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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 2
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 PREFACE
Modular Learning – GENERAL PHYSICS 2, a K to 12 curricula compliant, is a
modified module aimed to provide senior high school students with the foundation of
knowledge, awareness, and skills needed to thrive in situations that require the use of
creative thinking in online or offline basis. The module discusses essential lessons that uses
holistic and proactive approach which will help the senior high school students to acquire 21 st
century skills and become globally competitive individuals. In addition, the module provides
practical experiences that will also help the students to progress in different areas such as
individual working, collaboration, communication, designing, and creating creative contents
both in online or offline setting.

With the presented module, each skill widens up each learners’ ability to engage into
information about contemporary arts, national artist, mediums and techniques, elements of
art, and art production which are aligned to the standards and competencies set by the
Department of Education for the senior high school students. Moreover, all the lessons are
selected as the most essential learning competencies and are organized into cognitive
approach and interdisciplinary subject matters to allow the learners to value and comprehend
different activities which serve as a self – enrichment and will build creativity and innovation,
communication, and critical thinking.

Mentioned below are the series ABCDE:

Introduction: Activating Prior Knowledge provides an overview about the

lesson, gives motivation, and preliminary activities.

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding provides discussion, explains

theories, terminologies, and gives examples.

Practice: Application of Understanding supplies test yourself activities, short

and easy quizzes.

Enrichment: Excel in Your Performance enriches learning through set of

quizzes with increase of difficulty.

Feedback: Meaningful Closure solidifies learning by providing constructive

feedback to the learner.

Have fun and enjoy learning!

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 STANDARDS, LESSONS, COMPETENCIES, AND TIME FRAME

In this module, you will learn the following lessons and be guided by the time frame
given.
CONTENT STANDARD: Students demonstrate understanding of:
 Electrostatic
 Electric charge
 Coulomb’s Law
 Electric field calculations
 Electric charge, dipoles, force, field, and flux problems
 Electric potential energy
 Capacitance and capacitors
 Current, resistivity, and resistance
 Ohm’s law
PERFORMANCE STANDARD: Use theoretical and experimental approaches to
solve multi concept and rich-context problems involving electricity and magnetism.
UNIT TOPIC 1:
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
 Describe experiments to show
electrostatic charging by
induction.
 Calculate the net electric force on
EARTH’S Week 1
LESSON a point charge exerted by a
ELECTRIC and 3
1 system of point charges
BLANKET
 Calculate the electric field due to
a system of point charges using
Coulomb’s law and the
superposition principle

 Calculate electric flux.

 Calculate the equivalent
capacitance of a network of
EXPLORING
capacitors connected in
OUR Week 4
LESSON series/parallel.
POTENTIAL and 5
2  Determine the total charge, the
AND
charge on, and the potential
CAPACITY
difference across each capacitor
in the network given the
capacitors.

 Distinguish between conventional

current and electron flow.
 Relate the drift velocity of a
Week 6
LESSON collection of charged particles to
SOLAR PAINTS and 7
3 the electrical current and current
density
 Relate the drift velocity of a
collection of charged particles to

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 the electrical current and current
density.

 Draw circuit diagrams with power

sources (cell or battery), switches,
lamps, resistors (fixed and
WEARABLES variable) fuses, ammeters and Week 6
LESSON
FROM HEAD voltmeters and 7
4
TO TOE  Calculate the current and voltage
through and across circuit
elements using Kirchhoff’s loop
and junction rules (at most 2 loops
only)

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Electrostatic
Earth's atmosphere is full of electrical charges; the consequence thereof is the
presence of the so-called electric fields. Some physical phenomena that prove the presence
of electric fields in the atmosphere are lightning, thunderstorms, and the scenic aurora
borealis.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Describe the nature of charges

b. Explain the origin of charges
c. Explain the three processes of charging using diagrams
d. Predict charge distributions and the resulting attraction or repulsion in a system of
charged insulators and conductors
e. Calculate the force of attraction or repulsion exerted on a point charge by another point
charge or system of point charges

Introduction: Activating Prior Knowledge

Scientist found that if you rub an ebonite rod into silk you observe that rod pulls the
paper pieces. Or in winter when you put off your pullover, your hair will be charged and move.
We first examine the structure of atom to understand electricity better. Experiments done
show that there are three types of particle in the atom. Two of them are placed at the center
(nucleus) of the atom, which we called proton (p) and neutron (n). Proton has positive charges
"+" and neutron has no net charge. Third particle is called electron (e) and they are placed
at the orbits of the atom. They are negatively charged "-". Electrons can move but proton
and neutron of the atom are stationary.

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 As early as 600 BC, the Greeks were already aware that amber a hardened
translucent yellowish tree resin - when vigorously rubbed with a piece of cloth, could attract
nearby objects. In 1600, William Gilbert, who served as physician to Queen Elizabeth I of
England, found out that many other substances possess the same ability as that of amber
when rubbed against another substance. He called these substances electrics and this
ability of amber electricity, from the Greek word elektron, which means "amber."
Subsequently, it was shown that every object acquires this ability to attract small pieces of
matter after being rubbed against another object. The object attracted is said to have acquired
charge or electrified. Because the charge is at rest, it is often referred to as static electricity.
Electrostatics is the study of all phenomena associated with electric charges at rest.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The atom is the smallest unit of matter that may be

divided without releasing electrically charged particles.
It's also the smallest unit of matter with chemical
element features. Empty space makes up the majority
of the atom. A cloud of negatively charged electrons
surrounds a positively charged nucleus of protons and
neutrons. In comparison to electrons, the lightest
charged particles in the universe, the nucleus is small
and dense. Electric forces attract electrons to positive
charges, and electric forces bind electrons to the
nucleus in an atom.

To understand electrostatics, the structure of the atom must first be understood. An

atom is made up of subatomic particles-protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and
neutrons constitute the nucleus of an atom, while electrons orbit an atom's nucleus. The mass
of a proton is almost equal to the mass of a neutron. The mass of an electron is very small
compared to that of a proton or a neutron Thus, the mass of an atom is concentrated at the
nucleus. In an electrically neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons.

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 In terms of charge, the proton is positively charged, the electron is negatively
charged, and the neutron carries no charge. The charge of a proton is equal, but opposite to
the charge of an electron

The elementary charge (represented by e) is the electric charge carried by a single

proton. It is a fundamental physical constant. Thus, a proton has a charge of +e, while an
electron has a charge of -e.

Electrical charges are usually represented by q. The SI unit of charge is the

coulomb (C), named after French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who made
important discoveries on electricity. A coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24x10¹ 8 e.
Equivalently,

1 e =1.602x10-19 C.

Thus, the charges of proton and electron are 1.602x10-19 C and -1.602x10-19 C,
respectively.

Conductors and Insulators

The behavior of a charged object is determined by whether the thing is made of

conductive or nonconductive material.

Conductors are materials that allow electrons to easily flow from one particle to
the next. When an object is formed of a conducting material, charge can be transferred across
its whole surface. If a charge is applied to an object at a specific spot, the charge is swiftly
dispersed across the object's whole surface. The flow of electrons causes charge dispersion.
Since conductors allow for electrons to be transported from particle to particle, a charged
object will always distribute its charge until the overall repulsive forces between excess
electrons is minimized. If a charged conductor is touched to another object, the conductor
can even transfer its charge to that object. The transfer of charge between objects occurs
more readily if the second object is made of a conducting material. Conductors allow for
charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.

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 Insulators, in contrast to conductors, are materials that prevent electrons from
freely flowing from atom to atom and molecule to molecule. If excess charge is transmitted
to an insulator at a specific place, the surplus charge remains at the charging point. Because
the insulator's particles prevent electrons from freely flowing, charge is rarely dispersed
evenly across the insulator's surface.

While insulators are not useful for transferring charge, they do serve a critical role
in electrostatic experiments and demonstrations. Conductive objects are often mounted upon
insulating objects. This arrangement of a conductor on top of an insulator prevents charge
from being transferred from the conductive object to its surroundings. This arrangement also
allows for a student (or teacher) to manipulate a conducting object without touching it. The
insulator serves as a handle for moving the conductor around on top of a lab table. If charging
experiments are performed with aluminum pop cans, then the cans should be mounted on
top of Styrofoam cups. The cups serve as insulators, preventing the pop cans from
discharging their charge. The cups also serve as handles when it becomes necessary to
move the cans around on the table.

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Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

Processes of Charging

An atom is neutral because the number of protons and electrons in it is equal. An

atom, on the other hand, can absorb or lose electrons. The atom becomes negatively charged
if it acquires electrons, and positively charged if it loses electrons. A neutral body can be
charged through three different methods. Friction, conduction, and induction are the three
types of charge.

Charging by friction: the transfer of

electrons from one uncharged object to another by
rubbing the two objects together. Some electrons can
move to the other object when rubbing (hair and
balloon).

Charging by conduction: the transfer of

electrons from one object to another by direct
contact. (Like when you rub your feet on the carpet,
but the charges move to your hands)

Charging by Induction: Electrons can

react to the electric field of a charged object without
touching the object itself. In some materials, like
metals, electrons can easily leave their atoms. When
a metal object is close to a negatively charged object,
electrons are repelled by the field and move away
from it. The close end of the metal object becomes
positively charged, and the far end becomes
negatively charged. This process is called induction.

Conservation of Charge

Another important concept in electrostatics is the conservation of charge The

principle of conservation of charge states that the total charge of an isolated system remains

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constant, It means that charges can neither be created nor destroyed. In any charging
process, charges are merely transferred from one body to another.

Coulomb showed in one of his experiments that when a sphere with an initial
charge q0, is brought in contact with an identically uncharged sphere, they equally share the
total charge If the spheres are not identical, they share the total charge according to their
radii, with the quantity of charge directly proportional to their radii.

The principle of conservation of charge is a universal conservation law No

experimental evidence of a violation of this law has been observed.

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
1. The human hair is combed using a rubber comb. What charge is acquired by the hair
and by the comb?

2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the rod acquires a charge of magnitude
3.45 nC (a) Did the glass rod gain or lose electrons? (b) How many electrons were
transferred during the process? (c) What is the change in the mass of the glass rod?
(d) What is the change in the mass of the silk cloth?

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LESSON 2

Electrical Force
Furthermore, Newton’s law can be applied in order to analyze the effects of motion
while this kind of force is being taken into account. To begin with, the first stage of analysis
starts by constructing a free body image in which the direction of that image as well the
individual force types are seen by the vector which can help calculate the total sum. This is
known as the net force which is applied to a certain body to calculate its acceleration.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force

b. Draw electric field lines for isolated point charges
c. Calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb's law and
the superposition principle
d. Describe the trajectory of a point charge in an electric field
e. Explain and calculate electric flux
f. Use Gauss's law to calculate the electric field due to uniformly distributed charges
g. Solve problems on charges, electrostatic force, electric field, and electric flux

h.
Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

Electrical Force: Electric Forces and Their Types

The interaction of an attracting or repulsive force between two charged bodies is

known as an electric force. This force is comparable to other forces in that it affects and
effects a specific item, and Newton's law of motion can easily illustrate this. One of the forces
that is exerted over other bodies is electric force.

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 When two electrons are placed at similar distances, the electric force created
between them is equal to the electric force formed between two protons. This remark clearly
demonstrates that the electric force is independent of the body's mass and is based on a
precise quantity. This quantity is the electric charge.

Coulomb’s law

Coulomb's law is regarded as a test case. This law can be used to calculate the
amount of force exerted between two electrically charged particles. These two particles are
in an unmoving state. The electric force between stationary charged particles is known as
Coulomb's force. Electrostatic force is another name for this force. Coulomb's law establishes
the amount of Coulomb's force, also known as electrostatic force, that exists between
stationary charges.

Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic force between two charged particles is
directly proportional to the scalar product of the charged particles and indirectly (or inversely)
proportional to the square of their distance.

Formula of electric force

With the help of Coulomb’s law, the formula for electric force can be easily attained

Where, F+ is the electric force which is directed among two charged particles

K is the proportionality constant

q0 is the number of charges present in one body

q1 is the number of charges contained in the other body

r is considered as the distance among the charged particles

r is the unit vector which is capable of varying

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Types of electric force

Electrical force consists of two different types of charges. They are positive electric
charge and negative electric charge. The interaction of both of these charges is easily
predictable. Unlike electric charges, they attract each other, while the like charges repel one
another. This basically means that if the two charges are positive then there exists a repulsive
force between both the charges.

The same thing happens if two negative charges come in contact, they both will
repel each other too. In contrast, if one positive charge and one negative charge come into
contact, then there is generated an attractive force, in which both the charges will be attracted
towards one another. The given below is the diagrammatic representation of the same,

Electric force and charged particles

Electric force can happen among all the charged particles irrespective of the type
of charge. These are seen as tiny particles and can be found inside atoms. They are termed
protons and electrons. Protons are made up of positively charged particles whereas electrons
are built by negatively charged ones. The other objects which are produced from atoms
become charged due to an imbalance of the number of electrons and protons contained
inside the atoms.

In an atom, protons are present inside the nucleus and are very tightly bound. They
cannot move or travel across the atoms or nucleus. Meanwhile, electrons can be seen away
from the atoms in their own orbitals. They can move around the atom.

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 Problem Solving

Two protons are separated by a distance of 3.8x10-10 m in air. (a) Find the
magnitude of the electric force one proton exerts on the other. Is this force attractive or
repulsive? (b) Find the magnitude of the gravitational force one proton exerts on the other Is
this force attractive or repulsive?

Given:

r = 3.8x10-10 m
m=1.673x10-27 kg
q =1.602x10-19 C

Solution:
|𝑞1𝑞2|
a. Using Eq. (𝐹 =𝑘 ) to solve for the electric force and substituting values,
𝑟2
𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 𝑟2

|(1.602𝑥10−19𝐶)(1.602𝑥10−19𝐶)|
=[9𝑥109 N. m2 C2 ] [ ]
(3.8𝑥10−10𝑚) 2

= 1.596 x 10-9 N ≈ 2 x 10-9 N

|𝑚1𝑚2|
b. Using Eq. (𝐹 = 𝐺 ) to solve for the gravitational force and
𝑟2
substituting values,
c.
|𝑚1𝑚2|
𝐹=𝐺 𝑟2

−11 2 2] [
(1.673𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔) 2
= [6.674𝑥10 N. m kg ]
(3.8𝑥10−10 𝑚) 2
= 1.294 x 10 -45 N ≈1.3 x 10 -45 N

Gravitational force is an attractive force.

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Solve the following problem show your solution use the space provided.
1. Two small conducting and identical spheres A and B have charges -25 nC and +15
nC, respectively. They are separated by a distance of 0.02 m. (a) What is the
magnitude of the electric force between the two spheres? Is this force attractive or
repulsive? (b) The spheres are then allowed to touch each other and then separated.
What is the magnitude of the for between the two spheres? Is this a repulsive force or
an attractive force?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
1. Two particles A and B are released from rest, having equal charges of -5x10-6C and
initially separated from each other by 0.025 m. The masses of particles A and B are
5.25x10-6 kg and 3.75x10-6 kg, respectively. Find the magnitude of the initial
accelerations of particles A and B.

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Two identical metallic spheres are suspended as bobs of a simple pendulum as shown
in the figure. The spheres come to equilibrium when given a charge of +7.5x10-9 C,
with each string making an angle 5° with the vertical. The string is 0.5 m long. Find the
electric force between the spheres.

GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 19

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
3. If the static electric force is 144 N, what is the distance between both charges..
(1 μC = 10-6 C and k = 9.109 N.m2.C-2)

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
4. Two charges separated by a distance of r. If the static electric force is 3.6 N, what is
the distance between both charges (1 µC = 10-6 C and k = 9.109 N.m².C-2)

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LESSON 3

Electric Field
Electric force is a noncontact force An electric charge q can exert force on other
charged objects even though they are at some distance away The space surrounding a
charged body is called an electric field An electric field causes any charged particle placed in
it to experience an electric force Every charge has an electric field associated with it.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force

b. Draw electric field lines for isolated point charges
c. Calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb's law and
the superposition principle
d. Describe the trajectory of a point charge in an electric field
e. Explain and calculate electric flux
f. Use Gauss's law to calculate the electric field due to uniformly distributed charges
g. Solve problems on charges, electrostatic force, electric field, and electric flux

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

The size or strength of an electric field in the region surrounding a source charge is
proportional to the amount of charge on the source charge and inversely proportional to the
distance from it. The electric field is always directed in the direction that a positive test charge
pushed or pulled in the space surrounding the source charge would be pushed or pulled. A
vector arrow can be used to symbolize the electric field because it is a vector quantity.

For any given location, the arrows point in the direction of the electric field and their length
is proportional to the strength of the electric field at that location. Such vector arrows are
shown in the diagram below. Note that the lengths of the arrows are longer when closer to
the source charge and shorter when further from the source charge.

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 Electric Lines of Force
Michael Faraday, an English scientist who made important discoveries on electricity
and magnetism, introduced the use of electric lines of force to map out an electric field
Lines of force have the following properties:

1. Lines of force start from positively charged particles and end on negatively charged
particles or continue toward infinity.
2. Lines of force neither intersect nor break as they pass from one charge to another.
3. The greater the number of lines of force, the stronger the electric field. The neutral
point is the point where no lines of force pass. The electric field is zero at the neutral
point Thus, neutral points are points where the resultant field is subtractive and the
electric fields are equal but oppositely directed. A neutral point between two like
charges is a point between the two charges and nearer the smaller charge for two
unlike charges, lines of force can pass from positive to negative charge. The neutral
point cannot be between them, it is an external point along the line joining them and
nearer the small charge.

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Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

An electric field exists in the region of space around a charged object or a source
charge. When another charged object enters this electric field, it will experience an electric
force. The strength of the electric field at a point due to the source charge is called electric
field intensity (In this text, electric field will simply refer to electric field intensity). Electric
field is defined as the force that a test charge will experience when placed at that point
Physicists use a unit positive charge as the test charge in defining an electric field. This test
charge and the electric field are usually represented by q0 and E, respectively.

The electric field produced by a point source charge q can be obtained Coulomb's law
The electric field at any point is given by the equation.

𝐹
E=𝑞𝐸
0

where E is the electric field, F, is the electric force, and gets the test charge.

To calculate the electric field at any point at a distance r in space from a point charge
q, imagine a test charge q0 placed at that point. The magnitude of the electric force on q0 is

|𝑞𝑞0 |
FE=𝑘 𝑟2

Thus, the magnitude of the electric field due to the point charge is

𝐹𝐸 |𝑞 |
E= =𝑘 𝑟 2
𝑞0

It follows that E has the unit of newton/coulomb (N/C). Like electric force, electric field
is also a vector quantity and has the same direction as the electric force on a positive charge
placed at a point. The electric field also follows the superposition principle

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 Problem Solving

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field 0.45 m from a +7.85×10 C
point charge.
Given:
q= 7.85 x 10-9 C
r= 0.45 m
Solution:
|𝑞 |
The magnitude of electrical field is calculated using E =𝑘
𝑟2
|𝑞 |
E=𝑘
𝑟2
|+7.85 𝑥 10 𝐶| −9
9 2
= [9𝑋10 𝑁. 𝑚 /𝐶 2 ] [ (0.45 𝑚) 2 ]

= 348.89 N/C ≈ 350 N/C

The charge q will repel the positive test charge q. Hence, the electric field will be
directed away from charge q

Problem Solving

An electric dipole consists of two equal but unlike charges separated by a distance
-6
Two point charges, q1, = +4. 5x10 C and q2, = -4.5x10-6 C, are separated by 6.4x 10-2 m,
forming an electric dipole as shown in the figure Find the electric field halfway between the
dipole.

6.4 x10 -2 m

+ -
Given -
q1= +4.5 x 10-6C -
q2 = -4.5 x 10-6C
r= 6.4 x 10-2C

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 Imagine a unit positive test charge qe placed halfway between the two charges. Eq.
|𝑞1 |
E1=𝑘 will be used to calculate the magnitude of the electric field E 1, due to q1, and E2,
𝑟1 2
due to q2

| −6 |
+4.5𝑥 10 𝐶
= [9𝑋109 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 ] [ ]
(3.2𝑥10−2 𝑚) 2
= 3.96 x 10 7 N/C
|𝑞 |
E2=𝑘 𝑟 22
2

9 2 2] [
|−4.5𝑥 10−6 𝐶 |
= [9𝑋10 𝑁. 𝑚 /𝐶 ]
(3.2𝑥10−2 𝑚) 2
= 3.96 x 10 7 N/C

Charge q1, will repel qo. Hence, E1, will be directed to the right. Charge q2, will attract q0
Hence, E₂ will be directed to the right. In accordance with the superposition principle.

E = E₁ + E₂ = 3.96x107 N/C + 3.96×107 N/C

= 7. 96 x 107N/C, directed to the right

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Solve the following problem show your solution use the space provided.
1. What is the electric field strength at a distance of 10 cm from a charge of 2 μC?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Point A located at the center between two charges. Both charges have the same
magnitude but opposite sign and separated by a distance of a. The magnitude of the
electric field at point A is 36 N/C. If point A moved 1/2 a close to one of both charges.
what is the magnitude of the electric field at point A?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
3. Two charges qA= 1 uC and q8 = 4 uC are separated by a distance of 4 cm (k = 9x 10
N m2 C2). What is the magnitude of the electric field at the center between qA and
qB.

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ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW

Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric

field through a given area. Electric flux is proportional
to the number of electric field lines going through a
virtual surface.

If the electric field is uniform, the electric flux passing

through a surface of vector area S is Φ = E⋅A = EA
cosθ where E is the magnitude of the electric field
(having units of V/m), S is the area of the surface, and
θ is the angle between the electric field lines and the
normal ( perpendicular ) to S.

For a non-uniform electric field, the electric flux dΦE

through a small surface area dS is given by dΦE=
E⋅dS (the electric field, E, multiplied by the component
of area perpendicular to the field).

Gauss’ Law describes the electric flux over a

surface S as the surface integral: ΦE=∬ E ⋅ dA where
E is the electric field and dS is a differential area on
the closed surface S with an outward facing surface
normal defining its direction.

It is important to note that while the electric flux is not affected by charges that are not
within the closed surface, the net electric field, E, in the Gauss’ Law equation, can be affected
by charges that lie outside the closed surface. While Gauss’ Law holds for all situations, it is
only useful for “by hand” calculations when high degrees of symmetry exist in the electric
field. Examples include spherical and cylindrical symmetry.

Electric flux has SI units of volt meters (V m), or, equivalently, newton meters squared
per coulomb (N m2 C−1). Thus, the SI base units of electric flux are kg·m3·s−3·A−1.

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 Problem Solving

Electric Flux

A flat surface of area 1.25 m² is rotated through a uniform horizontal electric field of 5
N/C. What is the electric flux if the surface is (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the electric
field?
Given : A = 1.25 m² E = 5 N/C horizontal

a. If the surface is parallel to the flux, the area vector is perpendicular to the electric
field. The angle between the area vector and the electric field is 90°.

Φ =EA cosθ
= (5.0 N/C) (1.25 m²) cos 90°
=0
b. If the surface is perpendicular to the flux, the area vector is parallel to the electric
field. The angle between the area vector and the electric field is 0°

Φ =EA cosθ
= (5.0 N/C) (1.25 m²) cos 0°
= 6.25 Nm²/C

Gauss’ Law
Calculate the total electric flux for each of the closed surfaces a, b, c, and d as
shown. Note that q = +3C, q₂ = +1C, q, ==SC, and q = -9 C.

Surface a encloses all the four given charges. Therefore,

+3𝐶+1𝐶−5𝐶−9𝐶
Φa = = −1.1294 𝑥 1012 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
8.8545 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁.𝑚2

Surface b encloses q2, only. Therefore,

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 +1𝐶
Φb = = +1.1294 𝑥 1011 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
8.8545 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁.𝑚2
Surface c encloses q1 and q2 only. Therefore,

+3𝐶+1𝐶
Φc = = +1.1294 𝑥 1011 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
8.8545 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁.𝑚2

Surface d encloses all the four given charges. Therefore,

+3𝐶+1𝐶−5𝐶−9𝐶
Φd = = −1.1294 𝑥 1012 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
8.8545 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁.𝑚2

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Solve the following problem show your solution use the space provided.
1. A cylinder with radius r= 0.75 m and length l=0.6 m, has an infinite line of positive
charge running along its axis. The charge per unit length on the line is 7 µC/m.
(a) What is the electric flux through the cylinder due to this line of charge?
(b) What is the flux through the cylinder if its radius increased to r= 0.32 m²
(c) What is the flux through the cylinder if its length increased to l= 0.8 m?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
2. A closed surface encloses a net charge of 10 nC. What is the net electric flux
through the surface?

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 Application of Understanding

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Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
3. Calculate the electric flux through the rectangle of sides 5 cm and 10 cm kept in the
region of a uniform electric field 100 NC -1. The angle 𝜃 is 60°. Suppose 𝜃 becomes
zero, what is the electric flux?

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LESSON 4

CAPACITORS
Capacitors have applications ranging from filtering static from radio reception to
energy storage in heart defibrillators. Typically, commercial capacitors have two conducting
parts close to one another but not touching. Most of the time, a dielectric is used between the
two plates. When battery terminals are connected to an initially uncharged capacitor, the
battery potential moves a small amount of charge of magnitude Q from the positive plate to
the negative plate. The capacitor remains neutral overall, but with charges +Q and -Q residing
on opposite plates.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Explain the concepts of a capacitor and its capacitance

b. Describe how to evaluate the capacitance of a system of conductors

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical charge and energy. It is made up of at least
two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance. (It should be noted that such
electrical conductors are sometimes referred to as "electrodes," but they are more correctly
referred to as "capacitor plates.") The space between capacitors can be a vacuum, in which
case a capacitor is known as a "vacuum capacitor," but it is usually filled with an insulating
material known as a dielectric.

There are several types of capacitors. One of the simplest types of capacitors consists
of two equally but oppositely charged parallel conducting plates separated from each other
by a thin sheet of insulating material or dielectric. When connected to a source of charge,

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such as a battery, the positive terminal of the source removes electrons from the plate
connected to it and transfers them to the other plate. As a result, the two plates are equally
but oppositely charged. Figure shows the basic parts of a parallel plate capacitor.

A capacitor is usually named after the dielectric material used. Common dielectric
materials used in a capacitor are mica, glass, air, ceramic, and paper.

The amount of storage in a capacitor is determined by a property called capacitance,

which you will learn more about a bit later in this section.

Both capacitors shown here were initially uncharged before being connected to a
battery. They now have charges of +Q and -Q (respectively) on their plates. (a) A parallel-
plate capacitor consists of two plates of opposite charge with area A separated by distance
d. (b) A rolled capacitor has a dielectric material between its two conducting sheets (plates).

SERIES AND PARALLEL CAPACITORS

Several capacitors may be connected together in a variety of applications. Multiple

connections of capacitors act like a single equivalent capacitor. The total capacitance of this

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equivalent single capacitor depends both on the individual capacitors and how they are
connected. There are two simple and common types of connections. called series and
parallel, for which we can easily calculate the total capacitance. Certain more complicated
connections can also be related to combinations of series and parallel.

Capacitance in Series

Figure 1a shows a series connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. As for
any capacitor, the capacitance of the combination is related to charge and voltage by

𝑸
C=
𝑽

Note in Figure 1 that opposite charges of magnitude Q flow to either side of the
originally uncharged combination of capacitors when the voltage V is applied Conservation
of charge requires that equal-magnitude charges be created on the plates of the individual
capacitors, since charge is only being separated in these originally neutral devices. The end
result is that the combination resembles a single capacitor with an effective plate separation
greater than that of the individual capacitors alone. (See Figure 1b.) Larger plate separation
means smaller capacitance. It is a general feature of series connections of capacitors that
the total capacitance is less than any of the individual capacitances.

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Figure 1. (a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is
Q. (b) An equivalent capacitor has a larger plate separation d. Series connection produce a
total capacitance that is less than that of any of the individual capacitors.

We can find an expression for the total capacitance by considering the voltage across
the individual capacitors.

𝑸
C=
𝑽
or V gives

𝑸
V=
𝑪

The voltages across the individual capacitors are thus,

𝑸 𝑸 𝑸
V1 = , 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑪 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑪
𝑪𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

The total voltage is the sum of the individual voltages:

V= V1+V2+V3
Now, calling the total capacitance Cs, for series capacitance, consider that
𝑸
V1 = = V1+V2+V3
𝑪𝑺
Entering the expressions for V₁, V₂ and V₂, we get

𝑸 𝑸 𝑸 𝑸
= + +
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
Canceling the QS, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in series C, to
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑

where "..." indicates that the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in
series. An expression of this form always results in a total capacitance Cs that is less than
any of the individual capacitances C₁. C₂…..,

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Total Capacitance in Series Cs

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +𝑪 +𝑪 +⋯
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Capacitance in Parallel

Figure 2a shows a parallel connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. Here
the total capacitance is easier to find than in the series case. To find the equivalent total
capacitance Cp, we first note that the voltage across each capacitor is V, the same as that
of the source, since they are connected directly to it through a conductor. (Conductors are
equipotential, and so the voltage across the capacitors is the same as that across the voltage
source.) Thus, the capacitors have the same charges on them as they would have if
connected individually to the voltage source. The total charge Q is the sum of the individual
charges: Q = Q₁ + Q2 + Q3.

Figure 2 (a) Capacitors in parallel. Each is connected directly to the voltage source just
as if it were all alone, and so the total capacitance in parallel is just the sum of the individual
capacitances. (b) The equivalent capacitor has a larger plate area and can therefore hold
more charge than the individual capacitors.

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 Using the relationship Q = CV, we see that the total charge is Q = C pV, and the individual
charges are Q₁ = C₁V, Q₂ = C₂V, and Q3 = C3V. Entering these into the previous equation
gives.

CpV= C1V +C2V+C3V

Canceling V from the equation, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in parallel

Cp: Cp= C1+C2+C3+…..

Total capacitance in parallel is simply the sum of the individual capacitances (Again the
"..." indicates the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in parallel).

Total Capacitance in Series Cp

Cp= C1+C2+C3+…..

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Solve the following problem show your solution use the space provided.
1. Given that C₁=10.0 F, C₂=5.0 F, and C3=4.0 F, find the total capacitance for each
connection

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Determine the equivalent capacitance between A and B for the group of capacitors in
the drawing.

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LESSON 5

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
AND POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE
The flow of charges along a wire may be likened to the flow of water along a pipe.
For the water to flow along a pipe, a driving force supplied by a difference in water level or
by a pump is needed Similarly, to get the electric current flowing along a wire, a potential
difference must be supplied. Some common sources of potential difference are electric
batteries, solar cells, fuel cells, and generators

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Explain the concepts of electromotive force and potential difference

b. Describe the measurement of current, voltage and resistance

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

A battery consists of cells. Each cell basically consists of two electrodes and
electrolytes. One electrode called cathode is connected to the positive terminal of the cell,
while the other electrode called anode is connected to the negative terminal. An oxidation
reaction takes place at the anode, releasing electrons in the process. These electrons travel
to the cathode where a corresponding reduction reaction takes place. The electrolyte
provides the medium for transport of ions between the two electrodes.

The standard symbol for a cell in an electric circuit is shown below. The longer vertical
line is the positive terminal, while the shorter one is the negative terminal.

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Electromotive Force and Terminal Voltage

Cells also offer small resistance to electric current. This is called the internal
resistance of a cell. Internal resistance is usually represented by r. Because of its internal
resistance, the potential difference across the terminals of a cell when current is flowing
through it is less than when there is no current. The potential difference across its terminals

when no current is flowing is called electromotive force 𝜀 . Electromotive force is the voltage
indicated in a battery. The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when current (I)
flows through it is called terminal voltage and is represented as TV. This is the working
voltage of the battery - the voltage for an external load. The electromotive force and the
terminal voltage are related as follows.

TV = 𝜺 -Ir

EXAMPLE

The electromotive force of a cell is 1.5 V. When connected to an external load of 3.0
Ω, the voltage drops to 1.35 V. Find the (a) current and (b) internal resistance of the cell.

Given: E= 1.5 V

R = 3.0 Ω

TV = 1.35 V

Solution:

a. Using Ohm’s Law

𝑇𝑉 1.35𝑉
𝐼= = = 0.45𝐴
𝑅 3.0𝛺

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 b. Using TV = ε – Ir and substituting values,
1.35V = 1.5V – (0.45A)r
r= 0.33 Ω

ELECTRICALL POWER AND ENERGY

The power expended in an appliance is the rate at which it consumes electrical energy.
Electrical power is obtained by multiplying the voltage by the current. In symbols,

Electrical energy is the energy derived from the charged particles' electric potential
energy or kinetic energy. It is often defined as energy that has been converted from electric
potential energy. Electrical energy is defined as the energy generated by the movement of
electrons from one location to another. Current or electricity is defined as the passage of
charged particles along/through a medium (say, a wire).

Units of Electrical Energy

The basic unit of electrical energy is the joule or watt-second. An electrical energy is said
to be one joule when one ampere of current flows through the circuit for a second when the
potential difference of one volt is applied across it. The commercial unit of electrical energy
is the kilowatt-hour (kWh) which is also knwon as the Board of trade unit (B.O.T).

1 kwh = 1000 × 60 × 60 watt – second

1 kwh = 36 × 105 Ws or Joules
Generally, one kwh is called one unit.

Electric power – It is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed in an

electrical circuit. Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of time.
In physics, the rate of transfer of electrical energy by an electrical circuit per unit time is
called electrical power. Here electrical energy can be either kinetic energy or potential energy.
In most of the cases, potential energy is considered, which is the energy stored due to the
relative positions of charged particles or electric fields. Electrical power is denoted by P and
measured using Watt.

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 We talked about the energy that is dissipated due to the heating up of the conductor.
The energy dissipated in time interval ∆t is given by

∆W = I V∆t

And the energy dissipated per unit time is actually the power dissipated, which is
given by P = ∆W/∆t. But we know the formula for power is given by P = I V

Hence, according to Ohm’s law, V = IR. Substituting we have,

P = I2R

Or

P = V2/R

It is this power which is responsible for heating up the coil of a bulb, which gives out
heat and light.

EXAMPLE

A person used his 1500 W air-conditioning unit for 5 h every day during the month of
June. How much did it cost him for using his air conditioner if electricity is priced at
P8.17/kW.h?

Given: P=1500 W=1.5 Kw

t= (5h/day) x 30 days =150 h

cost/kW.h = ₱ 8.17/kW.h

Solution:

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 Cost = Pt(price/kW.h)
= (1.5kW)(150 h)( ₱ 8.17/kW.h)
= ₱1838.25 ≈ ₱1800

THE MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

The standard units of electrical measurement used for the expression of voltage,
current and resistance are the Volt [ V ], Ampere [ A ] and Ohm [ Ω ] respectively.

These electrical units of measurement are based on the International (metric)

System, also known as the SI System with other commonly used electrical units being derived
from SI base units.

Sometimes in electrical or electronic circuits and systems it is necessary to use

multiples or sub-multiples (fractions) of these standard electrical measuring units when the
quantities being measured are very large or very small.

An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow electric

charge to continuously move. This continuous movement of electric charge through the
conductors of a circuit is called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of “flow,” just like
the flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe.

The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage
is a specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points.

When we speak of a certain amount of voltage being present in a circuit, we are

referring to the measurement of how much potential energy exists to move charge carriers
from one particular point in that circuit to another particular point. Without reference to two
particular points, the term “voltage” has no meaning.

Current tends to move through the conductors with some degree of friction, or
opposition to motion. This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance. The

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amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage and the amount of resistance
in the circuit to oppose current flow.

Just like voltage, resistance is a quantity relative between two points. For this
reason, the quantities of voltage and resistance are often stated as being “between” or
“across” two points in a circuit.

Units of Measurement: Volt, Amp, and Ohm

To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we

need to be able to describe their quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass,
temperature, volume, length, or any other kind of physical quantity. For mass we might use
the units of “kilogram” or “gram.”

For temperature, we might use degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are
the standard units of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance:

The “symbol” given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to
represent that quantity in an algebraic equation. Standardized letters like these are common
in the disciplines of physics and engineering and are internationally recognized.

The “unit abbreviation” for each quantity represents the alphabetical symbol used
as a shorthand notation for its particular unit of measurement. And, yes, that strange-looking
“horseshoe” symbol is the capital Greek letter Ω, just a character in a foreign alphabet
(apologies to any Greek readers here).

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 Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity: The
amp after the Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian Alessandro Volta, and
the ohm after the German Georg Simon Ohm.

The mathematical symbol for each quantity is meaningful as well. The “R” for
resistance and the “V” for voltage are both self-explanatory, whereas “I” for current seems a
bit weird. The “I” is thought to have been meant to represent “Intensity” (of charge flow), and
the other symbol for voltage, “E,” stands for “Electromotive force.” From what research I’ve
been able to do, there seems to be some dispute over the meaning of “I.”

The symbols “E” and “V” are interchangeable for the most part, although some
texts reserve “E” to represent voltage across a source (such as a battery or generator) and
“V” to represent voltage across anything else.

All of these symbols are expressed using capital letters, except in cases where a
quantity (especially voltage or current) is described in terms of a brief period of time (called
an “instantaneous” value). For example, the voltage of a battery, which is stable over a long
period of time, will be symbolized with a capital letter “E,” while the voltage peak of a lightning
strike at the very instant it hits a power line would most likely be symbolized with a lower-
case letter “e” (or lower-case “v”) to designate that value as being at a single moment in time.

This same lower-case convention holds true for current as well, the lower-case
letter “i” representing current at some instant in time. Most direct-current (DC) measurements,
however, being stable over time, will be symbolized with capital letters.

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 The following table gives a list of some of the standard electrical units of measure used in
electrical formulas and component values.

Electrical Measuring
Symbol Description
Parameter Unit

Unit of Electrical Potential

Voltage Volt V or E
V=I×R

Unit of Electrical Current

Current Ampere I or i
I=V÷R

Unit of DC Resistance
Resistance Ohm R or Ω
R=V÷I

Reciprocal of Resistance
Conductance Siemen G or ℧
G=1÷R

Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance Farad C
C=Q÷V

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 Unit of Electrical Charge
Charge Coulomb Q
Q=C×V

Unit of Power
Power Watts W
P = V × I or I2 × R

Unit of Frequency
Frequency Hertz Hz
ƒ=1÷T

COULOMB AND ELECTRIC CHARGE

One foundational unit of electrical measurement often taught in the beginnings of

electronics courses but used infrequently afterward, is the unit of the coulomb, which is a
measure of electric charge proportional to the number of electrons in an imbalanced state.
One coulomb of charge is equal to 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

The symbol for electric charge quantity is the capital letter “Q,” with the unit of
coulombs abbreviated by the capital letter “C.” It so happens that the unit for current flow, the
amp, is equal to 1 coulomb of charge passing by a given point in a circuit in 1 second of time.
Cast in these terms, current is the rate of electric charge motion through a conductor.

As stated before, voltage is the measure of potential energy per unit charge
available to motivate current flow from one point to another. Before we can precisely define
what a “volt” is, we must understand how to measure this quantity we call “potential energy.”
The general metric unit for energy of any kind is the joule, equal to the amount of work
performed by a force of 1 newton exerted through a motion of 1 meter (in the same direction).

In British units, this is slightly less than 3/4 pound of force exerted over a distance
of 1 foot. Put in common terms, it takes about 1 joule of energy to lift a 3/4-pound weight 1
foot off the ground, or to drag something a distance of 1 foot using a parallel pulling force of
3/4 pound. Defined in these scientific terms, 1 volt is equal to 1 joule of electric potential
energy per (divided by) 1 coulomb of charge. Thus, 9-volt battery releases 9 joules of energy
for every coulomb of charge moved through a circuit.

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 These units and symbols for electrical quantities will become very important to
know as we begin to explore the relationships between them in circuits.

The Ohm’s Law Equation

Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal
conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given
temperature. Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation, describing how
voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:

E=lR

In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by

resistance (R). Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two
variations, solving for I and for R, respectively:

Analyzing Simple Circuits with Ohm’s Law

In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and
only one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy to

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apply Ohm’s Law. If we know the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage, current,
and resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine the third.

In this first example, we will calculate the amount of current (I) in a circuit, given
values of voltage (E) and resistance (R):

What is the amount of current (I) in this circuit?

In this second example, we will calculate the amount of resistance (R) in a circuit,
given values of voltage (E) and current (I):

What is the amount of resistance (R) offered by the lamp?

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 In the last example, we will calculate the amount of voltage supplied by a battery,
given values of current (I) and resistance (R):

What is the amount of voltage provided by the battery?

Ohm’s Law Triangle Technique

Ohm’s Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing electric circuits. It is used
so often in the study of electricity and electronics that it needs to be committed to memory by
the serious student. For those who are not yet comfortable with algebra, there’s a trick to
remembering how to solve for anyone quantity, given the other two.

First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:

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 If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate R from the picture and
see what’s left:

If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate I and see what’s left:

Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, eliminate E and see what’s
left:

Eventually, you’ll have to be familiar with algebra to seriously study electricity and
electronics, but this tip can make your first calculations a little easier to remember. If you are
comfortable with algebra, all you need to do is commit E=IR to memory and derive the other
two formulae from that when you need them!

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Answer the following question briefly.

1. For a given amount of water pressure, which will flow a greater rate of water:
a small (restrictive) nozzle or a large (unrestrictive) nozzle? Explain how this
relates to the study of voltage, current, and resistance in a simple electric
circuit.

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 Your Answer

Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Answer the following question briefly.

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 Explain, step by step, how to calculate the amount of current (I) that will go through
the resistor in this circuit:

Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

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Direction: Solve for the unknown measurement. Show your solution
1. I = 10 A
R = 1500 Ω
V=?

2. I = ?
R = 200 Ω
V = 240 V

3. I = 15 A
R=?
V = 110 V

4. I = ?
R = 20 Ω
V = 350 mV = ________ V

5. R = ?
I = 25 mA = _________ A
V = 110 V

6. I = 15 A
R = 7333 mΩ = _______ Ω
V=?

Application of Understanding

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 A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the
Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Indicate your solution here………..

Application of Understanding

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 A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the
Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Complete the following questions using the equation: V = I x R or R = V ÷ I or I
=V÷R
1. What is the potential difference across an electrical load that has a resistance of 4 Ω
and a current of 3 A flowing through it?

2. Calculate the current an electric clothes dryer draws when it is connected to a 230 V
source and has a resistance of 9.2 Ω.

3. What is the resistance in a circuit if a potential difference of 110 V causes a current

of 10 A?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the potential difference across a hand-held fan that has a resistance of 120
Ω and a current of 50 mA flowing through it?

5. An electric toaster has a resistance of 12 Ω. What current will it draw from a 120 V
supply?

6. How much resistance does a heavy duty flashlight have if it has a current of 25 mA
flowing through it and is being powered by four 1.5 V cells?

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LESSON 6

FUNDAMENTALS OF
MAGNETISM

Magnets play a crucial role in a modern life; as we know, a vast number of devices
are employed in the electromagnetic industry. In ancient times human beings experienced
magnetic phenomena by utilizing natural iron minerals, especially magnetite. It was not until
modern times that magnetic phenomena were appreciated from the standpoint of
electromagnetics, to which many physicists such as Oersted and Faraday made a great
contribution. In particular, Amp è re explained magnetic materials in 1822, based on a small
circular electric current. This was the first explanation of a molecular magnet. Furthermore,
Ampere ’ s circuital law introduced the concept of a magnetic moment or magnetic dipoles,
similar to electric dipoles

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Explain the theories on magnetisms;

b. Examine different types of magnetism;
c. Describe how electricity produces magnetism;
d. Describe the properties of magnet.

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

Magnetism is a force generated in matter by the motion of electrons within its

atoms. Magnetism and electricity represent different aspects of the force of
electromagnetism, which is one part of Nature's fundamental electroweak force. The region
in space that is penetrated by the imaginary lines of magnetic force describes a magnetic
field. The strength of the magnetic field is determined by the number of lines of force per unit
area of space. Magnetic fields are created on a large scale either by the passage of an electric
current through magnetic metals or by magnetized materials called magnets. The elemental
metals-iron, cobalt, nickel, and their solid solutions or alloys with related metallic elements-
are typical materials that respond strongly to magnetic fields. Unlike the all-pervasive

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fundamental force field of gravity, the magnetic force field within a magnetized body, such as
a bar magnet, is polarized-that is, the field is strongest and of opposite signs at the two
extremities or poles of the magnet.

ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM

Magnetism arises from two types of motions of electrons in atoms-one is the motion of
the electrons in an orbit around the nucleus, similar to the motion of the planets in our solar
system around the sun, and the other is the spin of the electrons around its axis, analogous
to the rotation of the Earth about its own axis. The orbital and the spin motion independently
impart a magnetic moment on each electron causing each of them to behave as a tiny
magnet. The magnetic moment of a magnet is defined by the rotational force experienced by
it in a magnetic field of unit strength acting perpendicular to its magnetic axis. In a large
fraction of the elements, the magnetic moment of the electrons cancels out because of the
Pauli exclusion principle, which states that each electronic orbit can be occupied by only two
electrons of opposite spin. However, a number of so-called transition metal atoms, such as
iron, cobalt, and nickel, have magnetic moments that are not cancelled; these elements are,
therefore, common examples of magnetic materials. In these transition metal elements, the
magnetic moment arises only from the spin of the electrons. In the rare earth elements (that
begin with lanthanum in the sixth row of the Periodic Table of Elements), however, the effect
of the orbital motion of the electrons is not cancelled, and hence both spin and orbital motion
contribute to the magnetic moment. Examples of some magnetic rare earth elements are:
cerium, neodymium, samarium, and europium. In addition to metals and alloys of transition
and rare earth elements, magnetic moments are also observed in a wide variety of chemical
compounds involving these elements. Among the common magnetic compounds are the
metal oxides, which are chemically bonded compositions of metals with oxygen.

The Earth's geomagnetic field is the result of electric currents produced by the slow
convective motion of its liquid core in accordance with a basic law of electromagnetism which
states that a magnetic field is generated by the passage of an electric current. According to
this model, the Earth's core should be electrically conductive enough to allow generation and
transport of an electric current. The geomagnetic field generated will be dipolar in character,
similar to the magnetic field in a conventional magnet, with lines of magnetic force lying in
approximate planes passing through the geomagnetic axis. The principle of the compass

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needle used by the ancient mariners involves the alignment of a magnetized needle along
the Earth's magnetic axis with the imaginary south pole of the needle pointing towards the
magnetic north pole of the Earth. The magnetic north pole of the Earth is inclined at an angle
of 11 degrees away from its geographical north pole.

Types of magnetism

Five basic types of magnetism have been observed and classified on the basis of the
magnetic behavior of materials in response to magnetic fields at different temperatures.
These types of magnetism are: ferromagnetism, ferrimagnetism, antiferromagnetic,
paramagnetic, and diamagnetism.

Ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism occur when the magnetic moments in a magnetic

material line up spontaneously at a temperature below the so-called Curie temperature, to
produce net magnetization. The magnetic moments are aligned at random at temperatures
above the Curie point, but become ordered, typically in a vertical or, in special cases, in a
spiral (helical) array, below this temperature. In a ferromagnet, magnetic moments of equal
magnitude arrange themselves in parallel to each other. In a ferrimagnet, on the other hand,
the moments are unequal in magnitude and order in an antiparallel arrangement. When the
moments are equal in magnitude and ordering occurs at a temperature called the Neel
temperature in an antiparallel array to give no net magnetization, the phenomenon is referred
to as antiferromagnetic. These transitions from disorder to order represent classic examples
of phase transitions. Another example of a phase transition is the freezing of the disordered
molecules of water at a critical temperature of 32°F (0°C) to form the ordered structure of ice.
The magnetic moments—referred to as spins—are localized on the tiny electronic magnets

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within the atoms of the solid. Mathematically, the electronic spins are equal to the angular
momentum (the rotational velocity times the moment of inertia) of the rotating electrons. The
spins in a ferromagnetic or a ferrimagnetic single crystal undergo spontaneous alignment to
form a macroscopic (large scale) magnetized object. Most magnetic solids, however, are not
single crystals, but consist of single crystal domains separated by domain walls. The spins
align within a domain below the Curie temperature, independently of any external magnetic
field, but the domains have to be aligned in a magnetic field in order to produce a macroscopic
magnetized object. This process is affected by the rotation of the direction of the spins in the
domain wall under the influence of the magnetic field, resulting in a displacement of the wall
and the eventual creation of a single large domain with the same spin orientation.

Paramagnetism is a weak form of magnetism observed in substances which display a

positive response to an applied magnetic field. This response is described by its magnetic
susceptibility per unit volume, which is a dimensionless quantity defined by the ratio of the
magnetic moment to the magnetic field intensity. Paramagnetism is observed, for example,
in atoms and molecules with an odd number of electrons, since here the net magnetic
moment cannot be zero. Diamagnetism is associated with materials that have a negative
magnetic susceptibility. It occurs in nonmagnetic substances like graphite, copper, silver and
gold, and in the superconducting state of certain elemental and compound metals. The
negative magnetic susceptibility in these materials is the result of a current induced in the
electron orbits of the atoms by the applied magnetic field. The electron current then induces
a magnetic moment of opposite sign to that of the applied field. The net result of these
interactions is that the material is shielded from penetration by the applied magnetic field.

MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETIC FIELD

The magnetic field or flux density is measured in metric units of a gauss (G) and the
corresponding international system unit of a tesla (T). The magnetic field strength is
measured in metric units of oersted’s (Oe) and international units of amperes per meter (A/m).
Instruments called gaussmeters and magnetometers are used to measure the magnitude of
magnetic fields.

One form of the gaussmeter that is used commonly in the laboratory consists of a
current carrying semiconducting element called the Hall probe, which is placed perpendicular
to the magnetic field being measured. As a consequence of the so-called Hall effect, a voltage
perpendicular to the field and to the current is generated in the probe. This induced voltage

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is proportional to the magnetic field being measured and can be simply measured using a
voltmeter.

Magnetometers are extremely sensitive magnetic field detectors. In one commonly

used form the magnetic force is detected by means of a sensitive electronic balance. In this
instrument the magnetic substance is placed on one arm of a balance, which in turn is placed
in a magnetic field. The magnetic force on the sample is then determined by the weight
required to balance the force generated by the magnetic field. The most sensitive
magnetometer in a modern physics laboratory utilizes a magnetic sensing element called the
SQUID (which stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device). A SQUID consists
of an extremely thin electrically resistive junction (called a Josephson junction) between two
superconductors. Superconductors are materials which undergo a transition at low
temperatures to a state of zero electrical resistance and nearly complete exclusion of
magnetic fields. In its direct current mode of operation, a SQUID is first cooled down to its
superconducting state, and then a current is passed through it while the voltage across the
junction is monitored. When the junction senses a magnetic field, the flow of current is altered
due to an interference phenomenon at the quantum level between two electron wave fronts
through the junction, resulting in a change in voltage. Interference is a phenomenon that
occurs generally due to the mixing of two wave fronts; the waves add up in some regions and
cancel out in others depending on the location of the crest and trough of each wave in space.
For example, the interference between the sound waves from two simultaneously played
musical instruments tuned at somewhat different frequencies results in the occurrence of
beats or modulations in the sound intensity.

A variation of the SQUID magnetometer is the SQUID gradiometer which measures

differences in magnetic fields at different positions. Using this type of instrument magnetic
field variations in the femtotesla (10-15 tesla) range can be detected. Devices of this type
have been used to map the tiny magnetic signals from the human brain.

APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETISM
Electromagnets are utilized as key components of transformers in power supplies that
convert electrical energy from a wall outlet into direct current energy for a wide range of
electronic devices, and in motors and generators. High field superconducting magnets (where
superconducting coils generate the magnetic field) provide the magnetic field in MRI

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(magnetic resonance imaging) devices that are now used extensively in hospitals and
medical centers.

Magnetic materials that are difficult to demagnetize are used to construct permanent
magnets. Permanent magnet applications are in loudspeakers, earphones, electric meters,
and small motors. A loudspeaker consists of a wire carrying an alternating current . When the
wire is in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet it experiences a force that generates a
sound wave by alternate compression and rarefaction of the surrounding air when the
alternating frequency of the current is in the audible range.

The more esoteric applications of magnetism are in the area of magnetic recording
and storage devices in computers, and in audio and video systems. Magnetic storage devices
work on the principle of two stable magnetic states represented by the 0 and 1 in the binary
number system. Floppy disks have dozens of tracks on which data can be digitally written in
or stored by means of a write-head and then accessed or read by means of a read-head. A
write-head provides a strong local magnetic field to the region through which the storage
track of the disk is passed. The read-head senses stray magnetic flux from the storage track
of the disk as it passes over the head. Another example of digital magnetic storage and
reading is the magnetic strip on the back of plastic debit and credit cards. The magnetic strip
contains identification data which can be accessed through, for example, an automatic teller
machine.

Key Terms

Curie temperature

The temperature above which magnetism disappears in ferromagnetic and

ferrimagnetic matter.

Diamagnetism

Is the negative response of matter to an applied magnetic field that prevents the
penetration of the field into its interior.

Electromagnetism

Is the unified electrical and magnetic field of force generated by the passage of an
electric current through matter .

Ferrimagnetism

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 Is a strong form of magnetism that occurs with antiparallel alignment of unequal
magnetic spins.

Ferromagnetism

Is a strong form of magnetism that occurs with the parallel alignment of equal magnetic
spins.

Geomagnetism

Is the magnetism displayed by the Earth that is probably caused by the electric fields
generated in its central liquid core by its rotation.

Magnetic susceptibility

Is the response of a system to an applied magnetic field it is a dimensionless quantity

that is equal to the ratio of the magnetic moment to the applied field intensity.

Magnetometer

Instrument used to detect and measure magnetic field strengths.

Phase transition

Is the phenomenon of a reversible transformation of one state to another state of

matter .

Spin

Is the magnetic moment or angular momentum due to the rotation of electrons.

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________

Organize the important facts about magnets by completing the outline

Magnets

a. Magnetic force

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
b. Magnetic Field

c. Magnetic Poles

d. Compass

e. Earth as a magnet

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Direction: Classify each metal as magnetic or nonmagnetic.

Aluminum cobalt copper gold iron mercury nickel

silver

Magnetic Nonmagnetic

List three things you know about magnets.

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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 74
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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 75
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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 76
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 PREFACE
Modular Learning – GENERAL PHYSICS 2, a K to 12 curricula compliant, is a
modified module aimed to provide senior high school students with the foundation of
knowledge, awareness, and skills needed to thrive in situations that require the use of
creative thinking in online or offline basis. The module discusses essential lessons that uses
holistic and proactive approach which will help the senior high school students to acquire 21st
century skills and become globally competitive individuals. In addition, the module provides
practical experiences that will also help the students to progress in different areas such as
individual working, collaboration, communication, designing, and creating creative contents
both in online or offline setting.

With the presented module, each skill widens up each learners’ ability to engage into
information about contemporary arts, national artist, mediums and techniques, elements of
art, and art production which are aligned to the standards and competencies set by the
Department of Education for the senior high school students. Moreover, all the lessons are
selected as the most essential learning competencies and are organized into cognitive
approach and interdisciplinary subject matters to allow the learners to value and comprehend
different activities which serve as a self – enrichment and will build creativity and innovation,
communication, and critical thinking.

Mentioned below are the series ABCDE:

Introduction: Activating Prior Knowledge provides an overview about the

lesson, gives motivation, and preliminary activities.

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding provides discussion, explains

theories, terminologies, and gives examples.

Practice: Application of Understanding supplies test yourself activities, short

and easy quizzes.

Enrichment: Excel in Your Performance enriches learning through set of

quizzes with increase of difficulty.

Feedback: Meaningful Closure solidifies learning by providing constructive

feedback to the learner.

Have fun and enjoy learning!

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 STANDARDS, LESSONS, COMPETENCIES, AND TIME FRAME

In this module, you will learn the following lessons and be guided by the time frame
given.
CONTENT STANDARD: Students demonstrate understanding of:
 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
 ELECTRICITY
 ELECTRICIAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 IN AID OF VISION (MIRROR AND LENSES)

PERFORMANCE STANDARD: Use theoretical and experimental approaches to

solve multi concept and rich-context problems involving electricity and magnetism.
UNIT TOPIC 2:
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
 Define the term equivalent
resistance
 Calculate the equivalent
RESISTORS IN resistance of resistors connected Week 1
LESSON
SERIES AND in series and 3
1
PARALLEL  Calculate the equivalent
resistance of resistors connected
in parallel

 Define electricity;
 Enumerate the different sources
of electrical energy and describe
the transformation of energy that
Week 4
LESSON takes places in each source;
ELECTRICITY and 5
2  Discuss the process of
generation, transmission, and
distribution of electrical energy;
 Cite the importance of national
grid.

 Describe how to connect a

voltmeter in a circuit to measure
voltage
ELECTRICIAL Week 6
LESSON  Describe how to connect an
MEASURING and 7
3 ammeter in a circuit to measure
INSTRUMENTS
current
 Describe the use of an ohmmeter

 Determine the focal length of a Week 6

LESSON IN AID OF
mirror or a lens: and 7
4 VISION
 Explain how different optical
instruments work;

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  Solve problem on vision defects
and optical instrument

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LESSON 1

RESISTORS IN SERIES AND

PARALLEL

In Current and Resistance, we described the term ‘resistance’ and explained the
basic design of a resistor. Basically, a resistor limits the flow of charge in a circuit and is an
ohmic device where V=IR. Most circuits have more than one resistor. If several resistors are
connected together and connected to a battery, the current supplied by the battery depends
on the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Define the term equivalent resistance

b. Calculate the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series
c. Calculate the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in parallel

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

The equivalent resistance of a combination of resistors depends on both their

individual values and how they are connected. The simplest combinations of resistors are
series and parallel connections (Figure 6.2.1). In a series circuit, the output current of the first
resistor flows into the input of the second resistor; therefore, the current is the same in each
resistor. In a parallel circuit, all of the resistor leads on one side of the resistors are connected
together and all the leads on the other side are connected together. In the case of a parallel
configuration, each resistor has the same potential drop across it, and the currents through
each resistor may be different, depending on the resistor. The sum of the individual currents
equals the current that flows into the parallel connections.

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 Figure 6.2.1 (a) For a series connection of resistors, the current is the same in each
resistor. (b) For a parallel connection of resistors, the voltage is the same across each
resistor.

RESISTORS IN SERIES
Resistors are said to be in series whenever the current flows through the resistors
sequentially. Consider Figure 6.2.2, which shows three resistors in series with an applied
voltage equal to Vab. Since there is only one path for the charges to flow through, the current
is the same through each resistor. The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors in a series
connection is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual resistances.

Figure 6.2.2 (a) Three

resistors connected in
series to a voltage
source. (b) The original
circuit is reduced to an
equivalent resistance
and a voltage source.

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 In Figure 6.2.2, the current coming from the voltage source flows through each
resistor, so the current through each resistor is the same. The current through the circuit
depends on the voltage supplied by the voltage source and the resistance of the resistors.
For each resistor, a potential drop occurs that is equal to the loss of electric potential energy
as a current travel through each resistor. According to Ohm’s law, the potential drop V across
a resistor when a current flow through it is calculated using the equation V=IR, where I is the
current in amps (A) and R is the resistance in ohms (Ω). Since energy is conserved, and
the voltage is equal to the potential energy per charge, the sum of the voltage applied to the
circuit by the source and the potential drops across the individual resistors around a loop
should be equal to zero:

This equation is often referred to as Kirchhoff’s loop law, which we will look at in
more detail later in this chapter. For Figure 6.2.2, the sum of the potential drop of each
resistor and the voltage supplied by the voltage source should equal zero:

Since the current through each component is the same, the equality can be
simplified to an equivalent resistance, which is just the sum of the resistances of the individual
resistors.

Any number of resistors can be connected in series. If N resistors are connected in

series, the equivalent resistance is

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 One result of components connected in a series circuit is that if something happens
to one component, it affects all the other components. For example, if several lamps are
connected in series and one bulb burns out, all the other lamps go dark.

Equivalent Resistance, Current, and Power in a Series Circuit

A battery with a terminal voltage of 9V is connected to a circuit consisting of four 20 Ω

and one 10 Ω resistors all in series (Figure 6.2.3). Assume the battery has negligible internal
resistance. (a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (b) Calculate the current
through each resistor. (c) Calculate the potential drop across each resistor. (d) Determine the
total power dissipated by the resistors and the power supplied by the battery.

Figure 6.2.3 A simple series circuit with five resistors.

In a series circuit, the equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances.
The current through the circuit can be found from Ohm’s law and is equal to the voltage
divided by the equivalent resistance. The potential drop across each resistor can be found
using Ohm’s law. The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using P=I2R, and the
total power dissipated by the resistors is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each

resistor. The power supplied by the battery can be found using P=I𝜺

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 a. The equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances:

b. The current through the circuit is the same for each resistor in a series circuit and
is equal to the applied voltage divided by the equivalent resistance:

c. The potential drop across each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law:

Note that the sum of the potential drops across each resistor is equal to the
voltage supplied by the battery.

d. The power dissipated by a resistor is equal to P=I2R, and the power supplied by

the battery is equal to P=I𝜺

There are several reasons why we would use multiple resistors instead of just one
resistor with a resistance equal to the equivalent resistance of the circuit. Perhaps a resistor
of the required size is not available, or we need to dissipate the heat generated, or we want

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to minimize the cost of resistors. Each resistor may cost a few cents to a few dollars, but
when multiplied by thousands of units, the cost saving may be appreciable.

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Figure 6.2.4 shows resistors in parallel, wired to a voltage source. Resistors are in
parallel when one end of all the resistors are connected by a continuous wire of negligible
resistance and the other end of all the resistors are also connected to one another through a
continuous wire of negligible resistance. The potential drop across each resistor is the same.
Current through each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law I=V/R, where the voltage is
constant across each resistor. For example, an automobile’s headlights, radio, and other
systems are wired in parallel, so that each subsystem utilizes the full voltage of the source
and can operate completely independently. The same is true of the wiring in your house or
any building.

Figure 6.2.4 (a) Two resistors connected in parallel to a voltage source. (b) The original
circuit is reduced to an equivalent resistance and a voltage source.

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 The current flowing from the voltage source in Figure 6.2.4 depends on the voltage
supplied by the voltage source and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. In this case, the
current flows from the voltage source and enters a junction, or node, where the circuit splits
flowing through resistors R1 and R2. As the charges flow from the battery, some go through
resistor R1 and some flow through resistor R2. The sum of the currents flowing into a junction
must be equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction:

This equation is referred to as Kirchhoff’s junction rule and will be discussed in detail
in the next section. In Figure 6.2.4, the junction rule gives I=I1+I2. There are two loops in this
circuit, which leads to the equations V=I1R1 and I1R1=I2R2 Note the voltage across the
resistors in parallel are the same (V=V1=V2) and the current is additive:

Generalizing to any number of N resistors, the equivalent resistance Req of a parallel

connection is related to the individual resistances by

This relationship results in an equivalent resistance Req that is less than the smallest
of the individual resistances. When resistors are connected in parallel, more current flows
from the source than would flow for any of them individually, so the total resistance is lower.

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 Analysis of a Parallel Circuit

Three resistors R1=1.00 Ω, R2=2.00 Ω, and R3=2.00 Ω are connected in parallel. The
parallel connection is attached to a V=3.00V voltage source. (a) What is the equivalent
resistance? (b) Find the current supplied by the source to the parallel circuit. (c) Calculate the
currents in each resistor and show that these add together to equal the current output of the
source. (d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor. (e) Find the power output of the
source and show that it equals the total power dissipated by the resistors.

(a) The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is found using

(Note that in these calculations, each intermediate answer is shown with an extra
digit.)
(b) The current supplied by the source can be found from Ohm’s law, substituting Req for
the total resistance

(c) The individual currents are easily calculated from Ohm’s law since each
resistor gets the full voltage. The total current is the sum of the individual currents:

(d) The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using any of the equations relating
power to current, voltage, and resistance, since all three are known. Let us use

(e) The total power can also be calculated in several ways, use

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 Solution
a. The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is found using Equation
6.2.2. Entering known values gives

b. The total current can be found from Ohm’s law, substituting Req for the total resistance.
This gives

c. The individual currents are easily calculated from Ohm’s law, since each resistor gets
the full voltage. Thus,

The total current is the sum of the individual currents:

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d. The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using any of the equations relating
power to current, voltage, and resistance, since all three are known. Let us use P=V 2/R,
since each resistor gets full voltage. Thus,

e. The total power can also be calculated in several ways. Choosing P=IV and entering

the total current yields

COMBINATIONS OF SERIES AND PARALLEL

More complex connections of resistors are often just combinations of series and
parallel connections. Such combinations are common, especially when wire resistance is
considered. In that case, wire resistance is in series with other resistances that are in
parallel.

Combinations of series and parallel can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance

using the technique illustrated in Figure 6.2.5. Various parts can be identified as either
series or parallel connections, reduced to their equivalent resistances, and then further
reduced until a single equivalent resistance is left. The process is more time consuming
than difficult. Here, we note the equivalent resistance as Req.

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Figure 6.2.5 (a) The original circuit of four resistors. (b) Step 1: The resistors R3 and R4 are
in series and the equivalent resistance is R34=10Ω. (c) Step 2: The reduced circuit shows
resistors R2 and R34 are in parallel, with an equivalent resistance of R234=5 Ω. (d) Step 3: The
reduced circuit shows that R1 and R234 are in series with an equivalent resistance of R1234=12
Ω, which is the equivalent resistance Req. (e) The reduced circuit with a voltage source of
V=24V with an equivalent resistance of Req=12 Ω. This results in a current of I=2 A from the
voltage source.

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 Notice that resistors R3 and R4 are in series. They can be combined into a single equivalent
resistance. One method of keeping track of the process is to include the resistors as
subscripts. Here the equivalent resistance of R3 and R4 is

The circuit now reduces to three resistors, shown in Figure 6.2.5(c). Redrawing, we
now see that resistors R2 and R34 constitute a parallel circuit. Those two resistors can be
reduced to an equivalent resistance:

This step of the process reduces the circuit to two resistors, shown in in Figure
6.2.5(d). Here, the circuit reduces to two resistors, which in this case are in series. These two
resistors can be reduced to an equivalent resistance, which is the equivalent resistance of
the circuit:

The main goal of this circuit analysis is reached, and the circuit is now reduced to a
single resistor and single voltage source.

Now we can analyze the circuit. The current provided by the voltage source is

This current run through resistor R1 and is designated as I1. The

potential drop across R1 can be found using Ohm’s law:

Looking at Figure 6.2.5(c), this leaves 24 V 14V 10V to be dropped across the
parallel combination of R2 and R34. The current through R2 can be found using Ohm’s law:

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The resistors R3 and R4 are in series so the currents I3 and I4 are equal to

Using Ohm’s law, we can find the potential drop across the last two resistors. The
potential drops are V3=I3R3=6V and V4=I4R4=4V. The final analysis is to look at the power
supplied by the voltage source and the power dissipated by the resistors. The power
dissipated by the resistors is

The total energy is constant in any process. Therefore, the power supplied by the
voltage source is P8=IV=(2~A) (24V) =48W. Analyzing the power supplied to the circuit and
the power dissipated by the resistors is a good check for the validity of the analysis; they
should be equal.

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Combining Series and Parallel Circuits

Figure 6.2.6 shows resistors wired in a combination of series and parallel. We can
consider R1 to be the resistance of wires leading to R2 and R3 (a) Find the equivalent
resistance of the circuit. (b) What is the potential drop V 1 across resistor R1? (c) Find the
current I2 through resistor R2. (d) What power is dissipated by R2?

Figure 6.2.6 These three resistors are connected to a voltage source so that R 2 and
R3 are in parallel with one another and that combination is in series with R 1.

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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 94
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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 95
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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
1. Determine the equivalent (total) resistance for each of the following circuits
below.

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Determine the total voltage (electric potential) for each of the following circuits
below.

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
In a series circuit there is just one path so the charge flow is constant everywhere (charge
is not lost or gained). Circuit B was made by adding 2 more identical resistors in series to
Circuit A

A. How is the charge flow out of the battery (and back into it) affected by adding
more bulbs in series?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
B. If the resistors were light bulbs, how do you expect the brightness of the bulbs to
be affected by adding more bulbs in series?

C. How is the brightness in the 2 circuits related to charge flow or current?

D. How is the brightness in the 2 circuits related to charge flow or current?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
E. How does the current in circuit B compare to circuit A?

F. How is current (I) related to the resistance of the circuit?

G. If the resistance of a circuit is quadrupled, by what factor does the current

change?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
1. Solve resistance x in parallel with resistances 100 Ω and 200 Ω gives an equivalent
resistance of 50 Ω

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________

Two resistors connected in series (R1, R2) are connected to two resistors that are
connected in parallel (R 3, R 4). The series-parallel combination is connected to a battery.
Each resistor has a resistance of 10.00Ω The wires connecting the resistors and battery have
negligible resistance. A current of 2.00A runs through resistor R1. What is the voltage supplied
by the voltage source?

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 Application of Understanding

A Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the

Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Strand:___________ Score:_______

______________________________________________________________________________
Your Solution….

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LESSON 2

ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a form of energy. Electricity is the flow of electrons. All matter is made
up of atoms, and an atom has a center, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains positively
charged particles called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The nucleus of an
atom is surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. The negative charge of
an electron is equal to the positive charge of a proton, and the number of electrons in an atom
is usually equal to the number of protons. When the balancing force between protons and
electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom may gain or lose an electron. When electrons
are "lost" from an atom, the free movement of these electrons constitutes an electric current.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Define electricity;
b. Enumerate the different sources of electrical energy and describe the
transformation of energy that takes places in each source;
c. Discuss the process of generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical
energy;
d. Cite the importance of national grid.

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of
energy. We get electricity, which is a secondary energy source, from the conversion of other
sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which
are called primary sources. Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls (a primary
source of mechanical energy) that turned water wheels to perform work. Before electricity

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generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was
cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves.
Beginning with Benjamin Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in Philadelphia,
the principles of electricity gradually became understood. In the mid-1800s, everyone's life
changed with the invention of the electric light bulb. Prior to 1879, electricity had been used
in arc lights for outdoor lighting. The lightbulb's invention used electricity to bring indoor
lighting to our homes.

How Electricity Transformed?

To solve the problem of sending electricity over long distances, George

Westinghouse developed a device called a transformer. The transformer allowed electricity
to be efficiently transmitted over long distances. This made it possible to supply electricity to
homes and businesses located far from the electric generating plant.

Despite its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think
what life would be like without electricity. Yet like air and water, we tend to take electricity for
granted. Everyday, we use electricity to do many functions for us -- from lighting and
heating/cooling our homes, to being the power source for televisions and computers.
Electricity is a controllable and convenient form of energy used in the applications of heat,
light and power.

Today, the United States (U.S.) electric power industry is set up to ensure that
an adequate supply of electricity is available to meet all demand requirements at any given
instant.

How Is Electricity Generated?

An electric generator is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical

energy. The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and electricity. When
a wire or any other electrically conductive material moves across a magnetic field, an electric
current occurs in the wire. The large generators used by the electric utility industry have a
stationary conductor. A magnet attached to the end of a rotating shaft is positioned inside a
stationary conducting ring that is wrapped with a long, continuous piece of wire. When the
magnet rotates, it induces a small electric current in each section of wire as it passes. Each
section of wire constitutes a small, separate electric conductor. All the small currents of
individual sections add up to one current of considerable size. This current is what is used
for electric power.

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 How Are Turbines Used to Generate Electricity?

An electric utility power station uses either a turbine, engine, water wheel, or
other similar machine to drive an electric generator or a device that converts mechanical or
chemical energy to electricity. Steam turbines, internal-combustion engines, gas combustion
turbines, water turbines, and wind turbines are the most common methods to generate
electricity.

Most of the electricity in the United States is produced in steam turbines. A

turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) to mechanical energy.
Steam turbines have a series of blades mounted on a shaft against which steam is forced,
thus rotating the shaft connected to the generator. In a fossil-fueled steam turbine, the fuel is
burned in a furnace to heat water in a boiler to produce steam.

Coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas are burned in large furnaces to heat water
to make steam that in turn pushes on the blades of a turbine. Did you know that coal is the
largest single primary source of energy used to generate electricity in the United States? In
1998, more than half (52%) of the county's 3.62 trillion kilowatt-hours of electricity used coal
as its source of energy.

Natural gas, in addition to being burned to heat water for steam, can also be
burned to produce hot combustion gases that pass directly through a turbine, spinning the
blades of the turbine to generate electricity. Gas turbines are commonly used when electricity
utility usage is in high demand. In 1998, 15% of the nation's electricity was fueled by natural
gas.

Petroleum can also be used to make steam to turn a turbine. Residual fuel oil,
a product refined from crude oil, is often the petroleum product used in electric plants that
use petroleum to make steam. Petroleum was used to generate less than three percent (3%)
of all electricity generated in U.S. electricity plants in 1998.

Nuclear power is a method in which steam is produced by heating water

through a process called nuclear fission. In a nuclear power plant, a reactor contains a core
of nuclear fuel, primarily enriched uranium. When atoms of uranium fuel are hit by neutrons
they fission (split), releasing heat and more neutrons. Under controlled conditions, these
other neutrons can strike more uranium atoms, splitting more atoms, and so on. Thereby,
continuous fission can take place, forming a chain reaction releasing heat. The heat is used

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to turn water into steam, that, in turn, spins a turbine that generates electricity. In 2015,
Nuclear power is used to generate 19.47 percent of all the country's electricity.

As of 2013, hydropower accounts for 6.8 percent of U.S. electricity generation.

Its a process in which flowing water is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. There
are mainly two basic types of hydroelectric systems that produce electricity. In the first
system, flowing water accumulates in reservoirs created by the use of dams. The water falls
through a pipe called a penstock and applies pressure against the turbine blades to drive the
generator to produce electricity. In the second system, called run-of-river, the force of the
river current (rather than falling water) applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce
electricity.

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 Generating Sources

Geothermal power comes from heat energy buried beneath the surface of the earth.
In some areas of the country, magma (molten matter under the earth's crust) flows close
enough to the surface of the earth to heat underground water into steam, which can be tapped
for use at steam-turbine plants. As of 2013, this energy source generates less than 1% of the
electricity in the country, though an assessment by the U.S. Energy Information
Administration that nine western states can potentially produce enough electricity to supply
20 percent of the nation’s energy needs.

Solar power is derived from the energy of the sun. However, the sun's energy is not
available full-time and it is widely scattered. The processes used to produce electricity using
the sun's energy have historically been more expensive than using conventional fossil fuels.
Photovoltaic conversion generates electric power directly from the light of the sun in a
photovoltaic (solar) cell. Solar-thermal electric generators use the radiant energy from the
sun to produce steam to drive turbines. In 2015, less than 1% of the nation's electricity was
supplied by solar power.

Wind power is derived from the conversion of the energy contained in wind into
electricity. Wind power, like the sun, is usually an expensive source of producing electricity.
In 2014, It was used for roughly 4.44 percent of the nation's electricity. A wind turbine is
similar to a typical wind mill.

Biomass (wood, municipal solid waste (garbage), and agricultural waste, such as corn
cobs and wheat straw, are some other energy sources for producing electricity. These
sources replace fossil fuels in the boiler. The combustion of wood and waste creates steam
that is typically used in conventional steam-electric plants. In 2015, biomass accounts for
1.57 percent of the electricity generated in the United States.

The electricity produced by a generator travels along cables to a transformer, which

changes electricity from low voltage to high voltage. Electricity can be moved long distances
more efficiently using high voltage. Transmission lines are used to carry the electricity to a
substation. Substations have transformers that change the high voltage electricity into lower
voltage electricity. From the substation, distribution lines carry the electricity to homes, offices
and factories, which require low voltage electricity.

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How Is Electricity Measured?

Electricity is measured in units of power called watts. It was named to honor James
Watt, the inventor of the steam engine. One watt is a very small amount of power. It would
require nearly 750 watts to equal one horsepower. A kilowatt represents 1,000 watts. A
kilowatt-hour (kWh) is equal to the energy of 1,000 watts working for one hour. The amount
of electricity a power plant generates or a customer uses over a period of time is measured
in kilowatt-hours (kWh). Kilowatt-hours are determined by multiplying the number of kW's
required by the number of hours of use. For example, if you use 40-watt light bulb 5 hours a
day, you have used 200 watts of power, or .2 kilowatt-hours of electrical energy.

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 Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the
Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Section:___________ Score:_______

________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Make a diagram that show the flow of electricity from generations to distribution
and label and explain each stages.

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 Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the
Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Section:___________ Score:_______

________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Answer the following questions.

1. How can we manage and conserve energy resources?

2. How are the various energy resources transformed into electricity for home?

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 Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the
Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Section:___________ Score:_______

________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Draw the Hydro Power Plant that showing the flow of electricity from the power
plant to the distribution lines.

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 Agro Industrial Foundation Colleges of the
Philippines, Inc.
Bolton Riverside, Ecoland, Matina, Davao City

Name:______________________________ Subject: GP2

Year and Section:___________ Score:_______

________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Draw a Geothermal Power Plant that showing the flow of electricity from the power
plant to the distribution lines.

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Directions: Draw the Solar Power Plant that showing the flow of electricity from the power
plant to the distribution lines.

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Directions: Draw a Nuclear Power Plant that showing the flow of electricity from the power
plant to the distribution lines.

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LESSON 3

ELECTRICAL MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s method are useful to analyze and design electrical
circuits, providing you with the voltages across, the current through, and the resistance of the
components that compose the circuit. To measure these parameters, require instruments,
and these instruments are described in this section.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Describe how to connect a voltmeter in a circuit to measure voltage

b. Describe how to connect an ammeter in a circuit to measure current
c. Describe the use of an ohmmeter

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

DC Voltmeters and Ammeters

Whereas voltmeters measure voltage, ammeters measure current. Some of the meters in
automobile dashboards, digital cameras, cell phones, and tuner-amplifiers are actually
voltmeters or ammeters (Figure 6.4.1). The internal construction of the simplest of these
meters and how they are connected to the system they monitor give further insight into
applications of series and parallel connections.

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 Figure 6.4.1 The fuel and temperature gauges (far right and far left, respectively) in this
1996 Volkswagen are voltmeters that register the voltage output of “sender” units. These
units are proportional to the amount of gasoline in the tank and to the engine temperature.
(credit: Christian Giersing)

Measuring Current with an Ammeter

To measure the current through a device or component, the ammeter is placed in
series with the device or component. A series connection is used because objects in series
have the same current passing through them. (See Figure 6.4.2, where the ammeter is
represented by the symbol A.)

Figure 6.4.2 (a) When an ammeter is used to measure the current through two resistors
connected in series to a battery, a single ammeter is placed in series with the two resistors
because the current is the same through the two resistors in series. (b) When two resistors
are connected in parallel with a battery, three meters, or three separate ammeter readings,
are necessary to measure the current from the battery and through each resistor. The
ammeter is connected in series with the component in question.

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 Ammeters need to have a very low resistance, a fraction of a milliohm. If the resistance
is not negligible, placing the ammeter in the circuit would change the equivalent resistance
of the circuit and modify the current that is being measured. Since the current in the circuit
travels through the meter, ammeters normally contain a fuse to protect the meter from
damage from currents which are too high.

Measuring Voltage with a Voltmeter

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with whatever device it is measuring. A parallel
connection is used because objects in parallel experience the same potential difference. (See
Figure 6.4.3, where the voltmeter is represented by the symbol V.)

Figure 6.4.3 To measure potential differences in this series circuit, the voltmeter (V)
is placed in parallel with the voltage source or either of the resistors. Note that terminal
voltage is measured between the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery or
voltage source. It is not possible to connect a voltmeter directly across the emf without
including the internal resistance r of the battery.

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Since voltmeters are connected in parallel, the voltmeter must have a very large resistance.
Digital voltmeters convert the analog voltage into a digital value to display on a digital readout
(Figure 6.4.4). Inexpensive voltmeters have resistances on the order of RM=10Ω, whereas
high-precision voltmeters have resistances on the order of RM=10Ω The value of the
resistance may vary, depending on which scale is used on the meter.

Figure 6.4.4 (a) An analog voltmeter uses a galvanometer to measure the voltage.
(b) Digital meters use an analog-to-digital converter to measure the voltage. (credit a and
credit b: Joseph J. Trout)

Analog and Digital Meters

You may encounter two types of meters in the physics lab: analog and digital. The
term ‘analog’ refers to signals or information represented by a continuously variable physical
quantity, such as voltage or current. An analog meter uses a galvanometer, which is
essentially a coil of wire with a small resistance, in a magnetic field, with a pointer attached
that points to a scale. Current flows through the coil, causing the coil to rotate. To use the
galvanometer as an ammeter, a small resistance is placed in parallel with the coil. For a
voltmeter, a large resistance is placed in series with the coil. A digital meter uses a component
called an analog-to-digital (A to D) converter and expresses the current or voltage as a series
of the digits 0 and 1, which are used to run a digital display. Most analog meters have been
replaced by digital meters.

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 Ohmmeters

An ohmmeter is an instrument used to measure the resistance of a component or

device. The operation of the ohmmeter is based on Ohm’s law. Traditional ohmmeters
contained an internal voltage source (such as a battery) that would be connected across the
component to be tested, producing a current through the component. A galvanometer was
then used to measure the current and the resistance was deduced using Ohm’s law. Modern
digital meters use a constant current source to pass current through the component, and the
voltage difference across the component is measured. In either case, the resistance is
measured using Ohm’s law (R=V/I), where the voltage is known and the current is measured,
or the current is known and the voltage is measured.

The component of interest should be isolated from the circuit; otherwise, you will be
measuring the equivalent resistance of the circuit. An ohmmeter should never be connected
to a “live” circuit, one with a voltage source connected to it and current running through it.
Doing so can damage the meter.

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If we were to connect a voltmeter directly to an ohmmeter, what would you expect to see
the ohmmeter register, for resistance between its test leads?

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Many electronic circuits use what is called a split or a dual power supply:

Determine what a digital voltmeter would indicate if connected between the following points:
• Red lead on Ä”, black lead on ground
• Red lead on “B”, black lead on ground
• Red lead on Ä”, black lead on “B”
• Red lead on “B”, black lead on Ä”
NOTE: in electronic systems, “ground” is often not associated with an actual earth-soil
contact. It usually only refers to a common point of reference somewhere in the circuit used
to take voltage measurements. This allows us to specify voltages at single points in the circuit,
with the implication that “ground” is the other point for the voltmeter to connect to.

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Your Answer….

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Determine how much voltage a voltmeter would indicate when connected between the
following points in this circuit:

• Between TB1-1 and TB1-3

• Between TB1-4 and TB2-4
• Between TB2-3 and TB2-1
• Between TB1-1 and TB2-1

Hint: it might help to draw a neat schematic diagram of this circuit first, with all
connection points labeled!

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Your Answer….

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LESSON 4

IN AID OF VISION

We only have to look as far as the nearest bathroom to find an example of an image
formed by a mirror. Images in flat mirrors are the same size as the object and are located
behind the mirror. Like lenses, mirrors can form a variety of images. For example, dental
mirrors may produce a magnified image, just as makeup mirrors do. Security mirrors in shops,
on the other hand, form images that are smaller than the object. We will use the law of
reflection to understand how mirrors form images, and we will find that mirror images are
analogous to those formed by lenses.
Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. Determine the focal length of a mirror or a lens:

b. Explain how different optical instruments work;
c. Solve problem on vision defects and optical instrument

Concept: Deepen Your Understanding

DC Voltmeters and Ammeters

Figure 25.40 helps illustrate how a flat mirror forms an image. Two rays are
shown emerging from the same point, striking the mirror, and being reflected into the
observer’s eye. The rays can diverge slightly, and both still get into the eye. If the rays are
extrapolated backward, they seem to originate from a common point behind the mirror,
locating the image. (The paths of the reflected rays into the eye are the same as if they had
come directly from that point behind the mirror.) Using the law of reflection—the angle of
reflection equals the angle of incidence—we can see that the image and object are the same
distance from the mirror. This is a virtual image, since it cannot be projected—the rays only
appear to originate from a common point behind the mirror. Obviously, if you walk behind the
mirror, you cannot see the image, since the rays do not go there. But in front of the mirror,
the rays behave exactly as if they had come from behind the mirror, so that is where the
image is situated.

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Figure 25.40 Two sets of rays from common points on an object are reflected by a flat mirror
into the eye of an observer. The reflected rays seem to originate from behind the mirror,
locating the virtual image.

Now let us consider the focal length of a mirror—for example, the concave spherical
mirrors in Figure 25.41. Rays of light that strike the surface follow the law of reflection. For a
mirror that is large compared with its radius of curvature, as in Figure 25.41(a), we see that
the reflected rays do not cross at the same point, and the mirror does not have a well-defined
focal point. If the mirror had the shape of a parabola, the rays would all cross at a single point,
and the mirror would have a well-defined focal point. But parabolic mirrors are much more
expensive to make than spherical mirrors. The solution is to use a mirror that is small
compared with its radius of curvature, as shown in Figure 25.41(b). (This is the mirror
equivalent of the thin lens approximation.) To a very good approximation, this mirror has a
well-defined focal point at F that is the focal distance f from the center of the mirror. The focal
length f of a concave mirror is positive, since it is a converging mirror.

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 Figure 25.41 (a) Parallel rays reflected from a large spherical mirror do not all cross at
a common point. (b) If a spherical mirror is small compared with its radius of curvature,
parallel rays are focused to a common point. The distance of the focal point from the center
of the mirror is its focal length f. Since this mirror is converging, it has a positive focal length.

Just as for lenses, the shorter the focal length, the more powerful the mirror; thus,
P=1/f for a mirror, too. A more strongly curved mirror has a shorter focal length and a greater
power. Using the law of reflection and some simple trigonometry, it can be shown that the
focal length is half the radius of curvature, or

where R is the radius of curvature of a spherical mirror. The smaller the radius of
curvature, the smaller the focal length and, thus, the more powerful the mirror.

The convex mirror shown in Figure 25.42 also has a focal point. Parallel rays of light
reflected from the mirror seem to originate from the point F at the focal distance f behind the
mirror. The focal length and power of a convex mirror are negative, since it is a diverging
mirror.

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 Figure 25.42 Parallel rays of light reflected from a convex spherical mirror (small in size
compared with its radius of curvature) seem to originate from a well-defined focal point at
the focal distance f behind the mirror. Convex mirrors diverge light rays and, thus, have a
negative focal length.

Ray tracing is as useful for mirrors as for lenses. The rules for ray tracing for mirrors are
based on the illustrations just discussed:

1. A ray approaching a concave converging mirror parallel to its axis is reflected through
the focal point F of the mirror on the same side. (See rays 1 and 3 in Figure 25.41(b).)
2. A ray approaching a convex diverging mirror parallel to its axis is reflected so that it
seems to come from the focal point F behind the mirror. (See rays 1 and 3 in Figure
25.42.)
3. Any ray striking the center of a mirror is followed by applying the law of reflection; it
makes the same angle with the axis when leaving as when approaching. (See ray 2 in
Figure 25.43.)
4. A ray approaching a concave converging mirror through its focal point is reflected
parallel to its axis. (The reverse of rays 1 and 3 in Figure 25.41.)
5. A ray approaching a convex diverging mirror by heading toward its focal point on the
opposite side is reflected parallel to the axis. (The reverse of rays 1 and 3 in Figure
25.42.)

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 We will use ray tracing to illustrate how images are formed by mirrors, and we can use
ray tracing quantitatively to obtain numerical information. But since we assume each mirror
is small compared with its radius of curvature, we can use the thin lens equations for mirrors
just as we did for lenses.

Consider the situation shown in Figure 25.43, concave spherical mirror reflection, in which
an object is placed farther from a concave (converging) mirror than its focal length. That is, f
is positive and do > f, so that we may expect an image similar to the case 1 real image formed
by a converging lens. Ray tracing in Figure 25.43 shows that the rays from a common point
on the object all cross at a point on the same side of the mirror as the object. Thus, a real
image can be projected onto a screen placed at this location. The image distance is positive,
and the image is inverted, so its magnification is negative. This is a case 1 image for mirrors.
It differs from the case 1 image for lenses only in that the image is on the same side of the
mirror as the object. It is otherwise identical.

Figure 25.43 A case 1 image for a mirror. An object is farther from the converging
mirror than its focal length. Rays from a common point on the object are traced using the
rules in the text. Ray 1 approaches parallel to the axis, ray 2 strikes the center of the mirror,
and ray 3 goes through the focal point on the way toward the mirror. All three rays cross at
the same point after being reflected, locating the inverted real image. Although three rays are
shown, only two of the three are needed to locate the image and determine its height.

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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 131
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 GENERAL PHYSICS 2 | Page 132
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________________________________________________________________________

Solar Electric Generating System

One of the solar technologies used today for generating electricity is a device
(called a parabolic trough or concentrating collector) that concentrates the sunlight onto a
blackened pipe that contains a fluid. This heated fluid is pumped to a heat exchanger, where
its heat energy is transferred to another system that is used to generate steam—and so
generate electricity through a conventional steam cycle. Figure 25.44 shows such a working
system in southern California. Concave mirrors are used to concentrate the sunlight onto the
pipe. The mirror has the approximate shape of a section of a cylinder. For the problem,
assume that the mirror is exactly one-quarter of a full cylinder.

If we wish to place the fluid-carrying pipe 40.0 cm from the concave mirror at
the mirror’s focal point, what will be the radius of curvature of the mirror?

Per meter of pipe, what will be the amount of sunlight concentrated onto the
pipe, assuming the insolation (incident solar radiation) is 0.900 kW/m2?

If the fluid-carrying pipe has a 2.00-cm diameter, what will be the temperature
increase of the fluid per meter of pipe over a period of one minute? Assume all the solar
radiation incident on the reflector is absorbed by the pipe, and that the fluid is mineral oil.

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 Figure 25.44 Parabolic trough collectors are used to generate electricity in
southern California. (credit: kjkolb, Wikimedia Commons)

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Your Solutions…….

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Your Solutions…….

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Image in a Convex Mirror

A keratometer is a device used to measure the curvature of the cornea,
particularly for fitting contact lenses. Light is reflected from the cornea, which acts like a
convex mirror, and the keratometer measures the magnification of the image. The smaller
the magnification, the smaller the radius of curvature of the cornea. If the light source is 12.0
cm from the cornea and the image’s magnification is 0.0320, what is the cornea’s radius of
curvature?

If we can find the focal length of the convex mirror formed by the cornea,
we can find its radius of curvature (the radius of curvature is twice the focal length of a
spherical mirror). We are given that the object distance is do=12.0 cm and that m=0.0320.
We first solve for the image distance di, and then for f.

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Your Solutions…….

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Your Solutions…….

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________________________________________________________________________
REFLECTION

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