Sampling Design
Dr. S. M. Mahmudul Hasan
Assistant Professor
World University of Bangladesh
Lecture Objectives
• Define sampling, reasons for sampling, sample,
population, element, sampling unit and subject
• Sampling process
• Different sampling design
Sampling
The process of selecting the right individuals,
objects, or events as representative of entire
population is known as sampling.
Population
Sample
Relationship between sample and
population
Reasons for Sampling
• Budget and time Constraints (in case of large
populations)
• High degree of accuracy and reliability (if sample
is representative of population)
• Sampling may sometimes produce more
accurate results than taking a census as in the
latter, there are more risks for making
interviewer and other errors due to the high
volume of persons contacted and the number of
census takers, some of whom may not be well-
trained
Why Sample?
Availability of
Lower cost
elements
Sampling
provides
Greater Greater
speed accuracy
Population
It refers to the entire group of people, events or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
Example: If regulators want to know how patients
in nursing homes run by a company in France are
cared for, then all the patients in all the nursing
homes run by them will from the population.
Element
An element is a single member of a population
Example: If 1000 blue collar workers(labor
workers) in a particular organization happen to be
the population of interest to a researcher, each
blue collar worker therein is an element.
Sample
A sample is a subset or subgroup of the
population. By studying the sample, the researcher
should be able to draw conclusions that are
generalizable to the population of interest.
Example: If there are 145 in-patients in a hospital
and 40 of them are to be surveyed by the hospital
administrator to access their level of satisfaction
with the treatment received, then these 40
members will be the sample.
Sampling unit
It is the element or set of elements that is available
for selection in some stage of sampling process.
Example: Sampling units in a multistage sample
are city blocks, households, and individuals within
the households.
Subject
It is a single member of the sample, just as an
element is a single member of the population.
Example: If a sample of 50 machines from a total
of 500 machines is to inspected, then everyone of
the 50 machines is a subject, just as every single
machine in the population of total population of
500 machines is an element
Parameters
The characteristics of the population such as the
population mean, the population standard
deviation, and the population variance are referred
to as its parameters.
Example: Average weight, µ, of all 30 year old
women in Australia, % of voters, p, in N.S.W who
think the Government is doing a good job to
control inflation.
The Sampling Process
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient
number of right elements from the population so,
the major steps in the sampling include.
1. Defining the population
2. Determine the sample process
3. Determine the sampling design
4. Determine the appropriate sample size
5. Execute the sampling process
The Sampling Process
Defining the population
Sampling begins with precisely defining the target
population. The target population must be defined
in terms of elements, geographical boundaries and
time.
Example: A target population may be, for example,
all faculty members in the Department of
Management Sciences in the V-COMSATS
network,
All housewives in Islamabad,
All pre-college students in Rawalpindi,
• The target group should be clearly defined if
possible, for example, do all pre-college
students include only primary and secondary
students or also students in other specialized
educational institutions?
Determining the sample frame
The sampling frame is a (physical) representation
of all the elements in the population from which he
sample is drawn. Also termed as a List.
• Often, the list does not include the entire
population. The discrepancy is often a source of
error associated with the selection of the sample
(sampling frame error)
• Information relating to sampling frames can be
obtained from commercial organizations
Example: Student telephone directory (for the
student population), the list of companies on the
stock exchange, the directory of medical doctors
and specialists, the yellow pages (for businesses)
Defining the target population
• The specific, complete group relevant to the
research project.
• Who has the information/data you need?
• How do you define your target population?
– Geography
– Demographics
– Use
– Awareness
• Reason: To define a proper source from which the
data are to be collected.
19
Defining the target population
• The target group should be clearly delineated. Thus,
population is defined as:
– Elements
– Sampling unit
– Extent
– Time
20
The Sampling Frame
• A sampling frame is the list of elements from
which the sample may be drawn.
• Sampling frame is also known as working
population.
• Examples of sampling frames are a student
telephone directory, the list of companies on the
stock exchange, the yellow pages (for businesses).
21
The Sampling Frame
Generally, it is not feasible to compile a list that includes
the entire population, leading to sampling frame error.
Sampling frame error - Error that occurs when certain
sample elements are not listed or available and are not
represented in the sampling frame
22
Sampling Design
within the Research Process
14-23
Types of Sampling Designs
Element Probability Nonprobability
Selection
Unrestricted Simple random Convenience
Restricted Complex random Purposive
Systematic Judgment
Cluster Quota
Stratified Snowball
Double
14-24
Steps in Sampling Design
What is the target population?
What are the parameters of
interest?
What is the sampling frame?
What is the appropriate sampling
method?
What size sample is needed?
14-25
When to Use Larger Sample Sizes?
Population
variance
Number of Desired
subgroups precision
Confidence Small error
level range
14-26
Simple Random
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to implement with • Requires list of
random dialing population elements
• Time consuming
• Uses larger sample sizes
• Produces larger errors
• High cost
14-27
Systematic
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple to design • Periodicity within
• Easier than simple random population may skew
sample and results
• Easy to determine sampling
distribution of mean or • Trends in list may bias
proportion results
• Moderate cost
14-28
Stratified
Advantages Disadvantages
• Control of sample size in • Increased error will result if
strata subgroups are selected at
• Increased statistical different rates
efficiency • Especially expensive if
• Provides data to represent strata on population must
and analyze subgroups be created
• Enables use of different • High cost
methods in strata
14-29
Cluster
Advantages Disadvantages
• Provides an unbiased • Often lower statistical
estimate of population efficiency due to subgroups
parameters if properly done being homogeneous rather
• Economically more efficient than heterogeneous
than simple random • Moderate cost
• Lowest cost per sample
• Easy to do without list
14-30
Stratified and Cluster Sampling
Stratified Cluster
• Population divided into • Population divided into
few subgroups many subgroups
• Homogeneity within • Heterogeneity within
subgroups subgroups
• Heterogeneity between • Homogeneity between
subgroups subgroups
• Choice of elements • Random choice of
from within each subgroups
subgroup
14-31
Area Sampling
14-32
Double Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• May reduce costs if first • Increased costs if
stage results in enough discriminately used
data to stratify or
cluster the population
14-33
Nonprobability Samples
No need to
generalize
Limited
Feasibility
objectives
Time Cost
14-34
Nonprobability
Sampling Methods
Convenience
Judgment
Quota
Snowball
14-35
Choosing probability vs. non-probability sampling
method
Probability Evaluation Criteria Non-probability
sampling sampling
Conclusive Nature of research Exploratory
Larger sampling Relative magnitude Larger non-sampling
errors sampling vs. error
non-sampling error
High Population variability Low
[Heterogeneous] [Homogeneous]
Favorable Statistical Considerations Unfavorable
High Sophistication Needed Low
Relatively Longer Time Relatively shorter
High Budget Needed Low
Factors affecting sampling design
• The relevant target population of focus to the
study
• The parameters we are interested in
investigating
• The kind of sample frame is available
• Costs and Time are attached to the sample
design and collection of Data
Determining the sample size
The decision about the how large the sample size
should be can be very difficult one. These factors
affecting the sampling decision are
• The research objective
• The extent of precision desired(the confidence
interval)
• The acceptance risk in predicting that level of
precision(confidence level)
• The amount of variability in the population itself
• The cost and time constraints
• In some cases, the size of population itself
Executing the sample process
In this final stage of sampling process, decision
with respect to the
the target population,
the sampling frame,
the sample technique, and
the sample size have to be implemented.
• Example:
• A young researcher was investigating the
antecedents of salesperson performance.
• To examine his hypotheses, data were collected
from the chief sales executive in the Pakistan
(the target population) via mail questionnaire.
• The sample was initially drawn from the
published business register (the sampling
frame), but supplemented with respondent
recommendations and other additions, in a
judgment sampling methodology.
• The questionnaires were subsequently
distributed to sales executives of 450 companies
(the sample size).
Non response and non response errors
• A failure to obtain information from a number of
subjects included in the sample
• Those who do respond to your survey are
different from those who did not on (one of the)
characteristics of interest in your study
• Two important sources of non response errors
are not at homes and refusals
Reducing the rate of refusals
• The rate of refusals depends, among other
things, on the length of the survey, the data
collection method and the backing of research.
• Decrease in survey length, personal
interviews/questionnaire instead of mail
questionnaire and the sponsorship of the
research often improve the overall return rate.
Recap
• Sampling is the process of selecting the right
individuals
• Sample is used to represent the whole data or
population
• Sampling process include defining population,
sample frame, sampling design, sample size
and sampling process
Sample size calculation for cross
sectional studies/ surveys
Cross sectional studies or cross sectional survey
are done to estimate a population parameter
like prevalence of some disease in a community
or finding the average value of some
quantitative variable in a population.
Sample size formula for qualitative variable and
quantities variable are different.
• For qualitative variable:
Z1-α/22p(1-P)
Sample Size= d2
Here
Z 1-a/2 = Is standard normal variate (at 5% type 1 error (P<0.05) it is 1.96
and at 1% type 1 error (P<0.01) it is 2.58). As in majority of studies P
values are considered significant below 0.05 hence 1.96 is used in
formula.
p = Expected proportion in population based on
previous studies or pilot studies.
d = Absolute error or precision – Has to be decided
by researcher.
For example, let us assume that a researcher
wants to estimate proportion of patients having
hypertension in paediatric age group in a city.
According to previously published studies actual
number of hypertensives may not be more than
15%. The researcher wants to calculate this
sample size with the precision/absolute error of
5% and at type 1 error of 5%. So if we use the
above formula
Sample size = 1.962X0.15 (1-0.15)
0.052
= 196
So for this cross sectional study researcher has
to take at least 196 subjects. If the researcher
want to increase the error (decrease the
precision) then denominator will increase and
hence sample size will decrease
Thank you