Flight Mechanics II

Tutorial 1
March 5, 2026

Numerical problem
1. A Boeing 737-800 is cruising at a steady-state equilibrium speed. For large transport aircraft, the pitching
moment is sensitive to changes in forward speed due to compressibility effects and engine placement.
A flight test provides the following longitudinal stability data for the aircraft in its current cruise config-
uration:

• Steady Cruise Speed (U0 ): 230 m/s

3
• Air Density (ρ): 0.45 kg/m
• Reference Wing Area (S): 125 m2
• Mean Geometric Chord (c̄): 4.0 m
• Speed Damping Derivative (Cmu ): −0.04

Solution
Physical Meaning of Cmu
The stability derivative Cmu represents the change in pitching moment coefficient due to a change in
forward speed (non-dimensionalized as u/U0 ). A negative value indicates that an increase in forward speed
produces a nose-down pitching moment. This contributes to speed stability by opposing the disturbance.
Non-Dimensional Speed Perturbation
Assume a small gust increases the forward speed by

u = 5 m/s

The non-dimensional speed perturbation is:

u
û =
U0

5
û =
230

û = 0.02174

Change in Pitching Moment

 
1 2
∆M = Cmu ρU Sc̄ û
2 0

1 2
q= ρU
2 0

1
q= (0.45)(230)2
2

q = 0.225 × 52900

1
 2
q = 11902.5 N/m

qSc̄ = (11902.5)(125)(4.0)

qSc̄ = 5.95125 × 106 N m

∆M = (−0.04)(5.95125 × 106 )(0.02174)

∆M = −5.17 × 103 N m

2. A tailless aircraft of 9072 kg mass has a delta wing with aspect ratio 1 and area 37m2 . Show that the
aerodynamic mean chord
R b/2 2
c dy
c̄¯ = R0b/2 (1)
0
cdy

of a delta wing is two-thirds of its root chord and that for this wing it is 8.11 m.

Solution
b b
y=− c+
2cr 2
This the equation obtained using y = mx + c for the delta wing. Please draw the wing and derive the
formula. Once you get the formula, you can substitute this into equation for MAC given in the question
and evaluate. Please refer Fig. 1 and see if you are able to derive.

Figure 1: M.A.C calculation

3. If the standard right handed aircraft axis set is rotated through pitch θ and yaw ψ angles only, show
Systems of Axes and Notation that the initial vector quantity (x0, y0, z0) is related to the transformed
vector quantity (x, y, z) as follows:
    
x cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ x0
y  =  − sin ψ cos ψ 0   y0 
z sin θ cos ψ sin θ sin ψ cos θ z0

Solution
You can also get the answers in 3.3 ORIENTATION AND POSITION OF THE AIRPLANE
in Aircraft Stability and control book by Nelson
To relate the initial vector (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the transformed vector (x, y, z) through yaw (ψ) and pitch (θ),
we apply two successive rotation matrices.

2
 1. Rotation through Yaw (ψ)
The first rotation is about the initial z-axis. This transforms the initial coordinates into an intermediate
set (x1 , y1 , z1 ):     
x1 cos ψ sin ψ 0 x0
 y1  = − sin ψ cos ψ 0  y0  (2)
z1 0 0 1 z0

2. Rotation through Pitch (θ)

The second rotation is about the new y-axis. This transforms the intermediate coordinates into the final
aircraft body axes (x, y, z):     
x cos θ 0 − sin θ x1
y  =  0 1 0   y1  (3)
z sin θ 0 cos θ z1

3. Combined Transformation
By substituting the first rotation into the second, we obtain the product of the two matrices:
     
x cos θ 0 − sin θ cos ψ sin ψ 0 x0
y  =  0 1 0  − sin ψ cos ψ 0  y0  (4)
z sin θ 0 cos θ 0 0 1 z0

Multiplying the matrices yields the final relationship:

    
x cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ x0
y  =  − sin ψ cos ψ 0   y0  (5)
z sin θ cos ψ sin θ sin ψ cos θ z0

4. Find the angular velocities transformation for the following case: Consider the situation when an
aircraft is flying in a steady level coordinated turn at a speed of 250 m/s at a bank angle of 60◦ . It is
required to calculate the turn rate ψ , the yaw rate r and the pitch rate q. The forces acting on the
aircraft are shown in Fig 2. By resolving the forces acting on the aircraft vertically and horizontally- you
get equation for R as shown in figure.

Figure 2: Aircraft in roll- problem 3

Solution
The time to complete one turn is given by
2πR 2πV0
t= = (2.25)
V0 g tan ϕ

3
 therefore the rate of turn is given by
2π g tan ϕ
ψ̇ = = (2.26)
t V0
Thus, ψ̇ = 0.068 rad/s. For the conditions applying to the turn, ϕ̇ = θ̇ = θ = 0 and thus equation (2.21)
may now be used to find the values of r and q:
    
p 1 0 0 0
q  = 0 cos 60◦ sin 60◦   0 
r 0 − sin 60◦ cos 60◦ ψ̇

Therefore, p = 0, q = 0.059 rad/s and r = 0.034 rad/s. Note that p, q and r are the angular velocities
that would be measured by rate gyros fixed in the aircraft with their sensitive axes aligned with the ox,
oy and oz aircraft axes respectively.
5. Starting with the Y force equation, use the small-disturbance theory to determine the linearized force
equation. Assume a steady-level flight for the reference flight conditions.

Solution
Governing equation in Y-direction
X
Fy = m(v̇ + ru − pw) (6)

Small Disturbance Assumption

u = u0 + ∆u v = v0 + ∆v w = w0 + ∆w
p = p0 + ∆p r = r0 + ∆r

For steady level flight:

• v0 = w0 = p0 = q0 = r0 = 0
• u̇0 = v̇0 = ẇ0 = 0
• u = u0 + ∆u

 
d
Fy0 + ∆Fy = m (v0 + ∆v) + (r0 + ∆r)(u0 + ∆u) − (p0 + ∆p)(w0 + ∆w) (7)
dt
Expand the terms and linearize. Use gravitational and thrust force for Fy
6. A twin-engine commercial transport aircraft is flying in steady, level cruise at a trim condition. The
following data are given:
• Trim speed: U0 = 230 m/s
3
• Air density: ρ = 0.38 kg/m
• Wing reference area: S = 124 m2
• Mean aerodynamic chord: c = 4.0 m

Cmα = −0.65 (per rad)

Cmq = −18.0
CXu = −0.045

(a) Compute the dimensional pitching-moment derivative Mα .

(b) Compute the dimensional pitch-rate damping derivative Mq .
(c) If the aircraft experiences a pitch rate q = 0.08 rad/s, compute the pitching moment generated due
to pitch damping and comment on its effect on stability.
(d) If the forward speed increases by u = 5 m/s, compute the incremental axial force due to Xu and
comment on speed stability.

4
Solution
NOTE:

(a) Mα < 0 ⇒ statically stable.

(b) Mq < 0 ⇒ dynamically stable.
(c) Xu < 0 ⇒ Speed damping.

1 2
Q= ρU
2 0

1
Q= (0.38)(230)2
2

Q = 0.19 × 52900

2
Q = 10051 N/m

Mα = QSc Cmα

Mα = (10051)(124)(4.0)(−0.65)

Mα = −3.24 × 106 N m/rad

Mα = −3.24 × 106 N m/rad

Negative sign indicates static longitudinal stability.

 
c
Mq = QSc Cmq
2U0
 
4.0
Mq = (10051)(124)(4.0) (−18.0)
2 × 230

c 4
= = 0.008696
2U0 460

Mq = −3.12 × 106 N m s/rad

Mq = −3.12 × 106 N m s/rad

Negative value indicates pitch damping.

∆M = Mq q

∆M = (−3.12 × 106 )(0.08)

∆M = −2.50 × 105 N m

The negative moment opposes the pitch rate, providing dynamic stability (damping).

5
Incremental Axial Force Due to Speed Increase
First compute dimensional derivative:

QS
Xu = CXu
U0

(10051)(124)
Xu = (−0.045)
230

Xu = −244 N/(m/s)

Incremental force:

∆X = Xu u

∆X = (−244)(5)

∆X = −1220 N

Negative sign indicates that the force opposes the speed increase, which confirms positive speed stability.