SOLAR POWER
Solar Tower System
Generating power from the direct energy of the sun is called solar power. Solar power
potential is limited and is not always available, at night for example. Solar is, therefore, a
variable power generating source with limited availability that must be used immediately or
stored until needed.
There are two solar power generation methods, concentrated and photovoltaic.
Concentrated solar systems use solar towers, parabolic troughs, or solar dishes. These three
methods will heat a fluid and produce steam which will turn a turbine connected to a
generator to produce power. Photons accomplish photovoltaic solar power production when
sunlight strikes a solar cell. Photovoltaic Cells (or Solar Cells), which are sensitive to
sunlight, are solid state devices that absorb photons from sunlight and convert it into
electrical energy. When the photons strike the cells electrons flow freely within the cell,
through an external conductor to the power consumer, and continue to the other side of the
solar cell which is receptive to the free-flowing electrons.
Photovoltaic solar systems most commonly use cells and can be mounted in various ways;
some of the more common are roof-mounted, pole-mounted, ground-mounted and ballasted
roof-mounted. All of these mounting methods have benefits and concerns. Concentrated
solar power is generally used in commercial applications. Photovoltaic can be used in
commercial or small distributed grid applications.
Solar Tower System
Solar tower concentrated power generation systems use heliostats, precision ground
mirrors, that track and reflect the sun onto a receiver. The receiver is mounted on a tower
and takes the focused sunlight to heat a fluid that is pumped to the top of the tower. This
fluid, usually an oil that has a lower boiling point than water, flows back down the tower
after being heated. This heated fluid is either turned to steam or through a binary system,
turns another fluid to steam. This steam turns a turbine which is connected to an electric
generator.
Solar Tower System
Parabolic Trough System
Parabolic trough concentrated solar systems use highly polished mirrors that reflect sunlight
onto a pipe that runs through the center of the trough. The troughs track the sun
throughout the day to obtain the maximum heating efficiency, heating the fluid inside the
pipes. This heated fluid, generally a fluid with a lower boiling point than water, is circulated
through the pipes to the steam generating systems. After the steam is produced the
equipment used in this system is very similar to what is used in coal-fired power plants.
Parabolic Trough System
This is a close-up picture of a parabolic trough collection system. The pipes that contain the
heated fluid are insulated to keep the heat inside the pipe. The size of this solar collection
field can be gauged by the worker standing in the foreground (red arrow). The pivot point
for the tracking system can also be seen near the edge of the pipes running through the
center of the troughs.
Parabolic Trough
Below is a diagram of a concentrated solar array system in the desert of the southwest.
The diagram here is a highly simplified one; however, it does give a representation of how
this type of power plant operates.
Concentrated Solar Array System
Solar Dish System
Solar dish concentrated power uses dishes similar to large satellite dishes with highly
polished mirrors that reflect the sunlight onto a solar tower or to a pipe that runs through
the focal point of the mirror. The dishes track the sun throughout the day as it crosses the
sky to obtain maximum efficiency. The concentrated sunlight heats a fluid which either turns
to steam or flows through a heat exchanger to give up its heat to turn another fluid to
steam. This steam turns a turbine that is connected to a generator to produce power.
Solar Dish
Photovoltaic Solar System
Photovoltaic solar system cells are most commonly constructed using crystalline silicon that
has impurities placed into it to allow the desired reaction to sunlight. There are other ways
to construct solar cells that can increase efficiency. These methods are, however, in the
early stages of development and the per-watt price is higher priced per watt than those
manufactured using the standard crystalline silicon process.
Solar panels are comprised of cells, the smallest part of a solar panel. Each cell will produce
between .6 or .7 volts of direct current. The cells are connected in series to increase the
voltage to a useable level or in parallel to increase the power level. Cells are combined to
form modules. Groups of modules make up arrays.
Arrays are several modules or panels that are connected to produce the desired voltage and
power levels. The power produced from an array passes through an inverter or charge
controller. Inverters convert the DC voltage to AC power; charge controllers monitor the
charge on battery banks. For example, in the module and array shown here, if the cells
produce .7 volts DC each and are connected in series, this twelve-cell module will produce
8.4 volts DC. Modules that produce 8.4 volts DC each connected in series will add up to an
array producing 100.8 volts DC.
Photovoltaic Solar Panel
Photovoltaic cells are light sensitive semiconductors that generally use silicon mixed with
two different impurities to create a layer of material with excess electrons and an area with
a lack of electrons or “holes.” When light strikes the solar cell the photons from the sunlight
cause the excess electrons to flow. An external conductor allows the electrons to flow
through a load, to the opposite side of the cell and then back to the opposite side of the
solar cell.
Roof-Mounted Photovoltaic System
Roof-mounted photovoltaic solar systems use variously-sized arrays mounted directly onto a
roof. These systems have many benefits; they use no, otherwise usable, land space; newer
styled panels have a very aesthetically appealing appearance. The height of the panels
makes it easier to prevent shading which can cut performance drastically. Some concerns
of roof-mounted solar arrays are roof leaks due to the necessary penetrations into the roof
structure, wind loads that could tear arrays off of the roof and snow loads for areas that
receive large amounts of snow. Roof mounted solar arrays are generally fixed at the
appropriate latitude with a southern exposure to obtain the maximum solar exposure year-
round.
Roof Mounted Solar System
Roof-Mounted Solar System Insulation
There are several available mounting systems for roof-mounted arrays. These mounting
systems have the same considerations including the type of roof structure that they are
fastened to and ensuring a leak-proof installation. Grounding is a significant concern with
solar panel installations. If a solar array is not grounded properly it can cause a serious
electrical hazard; DC current can be just as deadly as AC current. A properly grounded
system will have the mounting structure and all of the panels grounded together. This
common grounding system will go to an earth grounding rod, which will dissipate the
voltage safely to ground.
Typical Roof Mounted Installation
Pole-Mounted Photovoltaic System
Pole-mounted photovoltaic arrays can be used in a number of different applications. When
used in residential or small commercial applications, they generally do not use tracking
systems. However, large commercial photovoltaic arrays do use single or dual axis tracking
systems, to make optimal use of the solar rays. Dual axis tracking systems will track the
sun on two axes, and a single axis will track the sun on one. Residential and other smaller
systems do not use solar tracking systems due to the expense and the additional
maintenance involved.
Pole Mounted Solar System
Pole mounted solar systems keep the solar arrays off of the ground and help to prevent
shading. These solar systems have to be properly mounted, and the pole that supports
them must be properly mounted in the ground. The conduit for the wiring must be properly
buried and sized for the system. The essential hardware involved in this type of system is
the pole, the top of pole mount and the racking hardware.
Ground-Mounted Solar System
Ground-mounted solar arrays are easier to install and maintain than other systems. The
ease of accessing the panels leads to concerns about exposed wiring, the possibility of
shading and accidental movement of panels. Another concern is the level of the piers that
are poured in the ground. If these piers are not properly leveled, the racking can be
skewed and require the array mounting to be adjusted. Some commercial installations use
single-axis tracking systems to optimize the use of the sun.
Ground Mounted Solar System
Photovoltaic solar arrays come in different sizes, voltages and wattage ratings. Pictured
below is a Sharp solar panel NU-U180FC. This solar panel has a maximum power output
(Pmax) of 180 watts, an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 29.6 volts and a short circuit current
(Isc) of 8.4 amps per panel. Maximum series fusing is 15 amps. Solar cell operating
temperature range is an important operating parameter because if the solar cell is expected
to operate in conditions higher than the rated temperature, significant loss of production will
occur. This solar panel’s NOCT, normal operating cell temperature, is 47.5 degrees Celsius
or 117.5 degrees Fahrenheit.
Sharp Solar Panel NU-U180FC
Cell dimensions must be considered when determining the maximum number of panels that
can be mounted in the desired space. Cell weight and the weight limit of the mounting
location are also important considerations. Load specifications refer to the maximum weight
that can be applied to the top of the panel, a significant consideration in areas where there
is potential for heavy snowfall. This solar panel’s warranty is 25 years on power output
which, for most solar panels, is an industry standard.
Inverters and Home Setup
Inverters used in solar applications are generally grid-connected units that need grid power
supplied to them in order to operate. Pictured below is a Fronius inverter. Inverter output
power refers to the AC output that the inverter can deliver in watts. This inverter has a
maximum DC input voltage of 500 volts, with a DC operating range of 150 to 450 volts from
the solar panels. The AC output side of the inverter is 240 volts AC with a maximum AC
current of 8.35 amps. Inverter Efficiency refers to the amount of power going in that is
directly converted to output power. There will always be some loss due to the necessary use
of a small amount of power to operate the inverter. Protection is provided internally on this
inverter to allow it to operate in a direct grid connected system.
This inverter could handle 15 of the Sharp solar panels or about 2520 watts of power
generation.
Fronius Inverter
In any solar system, there are a number of essential components required for its safe
operation. DC combiner boxes are required for systems that have more than one string of
solar cells. The DC disconnect box is necessary to isolate the solar panels safely. This
disconnect must be DC rated and listed for the proper current. The AC disconnect is used to
isolate the AC side of the system; it is placed after the inverter and before the main AC
service coming into the facility. Proper fusing on both the DC and AC sides is also
important; the fuses are used to protect system wiring. Using the proper gauge and type of
wire is important for the long-term and safe operation of the system.
Typical Home Solar System Layout
Commercial Solar Systems
Large commercial photovoltaic solar systems are set up the same way as a typical home
installation, just on a larger scale. The system described above uses 14 panels to produce
about 2500 watts (2.5 KW or .0025 MW) with full sunlight. To make 1 MW (1,000,000
watts) of power you would need 400 panels. A typical small hydro, coal or gas turbine plant
produces about 70 MWs, so to replace one of these generation plants with a large
commercial solar plant you would need about 40,000 of the Sharp panels.
Below is a picture of a commercial photovoltaic solar system in Japan, Kagoshima
Nanatsujima Mega Solar Power Plant, a 70-megawatt facility that can generate enough
electricity to power about 22,000 homes. It has 290,000 solar panels and takes up about
314 acres, roughly three times the total area of Vatican City. The output of each panel,
doing the math, comes out to 241 watts per panel (70,000,000 watts divided by 290,000
panels).
Kagoshima Nanatsujima Mega Solar Power Plant