is 'Segregation'? A: The policy of keeping whites
and blacks separate in public facilities.
Q: Which umbrella organization led the South African
struggle? A: African National Congress (ANC).
Q: When was the Indian Constitution adopted? A:
November 26, 1949.
Q: What does 'Fraternity' mean? A: Behaving as if we are
members of the same family; no one is inferior.
Q: What is a 'Draft'? A: A preliminary version of a legal
document.

​1. Overview of Constitutional Design

●​ ​In a democracy, the rulers are not free to do whatever
they like.
●​ ​There are basic rules that both the citizens and the
government must follow.
●​ ​All such rules together are called the Constitution.
●​ ​As the supreme law of the country, it determines the
rights of citizens and the powers of the government.

​2. Democratic Constitution in South Africa

​The Apartheid System

●​ ​Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination
unique to South Africa, imposed by white Europeans.
●​ ​The system divided people and labeled them based
on their skin color.
●​ ​Native people were called 'blacks' and made up
three-fourths of the population.
●​ ​Mixed races were called 'coloured,' alongside people
who migrated from India.
●​ ​Non-whites did not have voting rights and were
treated as inferiors.
 ●​ ​Segregation: Trains, buses, hotels, hospitals, schools,
libraries, and even public toilets were separate for
whites and blacks.

​The Struggle and Transition

●​ ​The African National Congress (ANC) was the
umbrella organization that led the struggle against
segregation.
●​ ​Nelson Mandela and seven other leaders were
sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 for opposing
apartheid.
●​ ​Mandela spent 27 years in Robben Island, South
Africa's most dreaded prison.
●​ ​On April 26, 1994, the new national flag was unfurled,
marking the birth of democracy.
●​ ​The new constitution was drawn up by both the party
that ruled through oppression and the party that led
the freedom struggle sitting together.

​3. Why Do We Need a Constitution?

​A constitution does many things for a society:
●​ ​First, it generates a degree of trust and coordination
necessary for different kinds of people to live together.
●​ ​Second, it specifies how the government will be
constituted and who will have the power to take
decisions.
●​ ​Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the
government and tells us what the rights of citizens
are.
●​ ​Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people
about creating a good society.

​4. Making of the Indian Constitution

​Challenges and Advantages

●​ ​India’s Constitution was drawn up under difficult
circumstances, including a traumatic partition based
on religious differences.
●​ ​At least ten lakh people were killed on both sides of
the border in partition-related violence.
●​ ​British rulers left it to the princely states to decide
whether to merge with India, Pakistan, or remain
independent.
●​ ​Advantage: Unlike South Africa, Indian leaders
already had a consensus on what a democratic India
should look like.
●​ ​In 1928, Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress
leaders drafted a constitution for India.

​The Constituent Assembly

●​ ​The drafting was done by an assembly of elected
representatives called the Constituent Assembly.
●​ ​Elections were held in July 1946, and the first meeting
was in December 1946.
●​ ​The Assembly that wrote the Indian constitution had
299 members.
●​ ​It adopted the Constitution on November 26, 1949,
but it came into effect on January 26, 1950.

​5. Important Differences

​Difference 1: The Nature of the Struggle

●​ ​South Africa: The struggle was against an internal
system of racial discrimination (Apartheid) imposed by
a white minority that had settled locally.
●​ ​India: The struggle was primarily against a foreign
colonial power (Great Britain) that treated India as a
colony to be occupied with force.

​Difference 2: The Path to Consensus

●​ ​South Africa: The oppressors and the oppressed had
to negotiate a peaceful transition from scratch
because they were historical enemies.
●​ ​India: Much of the consensus on democratic values
had already evolved during the decades of the
freedom struggle before independence.

​Difference 3: Colonial Institutional Influence

 ●​ ​South Africa: Created a brand new multi-racial
government structure after the total collapse of the
apartheid regime.
●​ ​India: Adopted many institutional details and
procedures from existing colonial laws, such as the
Government of India Act, 1935.

​6. Self-Created Questions and Answers

​ 1: Why is the Indian Constitution called a "Living
Q
Document"?
A: Because it is not a sacred, static, or unalterable law.
The makers made provisions to incorporate changes from
time to time, called constitutional amendments, to keep it
updated with people's aspirations.
​ 2: What was the compromise reached between the
Q
whites and blacks in South Africa?
A: The whites agreed to the principle of majority rule and
one person one vote. The blacks agreed that majority rule
would not be absolute and they would not take away the
property of the white minority.
​Q3: Explain the term 'Constituent Assembly Debates'.
A: Every document presented and every word spoken in
the Assembly was recorded and preserved. These
debates, printed in 12 bulky volumes, provide the rationale
behind every provision of the Constitution.

​7. 20 Important Flashcards

1.​​Q: What is the supreme law of a country? A: The
Constitution.
1.​​Q: Name the system of racial discrimination in South
Africa. A: Apartheid.
1.​​Q: Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee?
A: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
1.​​Q: Where was Nelson Mandela imprisoned for 27
years? A: Robben Island.
1.​​Q: When did the South African Constitution come into
effect? A: April 26, 1994.
1.​​Q: How many members were in the Indian
Constituent Assembly? A: 299.
1.​​Q: What is a Preamble? A: A short statement of basic
values that begins a constitution.
1.​​Q: Who was the President of the Constituent
Assembly? A: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
1.​​Q: What does 'Sovereign' mean? A: People have the
supreme right to make decisions; no external power
can dictate to the government.
1.​​Q: What is an 'Amendment'? A: A change in the
constitution made by the supreme legislative body.
 1.​​Q: What does 'Secular' mean? A: There is no official
religion; government treats all religious beliefs with
equal respect.
1.​​Q: Define 'Treason'. A: The offense of attempting to
overthrow the government of the state.
1.​​Q: Who drafted a constitution for India in 1928? A:
Motilal Nehru.
1.​​Q: What is 'Universal Adult Franchise'? A: The right of
all adult citizens to vote.
1.​​Q: What does 'Republic' mean? A: The head of the
state is an elected person, not a hereditary position.
1.​​Q: What is 'Segregation'? A: The policy of keeping
whites and blacks separate in public facilities.
1.​​Q: Which umbrella organization led the South African
struggle? A: African National Congress (ANC).
1.​​Q: When was the Indian Constitution adopted? A:
November 26, 1949.
1.​​Q: What does 'Fraternity' mean? A: Behaving as if we
are members of the same family; no one is inferior.
1.​​Q: What is a 'Draft'? A: A preliminary version of a
legal document.

1. How is a Major Policy Decision Taken?

Major decisions in India are not taken by a single
individual but through a chain of political institutions.
The Story of the Office Memorandum (OM)
What is an OM?: It is a communication issued by an
appropriate authority stating a government policy or
decision.
The Mandal Commission: Established in 1979 and headed
by B.P. Mandal, it was asked to identify socially and
educationally backward classes (SEBC).
Recommendation: The Commission recommended that
27% of government jobs be reserved for SEBCs.
Implementation: After the 1989 elections, the Janata Dal
government led by V.P. Singh decided to implement it. The
final order was signed by a Joint Secretary on August 13,
1990.
The Dispute: The decision led to widespread protests and
legal challenges. The Supreme Court bunched these
cases as the 'Indira Sawhney and others Vs Union of India
case'.
The Verdict: In 1992, the Supreme Court declared the
order valid but asked the government to exclude
"well-to-do" persons (creamy layer) from the benefits.
2. Need for Political Institutions
Democracy works through several arrangements called
institutions to perform tasks like security, education, and
health.
The Legislature: Exercises supreme political authority on
behalf of the people and makes laws.
The Executive: A body of persons authorized to initiate
policies and implement laws.
The Judiciary: An institution empowered to resolve legal
disputes and interpret the Constitution.
3. Parliament: The Supreme Authority
In India, the national assembly of elected representatives
is called Parliament. It consists of two Houses and the
President.
Two Houses of Parliament
Lok Sabha (House of the People): Members are directly
elected by the people.
Rajya Sabha (Council of States): Members are elected
indirectly and represent the interests of states/regions.
Why Lok Sabha is more powerful:
Money Matters: Once Lok Sabha passes a budget or
money bill, Rajya Sabha cannot reject it; it can only delay
it by 14 days.
Control over Executive: Only Lok Sabha can pass a 'no
confidence' motion to remove the Prime Minister and the
Council of Ministers.
Joint Sessions: In case of a deadlock on ordinary laws, the
larger membership of Lok Sabha usually ensures its view
prevails in a joint session.
4. The Executive: Political and Permanent
The executive is divided into two categories:
Political Executive: Elected by the people for a specific
period (Ministers). They take the big policy decisions.
Permanent Executive (Civil Services): Appointed on a
long-term basis (Civil servants). They assist the political
executive and remain in office even if the ruling party
changes.
Note: The Minister is more powerful because in a
democracy, the will of the people (represented by elected
leaders) is supreme.
5. Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
The Prime Minister (PM) is the most important political
institution in the country.
Appointment: The President appoints the leader of the
majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha as PM.
Council of Ministers: Includes 60 to 80 ministers of
different ranks:
Cabinet Ministers: Inner ring of top leaders in charge of
major ministries.
Ministers of State (Independent Charge): In charge of
smaller ministries.
Ministers of State: Assist Cabinet ministers.
Powers of the Prime Minister
Chairs Cabinet meetings and coordinates the work of
different Departments.
Distributes work to ministers and has the power to dismiss
them.
If the PM quits, the entire ministry quits.
6. The President of India
The President is the head of the State and exercises
nominal powers.
Election: Elected by MPs and MLAs (not directly by
people).
Powers: All major appointments (Chief Justice, Governors,
etc.) and international treaties are made in the President's
name.
Constraint: The President exercises these powers only on
the advice of the Council of Ministers.
Discretionary Power: Appointing the Prime Minister when
no party has a clear majority.
7. The Judiciary
India has an integrated judiciary, meaning the Supreme
Court controls the judicial administration of the entire
country.
Independence of the Judiciary:
Appointment: Judges of the Supreme Court and High
Courts are appointed by the President on PM's advice, but
in practice, senior judges select new judges.
Removal: A judge can only be removed through an
impeachment motion passed by two-thirds of members in
both Houses of Parliament.
Judicial Review: The power to determine the constitutional
validity of any law or executive action.
8. 20 Important Flashcards
Q: What is the full form of SEBC? A: Socially and
Educationally Backward Classes.
Q: Who headed the Second Backward Classes
Commission? A: B.P. Mandal.
Q: What is the highest formal authority in India? A: The
President.
Q: Who actually exercises governmental powers in India?
A: The Prime Minister.
Q: What are the two Houses of Parliament? A: Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha.
Q: Which House is known as the 'Upper Chamber'? A:
Rajya Sabha.
Q: What happens if Lok Sabha passes a 'no confidence'
motion? A: The PM and all ministers must quit.
Q: Who are civil servants? A: Permanent executives who
work under the political executive.
Q: Is the Prime Minister directly elected by the people? A:
No, appointed by the President.
Q: What is the official name for the body of all ministers?
A: Council of Ministers.
Q: How long can the Rajya Sabha delay a money bill? A:
14 days.
Q: Who is the Supreme Commander of the defence
forces? A: The President.
Q: What is a coalition government? A: A government
formed by an alliance of two or more parties.
Q: What is an 'Integrated Judiciary'? A: A system where
the Supreme Court's decisions bind all other courts.
Q: Can the Parliament change the basic principles of the
Constitution? A: No, as ruled by the Supreme Court.
Q: What is Judicial Review? A: The power to check if
laws/actions are against the Constitution.
Q: What is PIL? A: Public Interest Litigation.
Q: How can a judge be removed? A: Only by an
impeachment motion.
Q: Who is the head of the State in India? A: The
President.
Q: Who is the head of the Government in India? A: The
Prime Minister.
9. Important Questions & Answers
Q1: Why do we need a Parliament?
It is the final authority for making laws in the country.
It exercises control over those who run the government
(Executive).
It controls public money and sanctions government
spending.
It is the highest forum for debate on public issues and
national policy.
Q2: Differentiate between Political and Permanent
Executive.
Political Executive: Elected by the people for a specific
term; takes major policy decisions; answerable to the
people.
Permanent Executive: Appointed on a long-term basis;
remains in office regardless of ruling party; assists in
day-to-day administration.
Q3: How is the independence of the Indian Judiciary
protected?
Judges are appointed through a process where the
political executive has very little interference.
Removing a judge is nearly impossible, requiring a 2/3rd
majority impeachment in both Houses of Parliament.
Judiciary is not under the control of the legislature or the
executive.

​1. How is a Major Policy Decision Taken?

​ ajor decisions in India are not taken by a single

M
individual but through a chain of political institutions.
​The Story of the Office Memorandum (OM)

●​ ​What is an OM?: It is a communication issued by an

appropriate authority stating a government policy or
decision.
●​ ​The Mandal Commission: Established in 1979 and
headed by B.P. Mandal, it was asked to identify
socially and educationally backward classes (SEBC).
●​ ​Recommendation: The Commission recommended
that 27% of government jobs be reserved for
SEBCs.
 ●​ ​Implementation: After the 1989 elections, the Janata
Dal government led by V.P. Singh decided to
implement it. The final order was signed by a Joint
Secretary on August 13, 1990.
●​ ​The Dispute: The decision led to widespread protests
and legal challenges. The Supreme Court bunched
these cases as the 'Indira Sawhney and others Vs
Union of India case'.
●​ ​The Verdict: In 1992, the Supreme Court declared
the order valid but asked the government to exclude
"well-to-do" persons (creamy layer) from the benefits.

​2. Need for Political Institutions

​ emocracy works through several arrangements called

D
institutions to perform tasks like security, education, and
health.
●​ ​The Legislature: Exercises supreme political
authority on behalf of the people and makes laws.
●​ ​The Executive: A body of persons authorized to
initiate policies and implement laws.
●​ ​The Judiciary: An institution empowered to resolve
legal disputes and interpret the Constitution.

​3. Parliament: The Supreme Authority

I​n India, the national assembly of elected representatives
is called Parliament. It consists of two Houses and the
President.
​Two Houses of Parliament

●​ ​Lok Sabha (House of the People): Members are

directly elected by the people.
●​ ​Rajya Sabha (Council of States): Members are
elected indirectly and represent the interests of
states/regions.
​Why Lok Sabha is more powerful:
●​ ​Money Matters: Once Lok Sabha passes a budget or
money bill, Rajya Sabha cannot reject it; it can only
delay it by 14 days.
●​ ​Control over Executive: Only Lok Sabha can pass a
'no confidence' motion to remove the Prime Minister
and the Council of Ministers.
●​ ​Joint Sessions: In case of a deadlock on ordinary
laws, the larger membership of Lok Sabha usually
ensures its view prevails in a joint session.

​4. The Executive: Political and Permanent

​The executive is divided into two categories:

 1.​​Political Executive: Elected by the people for a
specific period (Ministers). They take the big policy
decisions.
1.​​Permanent Executive (Civil Services): Appointed
on a long-term basis (Civil servants). They assist the
political executive and remain in office even if the
ruling party changes.
​ ote: The Minister is more powerful because in a
N
democracy, the will of the people (represented by elected
leaders) is supreme.

​5. Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

​ he Prime Minister (PM) is the most important political

T
institution in the country.
●​ ​Appointment: The President appoints the leader of
the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha as PM.
●​ ​Council of Ministers: Includes 60 to 80 ministers of
different ranks:
○​ ​Cabinet Ministers: Inner ring of top leaders in
charge of major ministries.
○​ ​Ministers of State (Independent Charge): In
charge of smaller ministries.
○​ ​Ministers of State: Assist Cabinet ministers.
ters.
​Powers of the Prime Minister
 ●​ ​Chairs Cabinet meetings and coordinates the work of
different Departments.
●​ ​Distributes work to ministers and has the power to
dismiss them.
●​ ​If the PM quits, the entire ministry quits.

​6. The President of India

​ he President is the head of the State and exercises

T
nominal powers.
●​ ​Election: Elected by MPs and MLAs (not directly by
people).
●​ ​Powers: All major appointments (Chief Justice,
Governors, etc.) and international treaties are made in
the President's name.
●​ ​Constraint: The President exercises these powers
only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
●​ ​Discretionary Power: Appointing the Prime Minister
when no party has a clear majority.

​7. The Judiciary

I​ndia has an integrated judiciary, meaning the Supreme

Court controls the judicial administration of the entire
country.
​Independence of the Judiciary:
 ●​ ​Appointment: Judges of the Supreme Court and
High Courts are appointed by the President on PM's
advice, but in practice, senior judges select new
judges.
●​ ​Removal: A judge can only be removed through an
impeachment motion passed by two-thirds of
members in both Houses of Parliament.
●​ ​Judicial Review: The power to determine the
constitutional validity of any law or executive action.

​8. 20 Important Flashcards

1.​​Q: What is the full form of SEBC? A: Socially and

Educationally Backward Classes.
1.​​Q: Who headed the Second Backward Classes
Commission? A: B.P. Mandal.
1.​​Q: What is the highest formal authority in India? A:
The President.
1.​​Q: Who actually exercises governmental powers in
India? A: The Prime Minister.
1.​​Q: What are the two Houses of Parliament? A: Lok
Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
1.​​Q: Which House is known as the 'Upper Chamber'?
A: Rajya Sabha.
1.​​Q: What happens if Lok Sabha passes a 'no
confidence' motion? A: The PM and all ministers must
quit.
1.​​Q: Who are civil servants? A: Permanent executives
who work under the political executive.
1.​​Q: Is the Prime Minister directly elected by the
people? A: No, appointed by the President.
1.​​Q: What is the official name for the body of all
ministers? A: Council of Ministers.
1.​​Q: How long can the Rajya Sabha delay a money bill?
A: 14 days.
1.​​Q: Who is the Supreme Commander of the defence
forces? A: The President.
1.​​Q: What is a coalition government? A: A government
formed by an alliance of two or more parties.
1.​​Q: What is an 'Integrated Judiciary'? A: A system
where the Supreme Court's decisions bind all other
courts.
1.​​Q: Can the Parliament change the basic principles of
the Constitution? A: No, as ruled by the Supreme
Court.
1.​​Q: What is Judicial Review? A: The power to check if
laws/actions are against the Constitution.
1.​​Q: What is PIL? A: Public Interest Litigation.
1.​​Q: How can a judge be removed? A: Only by an
impeachment motion.
1.​​Q: Who is the head of the State in India? A: The
President.
1.​​Q: Who is the head of the Government in India? A:
The Prime Minister.
​9. Important Questions & Answers

​Q1: Why do we need a Parliament?

●​ ​It is the final authority for making laws in the country.
●​ ​It exercises control over those who run the
government (Executive).
●​ ​It controls public money and sanctions government
spending.
●​ ​It is the highest forum for debate on public issues and
national policy.
​ 2: Differentiate between Political and Permanent
Q
Executive.
●​ ​Political Executive: Elected by the people for a
specific term; takes major policy decisions;
answerable to the people.
●​ ​Permanent Executive: Appointed on a long-term
basis; remains in office regardless of ruling party;
assists in day-to-day administration.
​ 3: How is the independence of the Indian Judiciary
Q
protected?
●​ ​Judges are appointed through a process where the
political executive has very little interference.
●​ ​Removing a judge is nearly impossible, requiring a
2/3rd majority impeachment in both Houses of
Parliament.
●​ ​Judiciary is not under the control of the legislature or
the executive.