Mr.

Ogren

AP. Review Study Guide for Science, Matter and Energy, and Matter Cycles

 Review suggestions: Start with reading notes and notes from class, only go to the
book when issues are not clear in the notes or were you scored poorly on past test
subjects.

 1. Environmental Problems and Scientific Principles

Major Objectives

1. Define Earth Capital, solar capital, carrying capacity, and sustainable societies

2. Distinguish exponential growth from linear growth

3. Describe tragedy of the commons

4. Distinguish between point and non-point pollution sources

5. Distinguish between pollution prevention and pollution clean up and ways to

implement these strategies.

6. Describe a simple model among population, resource use, technology, and

environmental degradation

 2. Critical Thinking Science, Models, and Systems

Major Objectives

1. Understand basic concepts of science. Distinguish among hypothesis, theories, and

laws.

2. Distinguish between accuracy and precision

3. Define models and their types

4. Describe systems and their basic components including feedback loops, time delays,
leverage points, and synergy.

5. Describe chaos and the butterfly effect

6. Be able to distinguish independent variables and dependent variables and how to

make a controlled experiment

Note Review for section

 Positive Feedback Loops - Runaway cycle in which a change in a certain direction provides
information to be re-fed and makes further gains in the same direction.
- Can be good or bad. Ex: Population, money interest, Industrialization, Greenhouse effect,
Resource consumption
- Catastrophic collapse, accellerated destruction, undesirered effect of + feedback.
- All feedback loops are finite. Ex: Resource use on Easter Island.
 A negative feedback loop is a loop that slows or stops a positive feedback loop. Generally, one loop
dominates the other. Either - > + or + > -.
 Time delays occur between the input (stimulus) and the response. A long delay can sometimes mean
that the corrective action comes too late and catastrophic collapse occurs.
Ex: Generally a smoker doesn’t feel smoking effects for over 30 years (so he keeps on smoking),
but then is hit with multiple terminal diseases with no warning after 30 years, making it too late to
stop.

Because of negative feedback loops in a system, it is hard to change loops, even if the change is a good
one. However, there are variables in a system that when changed even in small degrees will yield large
improvements. These are called Leverage Points.
 Economics/Politics are systems too. Their leverage points often involve rewarding individuals to do
the right thing. Throughout the year, we will discuss ways in which we might be able to change the
system around us by either clean up method (lets take the loop of pollution).
Pollution prevention method which focuses on reduction of pollutants.
- Could lead to lower health care, insurance, and cleaning costs.
Some ways to accomplish those changes:
- Polluter pays: Taxing emissions, must raise prices and passed to consumer.
- Tax Payer/Consumer pays: Don’t pay on emissions but instead pay for costs in higher
medical bills, insurance, and poor health, but cheaper product cost.
Full Cost pricing - Adding in all environmental costs from production and use into the
retial price
- Consumers pay more, but overall costs the same with higher health.
- In order to work, tax payers must get some of their income tax back.
 Synergy
1+1 = 3 or more
A synergistic interaction is when two positive loops interact so that the combined effect is greater than
the sum of the separate halves.
 Chaos
The key is to identify harmful synergistic interactions and use leverage points to counteract them.
However, some elements of systems are random, from within the system itself. Said to be Chaos.
Butterfly Effect and Chaos: Another example of chaos in a system is the Butterfly
Effect. Possibility that everything interrelates and effects everything else, even the most
minute changes (Butterfly’s wings flapping for example).

Questions:

Multiple Choice:

1. Well tested and accepted patterns in data.

a. scientific theories b. scientific law
c. scientific hypothesis d. scientific data

2. A measure of reproducibility or how closely a series of measurements of the same

quantity agree with one another.
a. accuracy b. quality
c. precision d. logistics
3. Double-blind experiment:
a. used to test most new drugs b. a control group is given a placebo
c. neither patient nor doctors know the difference between the drug and the placebo
d. all of the above

4. scientists can do all of the following except:

a. disprove things b. establish a high degree of validity for something to be true
c. prove that their theories and laws are absolutely true d. none, all are true

5. environmental science does all of the following except:

a. helps understand how natural systems and human societies interact b. much of
the knowledge provided by environmental science falls under frontier science c.
integrates knowledge from a number of disciplines d. none, all are true

6. Systems contain all of the following components except:

a. inputs b. interactions c. flow/throughputs d. storage areas e. outputs

7. A feedback loop that is in a runaway cycle in which change in one direction provides
information that causes further change in the same direction.
a. negative feedback loopb. continuous feedback loop c. infinite feedback loop
d. positive feedback loop

8. Which of the following is not an example in which a prolonged time delay can
dampen negative feedback mechanisms that hinder environmental problems.
a. population growth b. leaks from toxic waste dumps
c. global warming and climate change from carbon dioxide and other chemicals
added to the atmosphere
d. degradation of forests from prolonged exposure to air pollutants
e. urban sprawl and creation of metropolis’s

9. Atoms are made of all of the following except:

a. protons b. neutrons c. plasma d. electrons

10. All of the following are examples of organic compounds except;

a. sugar b. vitamins c. plastics d. nitric acid e. aspirin

Fill in the Blank:

1. A condition of _________ exists when internal conditions remain constant despite

fluctuations in external conditions.
2. The __________ of a compound describes the number of different atoms contained in
that compound.
3. Freon-12 is an example of a __________ ; compounds that contain carbon, chlorine,
and fluorine atoms.
4. _______ are the various forms of an element having the same atomic number but a
different mass number.
5. The ______ of an organism is its complete set of genetic information.
6. Matter that is organized, concentrated, found near earth’s surface, and has great
potential for use is considered _________.
7. _______ is the measure of disorder or randomness of a system or its environment.
8. _______ uses radioactive Carbon-14 to age and date fossils, plants, wood, and bone
from dead plants and animals.
9. The process by which isotopes with large mass numbers are split into two smaller
nuclei is called ________.
10. Many advanced industrialized economies have __________ economies that
continually increase the flow of matter and energy into economic systems to sustain
growth and planetary sinks.

Short Answer:
What are the three types of radiation emitted from radioisotopes and describe the
characteristics.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. A map is an example of what kind of model?
a. mental
b. conceptual
c. graphic
d. physical
e. mathematical

2. A model airplane is an example of a(n) __ model.

a. mental
b. conceptual
c. graphic
d. physical
e. mathematical

3. Which of the following is NOT an example of a positive feedback loop?

a. humans maintaining homeostasis
b. resource consumption
c. greenhouse effect
d. industrialization
e. population boom

4. A mass number is determined by __.

a. number of protons
b. number of neutrons
c. the sum of protons and neutrons
d. the sum of protons and electrons
e. atomic mass
5. Organic compounds are primarily characterized by what element?
a. oxygen
b. carbon
c. nitrogen
d. sulfur
e. phosphorus

6. Which of the following is NOT an example of kinetic energy?

a. wind
b. flowing stream
c. electricity
d. falling rocks
e. stick of dynamite

7. A 1024g amount of Cobalt-60 becomes 16g in 31.62 years. What is its half-life?
a. 3.95
b. 4.52
c. 5.27
d. 6.32
e. none of the above

8. The first law of thermodynamics tells us that

a. we can never reuse high-quality energy to perform useful work
b. heat is lost as a form of low-quality energy in most reactions
c. in terms of energy quantity, we cannot get something out for nothing
d. life is maintained by creating a sea of disorder (high entropy) in the environment
e. energy usually goes from a less useful form to a more useful form

9. The general structure of a DNA nucleotide molecule consists of

a. phosphate, 5-carbon sugar, nucleotide base
b. phosphate, 5-carbon sugar, nucleotide base, ribose
c. phosphate, 5-carbon sugar, nucleotide base, enzymes
d. 5-carbon sugar, nucleotide base, chromosomes
e. 5-carbon sugar, nucleotide base, ribose

10. Which of the following is NOT an example of low quality matter?

a. solution of salt water
b. aluminum ore
c. coal-fired power plant emissions
d. gasoline
e. automobile emissions

FILL IN THE BLANK

1. In reference to scientific measurements, _____ is the measure of how close one's data
is from an accepted or correct value, and _____ is the measure of how close one's data is
to one another in a collection of data.
2. An idea, principle, or model that usually ties together and explains many facts that
previously appeared to be unrelated and that is supported by a great deal of evidence is
called a(n) _____.

3. The rate of flow of matter, energy, or information through a system is called _____.

4. A chronic smoker who gets lung cancer after 20-30 years of exposure to carcinogens
is an example of _____, a deferral of noticeable effects in a complex system.

5. In nature, when "1+1 is greater than 2," it is because of a _____.

6. Different forms of the same element that have the same atomic number, but a different
mass number are called _____.

7. _____ states that we can change the physical and chemical forms of elements and
compounds, but we cannot create or destroy any of the atoms involved during such
reactions?

8. Multiple fissions within a critical mass form a(n) _____.

9. _____ states that when energy is changed from one form to another, some of the
useful energy is always degraded to lower-quality, more-dispersed, less useful energy.

10. The measure of randomness or disorder in a system is called _____.

SHORT ANSWER
Using the concepts of complex systems, input, output, throughput, negative and positive
feedback loops, and high and low quality energy, explain how a society can be a low-
waste or earth-wisdom society - a society that addresses environmental and resource
problems.

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following is not an example of a positive feedback loop?

a. Depositing money into a bank account with compound interest.
b. Global warming of glaciers, which leads to faster warming of the ocean’s
surface.
c. The body’s attempt to maintain homeostasis.

2. Unforeseen environmental surprises can often be a result of all of the following

except:
a. Abrupt shifts across the environmental threshold.
b. Synergistic interactions
c. Natural chaotic events, such as hurricanes or earthquakes.
d. Reduced population growth.
 3. Which of the following is not a subatomic particle?
a. Neutron
b. Ion
c. Proton
d. Electron
4. Isotopes are various forms of an element in which:
a. The mass numbers are equal but the atomic numbers are not.
b. The atomic numbers are equal but the mass numbers are not.
c. Both the mass numbers and atomic numbers are equal.
d. Neither the mass numbers nor the atomic numbers are present.
5. Which of the following is a characteristic of high-quality matter?
a. Disorganized
b. Has little potential for use as a matter resource
c. Usually found near the earth’s surface
d. Dilute
6. Degradable pollutants are pollutants that:
a. Have been completely broken down by natural, physical, chemical, and
biological processes.
b. Cannot be broken down by natural processes.
c. Can be broken down, but take decades longer to do so through natural
processes.
d. Are broken down into simpler chemicals by living organisms, such as
bacteria.
7. The most common form of ionizing radiation is ________ radiation:
a. Alpha
b. Beta
c. Gamma
d. Nuclear
8. The second law of energy states that:
a. Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
b. Energy input always equals energy output.
c. When energy changes forms, some of the energy is degraded to low-
quality energy.
d. Energy always moves from a more useful to a less useful form.
9. A scientific theory is an idea, principle, or model that:
a. Is supported by a good deal of evidence.
b. Describes natural occurrences in the same way, with no known exception.
c. Is an approximate representation of a system.
d. Is a possible explanation for what is observed in nature.
10. A control group is a group used in an experiment in which:
a. The chosen variable has not been changed.
b. The chosen variable is changed in a known way.
c. Multiple variables are changed and observed.
d. The experimenter does not know who is in this group.

Fill in the Blank

 1. _______ reasoning involves using logic to arrive at a conclusion based on a
generalization.
2. A ________________ describes how one change leads to a lessening of another
change, often causing a system to stabilize.
3. The two chemical forms of matter are ___________ and ___________.
4. A(n) _______________ contains carbon atoms combined with atoms of other
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine.
5. _____ quality matter is often organized, concentrated, and has a good potential for
use as a matter resource.
6. The time needed for one-half of the nucleus in a radioisotope to decay is known
as a _________.
7. The _________________________ states that in all changes, energy is neither
created nor destroyed, but can be converted into other forms.
8. How well a measurement agrees with the accepted value for a quantity is known
as __________.
9. A _________________ is a way in which a scientist gathers data and formulates
and tests hypotheses.
10. The _______________ is known as the amount of substance in a unit of air or
water.

Short Answer:

List and describe the two laws of thermodynamics. Give examples and applications for
both laws.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is matter?
A. Anything that has mass and takes up space
B. Solids, liquids and gases
C. Has 2 chemical forms
D. Can be neither created nor destroyed
E. All of the above

2. What is the difference between accuracy and precision?

A. Accuracy is how well a measurement agrees with the accepted or correct
value for that quantity, whereas precision is a measure of reproducibility,
or how closely a series of measurements of the same quantity agree with
one another.
B. Accuracy is a measure of reproducibility, or how closely a series of
measurements of the same quantity agree with one another, whereas
precision is how well a measurement agrees with the accepted or correct
value for that quantity.
C. There is no difference between accuracy and precision.
D. None of the above
3. Which of the following does not belong as a key component of most systems?
A. Inputs
B. Flows
C. Storage area
D. Outputs
E. None of the above

4. All of the following are examples of high quality material except:

A. Coal
B. Gasoline
C. Salt
D. Aluminum ore

5. A leaf falling from a tree is an example of:

A. Potential energy
B. Kinetic energy
C. Electromagnetic radiation
D. Heat energy

6. Which of the following are examples of high-quality energy?

A. Wind
B. Electricity
C. Electromagnetic radiation
D. Both A and B
E. None of the above

7. What are the three types of pollutants?

A. Degradable, biodegradable, extremely degradable
B. Persistent, degradable, biodegradable
C. Nonpersistent, slowly degradable, nondegradable
D. None of the above

8. Which of the following is true about recycling matter resources?

A. It always requires expenditure of high quality energy and adds waste heat
to the environment
B. The expenditure of high-quality energy that occurs can be recycled
C. It does not add entropy to the environment
D. This is a false question

9. Atoms contain:
A. Protons, neutrons, electrons, nucleus
B. Electrons, protons, photons, nucleolus
C. Molecules, ions
D. Electrons, protons, ions

10. Which of the following is not an inorganic compound?

 A. NaCl
B. H20
C. CH4
D. NO2

Completion Questions:

1. What is the law of conservation of energy?

2. What is the difference between a positive and negative feedback loop?

3. What is entropy and what is an important concept to remember about it?

4. Most advanced industrialized countries have high throughput economies that

attempt to ____________.

5. A high-throughput economy is also known as a __________.

6. What is frontier science?

7. One of the basic principles of environmental science is ___________.

8. There are _____ known elements, ____ of which occur naturally, and _____ of
which are artificially created.

9. The smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element is the

_________.

10. Each element has its own specific mass number, which is _______________.

Short Answer:

What are the two “ironclad laws of energy”, and how can their concepts be applied to
environmental problems we are facing?

 3. Matter and Energy Resources: Types and Concepts

Major Objectives

1. Define matter including atoms, ions, molecules, isotopes, protons, neutrons, elections,
atomic masses, and atomic numbers.

2. Define Chemical formulas, products and reactants, as well as chemical bonds

3. Distinguish high-quality matter and low-quality matter and relate it to entropy and the
second law of thermodynamics
4. Describe the law of conservation of matter

5. Describe the law of conservation of matter and energy and how it relates to nuclear
changes

6. Define energy types

7. Summarize the first and second laws of energy

Note Review for section

 Nuclear Changes - Beyond physical and chemical changes, nuclear changes occur when isotopes
spontaneously change or are made to change into one or more different isotopes. Nuclear changes do
not follow the law of conservation of matter, but the law of conservation of matter and energy, in
which the total amount of matter and energy involved remains the same.
 Natural Radiation Decay
- Natural radioactive decay involves unstable isotopes emitting particles or higher-energy radiation
until they become a new stable isotope.
 Natural Decay
Gamma rays - most common form of high energy radiation.
- Form of high energy radioactive radiation.
Most common form of released particles are alpha and beta particles.
- Alpha particle: 2 Protons, 2 Neutrons
- Beta particle: 1 Electron.
 Radioisotopes decay at a rate called half-life; time in which it takes ½ of a substance to break down. ½
life times change depending on the radioactive element.
½ lives unaffected by anything.
- Used to know how long a radioactive substance must be stored; usually about 10 ½ lives
- Used in radioactive dating.
- Used as tracers in nuclear medicine.
- Used to sterilize insects.
- Used to kill microorganisms in food.
- Raises shelf life of food, more environmentally safe than pesticides.
 Fission - Nuclear Reaction
Fission: Nuclear change in which nuclei with large mass numbers are split apart into lighter
nuclei when struck by neutrons. Each fission reaction releases 2-3 more neutrons and energy, so
the cycle can continue.
 Enough fissionable material must be prsesent to provide targets for released neutrons (This is
called critical mass)
 Multiple fissions within a critical mass form a chain reaction (Positive feedback loop..eh?)
In an atomic bomb, an enormous amount of energy is released in an uncontrolled chain reaction.
 Fusion - Nuclear reactions
 Fusion - Nuclear change in which two isotopes of light elements are forced together at extremely
high temperatures to form a heavier nucleus and releasing energy. Ex: Sun
 Hydrogen Bomb - Uses fission to blow up stuff.
 Laws of Thermodynamics
1) In all physical/chemical changes, energy is not created or destroyed, but can be
controlled.
2) When energy is changed from one form to another, some of the useful energy is degraded to
lower quality energy. (Ex: Light -> heat in a light bulb).
 Heat flows spontaneously from hot (high quality energy) to cold (low quality energy).
 We as humans take in high energy products in our bodies, break them down, and give
off lower quality waste/heat back into the atmosphere.
  4. Ecological Principles

Major objectives

1. Define ecology and distinguish among the levels of organization. Example,

Ecosytem, population, species, ect…

2. Distinguish among lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and ecosphere and how the
sun, gravity, and nutrient cycles sustain life on Earth

3. Understand the concepts of a closed system as well as the major nutrient cycles

4. Summarize the law of tolerance and the different zones of tolerance

5. Define the biotic components of an ecosystem. Examples: producers, consumers,

detritus feeders, ect…

6. Describe food chains, food webs, and pyramids of energy, biomass, and numbers

7. Evaluate ecosystems with high net primary productivity versus ones with low NPP

Note Review for section

 Energy Flow and Matter Cycles

 Energy in an ecosystem controls the size of the ecosystem’s population.
 All organisms are potential sources of food
 The sequence of organisms, each a source of food to the next, is called the food chain.
 Food Webs
- Real ecosystems are complex, a food web.
- In most ecosystems energy and nutrients move one way through the food cycle.
 How can we represent the Energy flow and storage of biomass?
Detrital Food-webs - Starts with organisms being eaten by microorganisms.

In a detrital food web, organic waste material or detritus is the major food
source and energy flow from producers to decomposers and detrivores.
 Each trophic level in a food chain or web contanis a certain amount of biomass; the
combined dry weight of all organic matter. Water is not a source of energy or nutritional
value.
 Each trophic level energy stored as biomass is transferred to the next level. However,
some usuable energy is lost as low-quality heat and some energy is not absorbed and is
expelled as fecal waste.
 Thus, only a small portion of what is eaten/digested is actually available to each
successive trophic level. The percentage of usable energy transferred as biomass from
one level to the next varies from 5 - 20% depending on the types of species and the
ecosystem.
A pyramid of energy frlow illustrates the flow of energy loss in 1 food chain. Energy
pyramids are always in a triangular shape. This loss of energy also shows why food
webs/chains rarely exceed 4 or 5 trophic levels because too little energy is left to support
animals.
  Also explains why top-trophic level animals (ex: hawk, tiger) are the first to suffer when
an ecosystem is depleted.
 A pyramid of biomass represents the storage of biomass in an energy pyramid. Does not
have to be in a regular traingular (The regular triangle: /\ ) shape. A numbers pyramid on
the other hand represents the number of organisms at each trophic level. Also does not
have to be in a regular triangular shape.
How rapidly do ecosystems produce biomass?
- GPP: The rate at which ecosystems’ producers convert solar energy into chemical
energy as biomass is gross primary productivity.
- High GPP: rain forests, shallow waters.
- NPP: To stay alive/reproduce, producers must use some of total biomass. Only what is
called net primary productivity is available as food. Measured in kilocalories.
 Earth’s total Primary Productivity is the upper limit of Earth’s species carrying capacity.
-- Agriculture is a highly modified ecosystem in which we try to increase the net primary
productivity and biomass of selected crop plants by adding water, nutrients.
-- Often nitrates and phosphorous as phosphates are added, but despite these inputs, the
primary productivity is not as high as some other ecosystems (Ex: Rainforests)
 Carbon Cycle
- Carbon is essential to life; building block of all organic molecules.
- Carbon cycle is based on gaseous carbon dioxide gas which makes .036% of troposphere and is
also dissolved in water.
- Carbon dioxide is the key to trapping heat; too much on Earth - Very Hot, too little - very cold.
Producers remove CO2 from atmosphere to produce glucose and though the concentration is low
in the atmosphere, the turn-over rate is high due to the high demand in photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis equation:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O ---> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
 Respiration Equation
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy.
- Aerobic respiration breaks down glucose and other organic compounds and converts carbon back
to CO2. Very strong bond between Respiration and Photosynthesis.
- Carbon stored as biomass circulates slower but is eventually returned by decomposition or fire.
- Some carbon deposits in bogs accumulate faster then they can decompose and eventually under
pressure form fossil fuels. Carbon is not released until it is burned or uplifted and exposed to
weathering.
- In a short period of time, Humans have used fossil fuels that took millions of years to form.
Largest store of carbon is in sedimentary rocks such as limestone, CaCO3, on ocean floor
sediments, and continents.
- This carbon recycles slowly by weathering and uplifting of the ocean to release again as CO2.
Oceans are 2nd largest reserve because CO2 reacts with the H2O to form a buffer containing
carbonate/bicarbonate ions.
H2O + CO2 ---> H2CO3 ---> H*CO3 + H2 -----> CO**3 + 2H+ * = -1 Charge, + =
+1
Bicarbonate Carbonic Acid
As H2O warms, CO2 is released and returns to the atmosphere.
- Organisms in the ocean incorperate Carbon by a biological process which takes H2CO**3 ions
and reacts with Calcium to form CaCO**3 (Calcium Carbonate) to build shells.
- Sometimes converted to limestone under pressure.
 Since 1800s world population has grown, Humans adding more CO2 to the atmosphere that in
turn could effectively change the climate, possibly disrupting food chains.
 Phosphorous Cycle
- Phosphorous, in the form of phosphate ions PO4 *** and HPO4 ** is essential for
photosynthesis, especially in the construction of DNA and molecules that store energy (ATP);
Also used in fats in cell membranes and in teeth, shells.
- Phosphate circulates through water/land; very little carried by dust particles. Phosphates move
from land/shallow ocean sediments to organisms and then back to the ocean.
- In humans, Phosphorous goes from Humans ---> oceans.
 - Phosphorous is released as weathering of terrestrial phosphate rocks. Dissolved and taken up by
plant roots. Phosphorous is usually limiting reagent in growth of plants since soil has little
Phosphorous. Same in oceans.
- Cycle passes faster through food chain than through geological formations.
Soil ---> plants ---> Animals (die eventually) --> ocean --> soil or ---> soil.
 Once in the ocean, Phosphorous will remain there for millions of years.
Man has increased the flow to oceans by
1. Mining large quantities for fertilizer/detergent.
2. Cutting down forest areas, where most of the phosphorus is contained in the
vegetation
- More CO2/Erosion phosphorous washed away
3. Livestock wastes, commercial fertilizer, sewage that induces algae blooms of
cyanobacteria (blue algae) which also depletes O2 in H20.
 Sulfur Cycle
- Tied up in underground rock such as Iron Disulfide or Pyrite which includes sulfate salts buried
deep in the ocean.
- Also enters atmosphere from natural sources such as Hydrogen Sulfides, a colorless poisonous
gas released from volcanoes/breakdown of organic matter in swamps from anaerobic
decomposers.
Note: Anaerobic Respiration - W/out oxygen.
- Sulfur dioxide also enters atmosphere from sea spray, volcanoes Suffocating gas.
- In the atmosphere, SO2 reacts with water to produce H2SO4 ** forming acid deposition. Some
Acid Rain is caused by emitting DMV produced by plants. 1/3 of sulfur reaches the atmosphere
from burning sulfur, refining petroleum, and smelting sulfur compounds into free
metals such as copper, lead, zinc.

 Water Cycle
- W/out water the nutrient cycles as well as life stops existing. Water cycle collects, purifies and
distributes the Earth’s fixed supply of water.
- Water cycle powered by energy from sun’s gravity. Solar energy evaporates water 84% from
oceans which covers 71% of the Earth’s surface.
- Amount of water vapor the air can hold is dependent on its temp; hot > cold.
- Absolute humidity is the amount of H2O vapor found in a certain mass of air. Expressed in
grams of water per kilogram of air.
- Relative humidity is the measure of the amount of H2O in a certain air mass compared to the
max amount it could hold at that temp. Humidity is temp. dependent.
 Nitrogen Cycle
Assimilation - Nitrogen enters the food web when it is taken up by plants
Ammonification - (dissimilation of N). Is carried out by all organisms
Nitrification - oxidation of ammonia.
Denitrification - reduction of nitrate to nitric oxide (NO), which escapes as a gas
Nitrogen Fixation - process which lets organisms use Nitrogen

Practice questions (some relate to the chapter before as well with energy flow)

Chapter 4- Ecosystems: Components, Energy Flow, and Matter Cycling

1. What type of organism has cells with membranes, distinct nuclei, and organelles?
a. eukaryotic
b. prokaryotic
c. a and b
d. none of the above
2. Which characteristic of a population does not change as a result of changes in
environment conditions?
a. size
b. age distribution
c. location
d. density

3. Which is the layer of the atmosphere that is closest to the earth?

a. trophosphere
b. hydrosphere
c. stratosphere
d. lithosphere

4. Which is not one of the interconnected factors upon which life on earth depends?
a. the one-way flow of high-quality (low-entropy) energy
b. the cycling of matter
c. gravity
d. air pressure

5. What is the main element in the sun?

a. helium
b. hydrogen
c. carbon
d. oxygen

6. Which is an example of a biotic component of the environment?

a. air
b. water
c. bacteria
d. nutrients

7. Which type of organism would eat parts of dead organisms and cast-off fragments and
wastes of living organisms?
a. decomposers
b. detritus feeders
c. scavengers
d. detritivores

8. What is the typical ecological efficiency?

a. 10%
b. 15%
c. 5%
d. 20%
9. Excluding uninhabitable areas of rock, ice, desert, and steep mountain terrain, about
how much of the earth’s land surface have humans taken over, disturbed, or degraded?
a. 30%
b. 59%
c. 73%
d. 84%

10. What is the largest storage reservoir for the earth’s carbon?
a. plant matter
b. sedimentary rocks
c. animal tissue
d. the oceans

11. Relative humidity is

____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________.

12. In nitrification,
__________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________.

13. In denitrification,
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________.

14. The phosphorous cycle is a __________________ cycle.

15. ______________________ produced in large amounts by marine algae in the sulfur

cycle, can affect cloud cover.

16. ____________________________ is another name for field research (research

involving going into nature and observing and measuring the structure of ecosystems and
what happens in them).

17. The two basic principles of ecosystem sustainability are

___________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.
18. The law of _____________ states that the existence, abundance, and distribution of a
species in an ecosystem are determined by whether the levels of one or more physical or
chemical factors fall within the range tolerated by that species.

19. The ___________________ principle states that too much or too little of any abiotic
factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near
the optimum range of tolerance.

20. Functional diversity

is_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____.

21. Over the past one hundred years, how have humans intervened in the atmospheric
phase of the sulfur cycle?

Chapter 4 Questions

Fill in the blank

1. The study of how organisms interact with one another and their nonliving
environment is:
2. Name the different layers or spheres of the earth:
3. Cellular respiration which uses oxygen is:
4. A complete network of interconnected food chains is called a:
5. In a pyramid of energy flow, about how much energy is transferred from one
trophic level to another?
6. Most energy is degraded, while being transferred from one trophic level to
another, into what?
7. What is the net primary productivity (NPP)?
8. What is an ecotone?
9. What are the five level of organization in ecology?
10. What type of organisms feed on parts of dead organisms and cast-off fragments
and wastes of living organisms (aka detritus)?

Multiple Choice
1. A cell that has a distinct nucleus and organelles is called:
A. prokaryotic
B. species
C. eukaryotic
D. heterotroph
2. The layer of earth in which biotic organisms exist and interact with one another and
their abiotic environment is:
A. biosphere
B. troposphere
C. lithosphere
D. stratosphere
3. Biomes are characterized by:
 A. climate
B. specific life forms
C. ecotone
D. climate and specific life forms (A and B)
4. A consumer that feeds on dead organisms is:
A. herbivore
B. scavenger
C. omnivore
D. decomposer
5. Which of the following included all the others?
A. species diversity
B. genetic diversity
C. biological diversity
D. ecological diversity
6. The stages: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
percolation and runoff, are part of what cycle?
A. water cycle
B. nitrogen cycle
C. phosphorus cycle
D. carbon cycle
7. Which of the following are gaseous cycles (as in, the cycle is based on a gas)?
A. water and carbon cycles
B. water and nitrogen cycles
C. carbon and sulfur cycles
D. phosphorus and nitrogen cycle
8. Ammonification is part of what cycle?
A. water cycle
B. nitrogen cycle
C. phosphorus cycle
D. carbon cycle
9. The amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given volume of water at a particular
temperature and pressure is:
A. salinity
B. metabolism
C. dissolved oxygen content
D. ecological efficiency
10. The complete set of chemical reactions that captures and transforms matter and
energy from their environment to supply their needs in a cell or organism is:
A. salinity
B. metabolism
C. dissolved oxygen content
D. ecological efficiency

Short Answer
Give a short summary of each stage in the nitrogen cycle: nitrogen fixation,
nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification.
Fill in the blank
11. The study of how organisms interact with one another and their nonliving
environment is:
12. Name the different layers or spheres of the earth:
13. Cellular respiration which uses oxygen is:
14. A complete network of interconnected food chains is called a:
15. In a pyramid of energy flow, about how much energy is transferred from one
trophic level to another?
16. Most energy is degraded, while being transferred from one trophic level to
another, into what?
17. What is the net primary productivity (NPP)?
18. What is an ecotone?
19. What are the five level of organization in ecology?
20. What type of organisms feed on parts of dead organisms and cast-off fragments
and wastes of living organisms (aka detritus)?

Multiple Choice
1. A cell that has a distinct nucleus and organelles is called:
E. prokaryotic
F. species
G. eukaryotic
H. heterotroph
2. The layer of earth in which biotic organisms exist and interact with one another and
their abiotic environment is:
E. biosphere
F. troposphere
G. lithosphere
H. stratosphere
3. Biomes are characterized by:
E. climate
F. specific life forms
G. ecotone
H. climate and specific life forms (A and B)
4. A consumer that feeds on dead organisms is:
E. herbivore
F. scavenger
G. omnivore
H. decomposer
5. Which of the following included all the others?
E. species diversity
F. genetic diversity
G. biological diversity
H. ecological diversity
6. The stages: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
percolation and runoff, are part of what cycle?
E. water cycle
F. nitrogen cycle
 G. phosphorus cycle
H. carbon cycle
7. Which of the following are gaseous cycles (as in, the cycle is based on a gas)?
E. water and carbon cycles
F. water and nitrogen cycles
G. carbon and sulfur cycles
H. phosphorus and nitrogen cycle
8. Ammonification is part of what cycle?
E. water cycle
F. nitrogen cycle
G. phosphorus cycle
H. carbon cycle
9. The amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given volume of water at a particular
temperature and pressure is:
E. salinity
F. metabolism
G. dissolved oxygen content
H. ecological efficiency
10. The complete set of chemical reactions that captures and transforms matter and
energy from their environment to supply their needs in a cell or organism is:
E. salinity
F. metabolism
G. dissolved oxygen content
H. ecological efficiency

Short Answer
Give a short summary of each stage in the nitrogen cycle: nitrogen fixation,
nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification.