Prof. Dr.

Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

UNIT - 9
PHYSICAL OPTICS
PHYSICAL OPTICS: “The branch of Physics which deals with the physical properties of light is called
physical optics.”
Light: The electromagnetic radiations which produce the sense of vision in the detector (eye) is called light. The
wavelength of visible radiations ranges from 750 nm (red) to 350 nm (violet).

9.1 NATURE OF LIGHT:

To understand the nature of light, it is always hot issue of discussion in the world of science and philosophy.
There are different views about the nature light which are given below:
Newton Corpuscular Theory of Light: According to Newton corpuscular theory, light consists of stream of
particle called corpuscles, which are emitted from luminous body and travels in a straight line. Newton theory
could explain all existing phenomena, like rectilinear propagation, reflection and refraction. This theory
dominated the physical optics till the discovery of interference and diffraction.
Huygens’s Wave Theory of light:
Christian Huygens proposed the wave nature of light in order to explain the phenomena of bending of light is
called diffraction. He also postulated a hypothetical medium (fluid) called ether for the propagation of light wave.
The main failure of this theory was due to:
i. Medium was needed to all waves known at that time (the Michelson and Morley experimental results showed
that there is no such medium like ether and light need no medium for their propagation).
ii. If light is a wave then it should bend around the corners and we should be able to see around the corner
(which is not possible).
Interference and Diffraction of light (Young’s Experiment):
In 19th century, some experiments were preformed whose results could only be explained with the help of wave
theory of light. It includes Thomas young’s double slits, which shows the interference and diffraction phenomena
of light. Augustan Fresnel also performed experiments on light showing interference and diffraction several years
later. Thus, most of the scientist agreed on the wave nature of light at that time.
Maxwell Electromagnetic theory:
Another important step in the favour of wave nature of light was the work of Maxwell’s. He showed that light is
the form of high frequency electromagnetic waves in which the electric and magnetic fields vectors are
oscillating at right angle and also perpendicular to the propagation of a wave. He theoretically calculated the
velocity of electromagnetic waves, which is same as the velocity of light in free space of about ~ 3×108 m/s.
These electromagnetic waves do not require any medium for its propagation.
Plank’s Theory of light:
At the start of 20th century, there were some physical phenomena, like black body radiations, which were not
explained by Maxwell’s theory of E.M waves.
In order to explain such phenomena, Max Plank took an orthodox step that the oscillators of thermal body (black
body cavity) absorb and emits E.M waves in quantized form, called packets of energy or quanta. Later, Einstein
generalized it for light, that light also consists of packets called photons. Einstein succeeded in explaining photo
electric effect on the quantum nature of light, while the work of Compton fully confirmed the photon or particle
nature of light.

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Dual Nature of light:

Now there are some phenomena, which are explained on the wave nature of light, like interference, diffraction
while there are other phenomena photoelectric effect, Compton Effect which could be explained on the photon or
particle nature of light. So, we are compelled to say that light has dual nature. Sometimes it behaves like a wave
and other times it behaves like particles. Its nature depends upon the phenomenon occurring at that time. But it is
important that at the same time both behaviours are not possible.

9.2 WAVE FRONT AND HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE:

WAVE FRONT:
Definition: “The locus of all adjacent points which have the same phase of vibration associated with a wave is
known as wave front”.
Explanation: When we drop a pebble into a calm pool, the expanding circles formed by the wave are crests as
well as the trough. All the points on the crest are in the same state of vibration and in the phase constitutes a wave
front.
When electromagnetic waves spread out from a source, any spherical surface that is concentric with source is a
wave front with all vibrations in phase. Cross – section of three such spherical wave fronts (WF) are shown in the
figures. The wave front of mainly of three types:
SPHERICAL WAVE FRONT:
Definition: A wave front, in which all the points of the wave front lie on a spherical surface, is called a spherical
wave front.
Explanation: A spherical wave front can be generated when a vibrating vertical rod is dipped in water. As a
result circular ripples are formed on a water surface.
PLANE WAVE FRONT:
Definition: A wave front in which all the points of the wave front lies in a
single plane is called a plane wave front.
Explanation: A plane wave front can be generated when a vibrating
horizontal rod is dipped in water. A small portion of the spherical wave
front, which is far away from the source, will be almost in a plane surface,
therefore can be called plane wave front.
CYLINDRICAL WAVE FRONT:
Definition: A wave front in which all the points of the wave front lie on a
cylindrical surface, is called a cylindrical wave front.
Explanation: If we take a line source such as a narrow slit the wave front, which emerges from it is a cylindrical
wave front.
RAY’S OF LIGHT:
Definition: “A hypothetical line along which the energy is propagating is called a ray.”
Explanation: A ray is a hypothetical line which joins the points on wave
fronts and is always perpendicular to the wave fronts. Some of these rays
are shown in the above figure.

9.3 HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE:

Statement: “Every point on a wave front is considered to be the source

which produces secondary wavelets. The wavelets propagate in the
forward direction with a speed equal to the speed of wave motion”.

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

Explanation: The Huygens’s Principle tells us how the wave fronts propagate in space from point to point.
Consider a wave front AB produced by a source of lights S as shown in
Figure. The dots on the wave fronts are the sources of secondary
wavelets, each producing spherical wave. The spherical wavelets after
time t are drawn, by drawing a hemisphere of radius, r = ct . The
tangent to these wavelets produces a new wave front CD. The process
can be repeated and infinite number of wave fronts can be generated in a
homogeneous medium with passage of time. As the speed of light is
isotropic (the same in all directions), this means that the energy of the
wave is transmitted equally in all directions as the waves propagate.

9.4 COHERENT SOURCES:

Definition: “Two sources of waves are said to be coherent, if they generates waves with the same frequencies or
wavelengths, equal or comparable amplitude and a constant phase difference are called coherent
sources.”or“When the phase difference of two identical waves is not changing with the passage of time, they are
said to be coherent sources.”
Explanation: Coherency is an important condition for interference of waves. If waves do not full fill this
condition, we don’t get interference pattern but will get a uniform illumination on screen.
Production of coherent sources: The coherent source of waves can be obtained as follows:
i. Division of a wave front, when two slits are illuminated by a single source of monochromatic light, they will
generate coherent waves (Young’s double slit experiment).
ii. Consider two loud speakers which are connected to the same audio
oscillation, then the waves generated are coherent waves.
iii. Coherent micro waves (E.M waves) can be obtained by connecting two
antennas with the same electromagnetic oscillator.
iv. If two rods A and B of the same dimension which are moving up and down
on the surface of water driven by common mean (motor), then these rods
will generates coherent water waves, and rods are called coherent sources.
INCOHERENT SOURCES:
Definition: “If two waves does not maintain a constant phase difference, they are said to be incoherent waves.”
Example: Two light bulbs generate waves which does not have a constant phase difference, therefore the waves
are said to be incoherent waves and the sources are said to be incoherent sources.
MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT:
Definition: “A light have a single wavelength, frequency or time period is called monochromatic light.”
Explanation:A mono chromatic source of light gives light of only one wavelength or one colour. It is difficult to
get a truly monochromatic source of light. However, by using light filters, it is
possible to get a source that gives light within a narrow band of wavelengths
say 5x10-10 m. Now a days, this problem was solved with the discovery of laser.

9.5 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT:

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

Definition: “When two identical waves from two coherent sources superpose (overlap) at a point in space, the
combined wave intensity at that point can be greater or less than the intensity of either of two waves, this effect
is called interference.”
Explanation: When two waves of light having the same frequency or wavelength, amplitude and a constant
phase difference are propagating through a certain region of space in the same direction, they reinforce each other
at some points and cancel at the other points . This phenomena is called interference of light.
In order to have interference, we need two coherent sources of light. The two waves individually produce certain
displacements Y1 and Y2. When these waves arrive simultaneously at a certain point, the resultant displacement Y
at that point will be simply Y1+ Y2, which is called the principle of linear superposition.
CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE:
If light exhibits wave nature, it should be possible to observe the interference phenomenon. For this purpose the
following conditions should be fulfilled.
1. The sources of light waves should be coherent.
2. The sources should be perfectly mono chromatic.
3. The amplitude of the light waves must be equal or nearly equal.
4. The path difference of the waves from the two sources must be small.
5. Principle of Linear super position should be applicable i.e. Y=Y1+Y2
INTERFERENCE PATTERN:
To observe interference effect of light, we place a screen at some distance from the two coherent light sources as
shown in Figure book [Link] two waves must maintain a constant phase difference. This pattern will consist of
alternate bright and dark regions. If the phase difference between two waves changes continuously, the pattern
changes continuously and no interference is observed.
(a) CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
Definition: “If the two coherent waves arriving at a point in phase, they reinforce each other and increase the
intensity of resultant wave at that position in space is called constructive interference.”
Explanation:Thus, if the two-waves are propagating in the same direction, then the phase difference between the
two waves is 0, 2 , 4 ,........... corresponds to the path difference (d), 0, , 2, 3,........... respectively. Thus,
in terms of path difference, the condition for constructive interference is;
Path difference, d = 0, , 2, 3,....... .
d = m − − − − − − − −(1) where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,.....
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
Definition: “If the two coherent waves arrive at a point in such a way that they are out of phase, they cancel the
effect of each other and dark fringes are seen on the screen is called destructive interference.”
Explanation:If the two waves are propagating in the same direction having the phase difference of
 3 5 7
 , 3 , 5 , 7 ,........... corresponds to the path difference “d” of , , , ,........... destructive
2 2 2 2
interference will take place.
Thus, in terms of path difference, the condition for destructive interference is:

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 3 5 7
d= , , , ,...........
2 2 2 2
 1
d =  m +   − − − − − − − −(2) where m = 0,1, 2, 3,........ ,
 2 

9.6 YOUNG’S DOULE SLITS EXPERIMENT:

In 1801, Thomas Young performed a double slits experiment, showed interference for light waves which
confirms the wave nature of light.
Experimental arrangement: Consider two narrow slits A and B closed together, which are illuminated by a
single monochromatic source of light in order to produce coherent sources. The sizes of the slits are comparable
to the wavelength of light used. Light from each slit diffract and interfere in space. Thus, we get a particular
pattern on the screen as shown in the adjoining figure.
When we view the screen, we see an alternates bright bands (constructive interference) and dark bands
(destructive interference) of light intensity called interference fringes.
To analyze the interference pattern, we consider wave from each slit. Let the screen is located at a distance L
from the slits, and “d” is the distance between centres of slits. If ‘P’ is any point on the screen and “Y m” is the
distance of point “P” from the centre of the pattern.
The waves arriving at P from the slit A is AP and from slit B is BP. If‘d’ is the spacing of slits is much smaller
than ‘L’, AQ is then almost perpendicular to both AP and BP. This means that AP = QP, thus, the wave arriving
at P has a path difference:
Path difference = BQ = dsin 
Conditions for Constructive Interference:
If the path difference dsin is equal to integral multiple of
wavelength, then both the waves from A and B will be in
phase at P and thus producing bright fringe at P.
Mathematically, the condition for constructive interference is;
dsin  = m − − − − − −(1) m = 0,  1,  2,  3,

For the central point O, the path difference is zero; there is

bright fringe at O corresponding to m = 0 and this is called zeroth order bright fringe. The first order maximum
on either side of zero order occurs corresponding to m = 1 . Similar is the result for higher order fringes.

Conditions for Destructive Interference:

If path difference dsin is equal to an odd integral multiple of half of the wavelength, then the two waves will
reach to the point P out of phase. So, destructive interference take place at P and dark fringe is observed.
Mathematically, the condition for destructive interference is as follows:-
 1
dsin  =  m +   − − − − − − − −(2) m = 0,  1,  2,  3,
 2

Where ‘m’ is also called the order of the fringe.

Positions of fringes on the Screen:
To locate the position of mth bright or dark fringe, we find the
distance Ym from the centre “O” of the fringes.

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Ym
In figure, if L >> d, then; tan m =  Ym = L tan m
L
We know that for very small angle; tan  = sin 
m
So, Ym = L sin   Ym = L 
d
L
 Ym = m − − − − − − − −(3) where m = 0,  1,  2,  3,.....(Bright fringes)
d
The position of any dark fringe from the centre of the screen is given by:
 1 L
 Ym =  m +   − − − −(4) m = 0,  1,  2,  3,.....(Dark fringes)
 2  d
Fringe Spacing or width:
The centre to centre distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called fringe spacing or width.
The width of any two adjacent maxima (bright fringes) or minima (dark Fringes) is give as:
L L
Y = Ym − Ym−1  Y = m − (m − 1) 
d d
L
 Y =  − − − − − − − −(5) (width of the bright or dark fringe)
d
From the above equation (5), we can see that the fringe width depends directly on the wavelength of the light
used. Therefore, the fringe width will be greater for red light compared to blue light. Also, the fringe width is
greater on the screen located away from the sources compared to the screen lying near to the slits. The distance
between the slit has inverse effect on the fringe width.
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH:
The wavelength of light used in double slit experiment can be determined from the following equation:
L d
Y =    =  Y
d L
As, d, D and Y are measurable quantities therefore, the wavelength of light can be determined.
Note: It is important to note that before Thomas Young, the only drawback of the other experiments performed
was the unsuccessful production of coherent source. The technique, Young used was the division of wave front
and was very successful to cause stable interference which explain the wave nature of light.
Example 9.1
Yellow light from a sodium vapour lamp of wavelength 5893x10 -10 m is directed upon two narrow slits 0.10 cm
apart of young’s experiment. Find the position of the first bright and dark fringe on a screen 100 cm away?
Given data: λ = 589310−10 m , d = 0.10 cm = 0.001 m, L = 100 cm = 1m, m=1
Ybright= ?
Y dark= ?
Solution: As we know that the position of mth bright fringe;
mL 1  5893  10 −10  1
y bright = = = 5.893  10 − 4 m
d 0.001
Similarly, the position of the mth dark fringe;

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1 1
(m + )L (1 + )  5893  10 −10  1
y dark = 2 = 2 = 2.958  10 −4 m
d 0.001
Example 9.2
Light of wavelength 546 nm produces Young’s interference pattern. The second order dark fringe is along the
direction that makes an angle of 18 min, related to the direction of central maximum. What is the distance
between the slits?
18
Given data: λ = 546 nm = 546 10-9 m , m = 2,  = 18 min = = 0.30 
60
Required: d=?
Solution: As we know that the condition for dark fringe;
1
dsin  = (m + )
2
1  1 546  10 −9
d = (m + ) = (2 + )   d = 260 .7  10 −6 m = 260.7 μ6
2 sin  2 sin 0.3
Assignment 9.1
The 3rd bright fringe in a double slit experiment make a 2.4˚ angle with respect to the central line. The
wavelength of monochromatic light used is 480 nm. Find the distance d between the two sources (slits).
Given data: λ = 480 nm = 480 10-9 m , m = 3,  = 2.4
Required: d=?
Solution: As we know that the condition for bright fringes;
dsin  = m
m 3  480  10 −9
d= =  d = 0.0344  10 -3 m = 0.0344 mm
sin  sin 2.4

9.7 INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS:

Definition: “The superposition of light waves reflected from the upper and lower surface of the thin film is called
interference in thin film.”
Explanation: The colours that we see when sunlight falls on a soap bubble or oil slick are due to the interference
of light waves. The thickness of the film is typically of the order of magnitude of wavelength of light (400 nm –
700 nm).
A thin film is partially reflecting, and partially transmitting for light of
a given wavelength. The partially transmitted light reflects from the
lower interface and produces interference.
Consider a transparent film of wage shape of variable thickness
illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
 . The incident beam is splited into two parts. Part “a” is reflected
from the upper while part “b” from the lower surface of the film. The
rays “a” and “b” are parallel and coherent which are capable to overlap
each other and can cause constructive and destructive interference. As
these two rays have travelled over paths of different lengths. Now if the

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geometrical path difference is 0,  , 2, 3, , we expect bright fringes, but in reality we are getting dark fringes.
 3
Similarly, for a path difference , ,...... , we expect dark fringes but we get bright fringes.
2 2
This can be explain on the following reasoning. When a wave reflect from the interface of a denser medium, a
change in phase of 180o occurs in the reflected wave. So, the combine optical path and phase change are both
responsible for interference. It must be noted that a phase change of

180o corresponds to .
2
Constructive Interference:
For constructive interference; Path difference + Phase difference = m

As the phase difference of 180o corresponding to a path difference of
2
.
 
Thus, Path difference + = m  Path difference = m −
2 2
 1
 Path difference =  m-   − − − − − − − (1) where m = 1, 2, 3.....
 2

 1
 Path difference =  m+   − − − − − − − (2) where m = 0, 1, 2, 3.....
 2

Destructive Interference:
Similarly, the condition for destructive interference is given by:
 1
Path difference + Phase Change =  m +  , m = 0, 1, 2, 3,.... ..
2 

As the phase difference of 180o corresponding to a path difference of .
2
  1
Thus, Path difference + = m + 
2  2

 1 
 Path difference =  m +   −
 2 2

 Path difference = m − − − − − − − (3) where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....

When, the film is illuminated by white light, for certain wavelength, the condition of constructive interference is
satisfied, whereas for others, the condition of destructive interference is obeyed. The result is a series of colour
fringes, giving the appearance of a rainbow. The colours of thin films of oil and soap bubble (as shown in figure
above) is due to this type of interference.

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9.8 MICHELSONS INTERFEROMETER:

Definition: “The optical instrument which is used for measuring length and wavelength of light used with high
precision based on the interference phenomena is called Michelson interferometer.”
Principle: The principle of the Michelson interferometer is based on the interference of light waves, results from
the division of amplitude by partial reflection and transmission of light at the boundary of the two medium.
WORKING: The essential parts of the Michelson interferometer are two plane mirrors M1 and M2 and two
glass plates C and D.
Consider a monochromatic light which is incident on semi – silver glass plate “C”. It is divided into two parts.
One part is reflected towards the mirror M1 and another transmitted towards the mirror M2 after passing from the
compensator (D). Compensator basically compensate the light ray because reflected ray “2” pass three times
through “C” while transmitted ray 1 passes only single time.
The mirror M1 is movable mirror while M2 is fixed. The light rays travel two different paths from ‘C’ to M 1 and
then back to ‘C’ from M1, reach the detector Eye through telescope. The transmitted ray 1 travel towards M2
through ‘C’ and reflected back, where the waves interfere each other, and fringes are observed.
Conditions for Interference:
If the path difference between the light rays is the integral multiple of wavelength  , then constructive
interference will take place and bright fringe will be observedi.e d = 0, , 2, 3,.......
d = m m= 0, 1, 2, 3, .....

But if the path difference between the two parts of the light is odd integral multiple of , then destructive
2
interference will take place and dark fringe will be observed.
 3 5 7
d= , , , ,...........
2 2 2 2
1
d = ( m + ) m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
2

Wavelength of light:

Initially, let the path difference is 0 and we see a bright fringe. If the M 1 is moved through a distance , then the
4

path difference between the two beams become and dark
2
fringe will be seen. When the mirror is further moved through a
 
distance of , then the change in path difference again and
4 2
dark fringe is replaced by bright fringe.
It can be seen that the distance between ‘C’ and M1 is L1 while
L2 is the distance between ‘C’ and M2.
We know that if path difference = 0, , 2, 3,....... , it will
produce constructive interference.
In this case, the path covered by ray 2 = 2L1, and the path
covered by ray 1= 2L2

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So, path difference = 2L2-2L1 = 0, , 2, 3,.......

 3
L2-L1= 0, , , ,.......
2 2
m
P = − − − − − − − −(1) where m = number of finges shift , where d=L2-L1
2
This equation (1) show that by counting the number of fringes “m” measuring the distance P through which the
mirror is moved, the wave length of light can be determined.
Example 9.3
A red laser light of wavelength 630 nm is used in Michelson’s interferometer. While keeping the mirror M 1 is
fixed and M2 is moved. The fringes to move past a fixed cross hair in the viewer. Find the distance the mirror M 2
moved for a single fringe to move past the reference line?
Given data: λ = 630 nm = 630 10-9 m , m = 1,
Required: P= ?
mλ 1  630  10 −9
Solution: As we know that; P= P= = 315  10 −9 m = 315 nm
2 2
9.9 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT:

Definition: “The bending of light around the sharp edge of an obstacle or spreading of light passing through a
narrow opening is called diffraction of light.”
Explanation:In young double slits experiment, the light rays bend out their straight line path and spreads into the
region beyond the slits and do not cast sharp shadows. This effect is common for all types of waves such as sound
waves are spread behind the obstacle or corner, which hides the source. Similarly water waves in a smooth pond
do not cast clear shadow of an object as the waves are bend out (diffracted).
a) When light passes through a narrow slit, the light beams not only flare out; they also give rise to a series
of alternating light and dark bands that resemble interference fringes.
b) Similarly, the diffraction effect is exhibited when a knife edge or razor blade is viewed in monochromatic
light, the diffraction pattern is formed near the edges as shown in figure. If there would be no diffraction,
light would propagate along a straight line and a complete geometrical shadow would be viewed.
It must be remembered that diffraction is prominent when the size of the opening or edge of the obstacle is so
small that it is comparable to the wavelength of light used. For example, sound waves have wave lengths
comparable with the sizes of ordinary objects, and therefore easily observed to bend around corners, but not
visible light because of shorter wavelength.
Actually, there is no significant difference between interference and diffraction. Interference pattern comes from
the superposition of limited number of waves or wavelets coming from a wave front, whereas diffraction is the
result of the superposition of very large number of waves or wavelets in a single wave.
We argue that the interference fringes provide strong evidence for the wave nature of light. Similarly, we can
explain diffraction patterns with the wave nature of light.

9.10 DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT (FRAUNHOFER):

Definition: “The diffraction of light waves produced by a narrow single slit

when plane light waves are incident normally on slit is called single slit
diffraction or Fraunhofer diffraction”
Explanation: The simplest diffraction pattern to analyze is that produced by
a long narrow slit. For this purpose, consider a slit AB of width‘d’,

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illuminated by a plane wave front (parallel beam of monochromatic light) of wavelength  as shown in figure.
The wave front passes through the narrow slit and according to the Huygens principle, each point of wave front
send out the secondary wavelet to the [Link] diffraction pattern is observed on the screen ‘S’ placed parallel
to the slit.
CENTRE BRIGHT FRINGE (MAXIMA):At point O on the screen, wavelets from A and B arrive in phase as
these points are equidistance from O. So the path difference between these points is zero as well as from X and
Y. Similarly, for every point on the wave front in AC, there is symmetrically located point on the wave front AQ.
The wavelets sent out by such points to the point ‘O’ on the screen are in phase. These wavelets superimpose
constructively and produce a bright spot at ‘O’.
FIRST DARK FRINGE (MINIMA): Now we consider another point ‘P’ on the screen below the point O. the
path difference between the wavelets sent out by A and Q to the point P is differ in path length by half of
wavelength /2.
Similarly, the path difference between the wavelets sent out by X & Y and Q & B is also approximately /2.
Hence, the wavelets approaching P will interfere destructively and will show first minima or dark region. If  is
angle between QP with axis of the slit as shown in Figure (BOOOK) 9.15., then the angle AQM is also  , so the
d  d
equation for the first dark fringe, considering the triangle AMQ is; sin  = , path difference is sin  ).
2 2 2
 dsin  = 

d=
sin 
mth dark Fringe:The point ‘P’ will receive the mth order minimum, if the following equations hold.
m
d=  dsin  = m where m= 1, 2, 3, ......
sin 
mλ
sin  m =
d
The region between any two consecutive minima both above and below
‘P’ will be bright. The central maximum is of highest intensity and other
are of much lower intensities.
NOTE: If a narrow slit is used then the angle θ increases as;

= when  = small
d
This means that a broader central maximum is obtained but the intensity of all bright fringes as less light passes
through the slit.

9.11 DIFFRACTION GRATING:

Definition: “A glass or plastic sheet upon which a large number of thin opaque parallel and equally spaced lines
of same width are ruled out or scratching parallel lines are drawn is called diffraction grating”.
Explanation: A diffraction grating can be made by scratching parallel
lines on glass or plastic sheetare ruled using different [Link]
spaces between each scratch are transparent and act as a separate slit. A
typical Grating might contains N = 5,000 slits (lines) per centimetres. The
distance between any two adjacent lines or slits is called grating element
“d”. Its value is obtained by dividing the unit length of the grating by the
total number of lines ruled out on it.

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

Unit length of grating

d=
Total number of lines ruled on it
1 cm
d=
N
Any regular periodic structure can serve as a diffraction Grating. For example, the grooves of a compact disc
(CD), which produces a rainbow pattern is called reflecting Grating.
Working theory:
The diffraction by grating (multiple slits diffraction) is the extension of double-slit interference in which the
number of slits increased. Such a multiple slits arrangement in which N may be as large as 104 ,is called
diffraction grating.
When a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ falls
on this grating, each slit send out Huygens wavelets in the forward
direction. These wavelets when focused by lens on the screen
produces a pattern of dark and bright fringes.
To explain this let us consider only two adjacent slits 1 and 2. If the
light waves passing through them is in phase, it will give the
constructive interference at point P. Also, the light passing through
any pair of slits, even non-adjacent ones, is also in phase at point P.
Hence, the condition for constructive interference is that the path
difference rq = dsinθ should be equal to  .i.e. From the diagram;
rq = dsin 

 dsin  =  − − − − − − (1)

In general, there will other rays on each side for which the adjacent slits differ in path by 2, 3, 4, .... for
which the corresponding bright images will observed, are called 2nd , 3rd , 4th order bright images. Thus, the
general equation;
dsin  = m − − − − − − (2) where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, .....

If white light is used in a grating, the diffraction produces several colour lines on either side of the central
maximum for each order. It is also possible that two different orders of two wavelengths may overlap at certain
point. For example, the red in 2nd order spectrum overlap the violet in the 3rd order. Since 2 for red light is
greater than 3 for violet light.
Example 9.4
The deviation of the second order diffracted image formed by an optical grating having 5000 lines centimetre is
32˚. Calculate the wavelength of light used?
1 cm
Given data: Number of lines per centimetre = 5000 lines, Grating element = d = = 0.00020 cm
5000
m = 2,  = 32
Required: λ=?
Solution: As we know that the condition for bright fringe;
d sin  0.00020  sin 32 
dsin  = m   = = = 5.3  10 −5 cm
m 2

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

9.12 DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS BY CRYSTALS:

Definition: “The spreading (scattering) of x-ray beam by crystal is called diffraction of x-rays by crystal”.
Explanation: X-rays like light are electromagnetic radiations having wavelength of the order of 1Å = 10-10 m. In
principal, diffraction occurs when the wavelength is comparable to the size of the slit. In ordinary grating, the
spacing is nearly 2000 Å. Therefore, only visible light can be diffracted by ordinary grating but not x-rays (due to
their shorter wavelength). As, the spacing between two adjacent layers of atoms in crystals is of the same order as
the wavelength of x-rays, therefore, the diffraction phenomena can be observed with help of crystals like sodium
chloride (NaCl) crystal. X-rays diffraction by crystal reveals the internal structure of the crystals.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT: In the adjoining figure
Laue’s arrangement central is shown. In this arrangement, a narrow
beam of x-rays is allowed to pass through a thin crystal, such as
NaCl. The diffracted beam is imaged on a photographic plate “P’.
The photograph consist of a central dark spot, surrounded by
fainter spots arranged in concentric circles. These spots are known
as Laue’s spots (Laue’s Pattern). The dark spots on the
photographic plate corresponds to maximum exposure to x-ray
beam i.e. constructive interference. The happening of constructive
and destructive interference proves that x-rays are electromagnetic
waves.
9.12.1 Bragg’s Law: “The re-enforcement of the radiations of X-
rays reflected from successive planes of a crystal having path difference equal to
the integral multiple of wavelength of X-rays is called Bragg’s Law.”
Let “d” is the distance between two consecutive layers of atoms (Lattice planes).
One ray (ray I) is reflected from the top layer and a second ray (ray II) is reflected
from the second layer as shown in figure.
The ray ‘II’ covers a longer distance than the ray ‘I’. To find the path difference
between the ray ‘I’ and ‘II’ draw a perpendicular AB and AB .
So, the path difference between the two rays is; BC + CB = m
But from the diagram; BC = CB = dsin
Therefore; 2dsin = m --------------------- (A) where m = 1, 2, 3, …
This equation is called Bragg’s equation and represents Bragg’s law.
Applications of Bragg’s law:
• X-rays diffraction is used to study the arrangement of atoms in crystals and the ineterplanner
distance.
• A known spacing “d” of crystal and angle θ measures the wavelength of x-rays.
• The DNA molecule and other complex structures like haemoglobin have been mapped by X-
rays diffraction method.
Note: The author of this book, did his PhD from the I
Bragg’s department, University of Leeds UK and got
research excellence award in 2015 from University of II A
Leeds, UK.
Example 9.5 B B
C
X-rays of wavelength 3 nm are incident on a crystal for which the
lattice spacing is 15 nm. Calculate the angle of at which the first

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

Bragg diffraction is observed.

Given data: wavelength λ = 3 nm = 3 10-9 m , lattice spacing d = 5x10-9m , m = 1,
Required:  =?
Solution: As we know that;
m 1  3  10 −9
2dsin  = m  sin  = = = 0.3
2d 2  5  10 −9
 sin 0.3 = 17
Assignment 9.2
A beam of X-rays of wavelength 0. 3 nm are incident on a crystal and gives the first maximum when the glancing
angle is 9.0˚. Find the atomic spacing?
Given data: wavelength λ = 0.3 nm = 0.310-9 m ,  = 9.0 m = 1,
Required: lattice spacing d = ?
m 1  0.3  10 −9
Solution: As we know that; 2dsin  = m  d = = = 0.96  10 −9 m = 0.96 nm
2 sin  2  sin 9
9.13 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT:

Definition: The confining or restriction of light vibrations (electric vibrations) into a single plane of vibration, is
called polarization and the light is said to be polarized light.
Explanation: Interference and diffraction effects had proved that light is wave, but these phenomena were unable
to tell us about the type of wave i.e. whether the light waves are transverse or longitudinal.
The polarization phenomena for light were able to prove that light is a transverse wave. This property is only
exhibited by transverse wave. It does not occur for longitudinal waves such as sound as they are already
polarized. According to Maxwell electromagnetic theory, light consist of electric and magnetic vibrations. We
take electric vibration only because these vibration produce the sense of vision.
Experiments with Transverse Waves; A simple experimental arrangement is shown in the adjoining figures, in
order to demonstrate how transverse wave and longitudinal wave can be separated by polarization.
When vibration of the Mechanical transverse waves along a string is perpendicular to slit in a block, no vibration
can pass through the slit. When the vibration of the transverse wave is parallel to the slit, wave can pass through
it. But the longitudinal waves can pass through the slit all the time. From the above experiment, we can conclude
that rotation of slit direction can affect transverse waves but not longitudinal waves.
9.13.1 Ordinary Light:A beam of ordinary light consists of electric and magnetic vibrations, which are equally
distributed in all directions (because the light waves emitted from different atoms whose electrons experiencing
the transition in different planes in all directions) and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Such a beam
of light is called an unpolarised light as shown in the
adjoining figure.
If unpolarised light is passed through a polarizer, we get
electric components to be vibrating only in one plane,
because the polarizer absorbs all other components of light.
This property of light is called polarization.
9.13.2 Production of Polarized Light (methods): Light is
found to be polarized by the following processes.

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

[Link] absorption
[Link] from surface
[Link] through crystals
[Link] by tiny particles
The selective absorption method is the most common method to obtain a plane polarised light by using certain
Polaroid crystal called dichroic substance (made from quinine iodosulphate). Such crystal has the property to
transmit all the vibrations parallel to its crystallographic axis which
absorbs all its remaining vibrations. Thus, the light passed through
this crystal is plane polarised light.
If another crystal (polarizer, called analyser or filter) is placed in the
path of the polarized light, the beam of light will pass through it,
undisturbed when the analyser ‘A’ is held parallel to polarizer. But if
the analyser is rotated through an angle 90oi.e perpendicular to
polarizer then no light will pass through it. The blocking of light by
the rotation of the analyser proves that in the polarized light, the
electric vibrations are confined to a single plane of vibration.
9.13.3 Polarisation by Reflection and Brewster law:
Statement: This law states that “Thepolarisation of light by reflection can take at certain angle of incidence
which is equal to the ratio of refractive indices of denser to rare”.
When an unpolarised light falls on a glass, water etc, the reflected light is partially plane polarised but at certain
angle of incidence called polarising angle. At this angle the reflected and refracted are found to be at right angle.
Applying the Snell law;
n1 sin i p = n2 sin r ----------------------- (1)

Where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the rare and denser medium. From the diagram;
i p + 90 + r = 180
r = 90 − i p
Hence, putting this value in equation (1), we get;
n1 sin i p = n2 sin(90 − i p )
n1 sin i p = n2 cos ip

n2 sin i p
= = tan i p
n1 cos i p
n2
tan i p = ------------------------------- (2)
n1
This equation (2) is known as Brewster law. For glass of refractive index is 1.55, the angle of incidence is i p =
57º.
APPLICATIONS OF POLARIZATION OF LIGHT:
i. Reducing glare: Polaroid sunglasses are used to avoid the reflected light of the sun from road, lakes,
windows, table top, ice etc. In photographic cameras, polarizing lenses are used to produce details or
prominent images.

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 Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

ii. Optical activity: When a beam of light is passed through certain crystals, liquids or sugar solution, the
direction of vibration of transmitted beam is found to be rotated is called optical activity. The angle of
rotation determine the concentration of optically active substance such as sugar in blood, urine etc.
iii. Curtainless window: Polaroid windows are used to reduce the intensity of the incoming sun light by fixing
two sheets of Polaroid rotated at a particular angle to allow the amount of light admitted.
iv. Control of head light glare: For safe driving at night, each car have polarising head light and polarising
light viewer which eliminate the glare in night.
v. Stress analysis: When some materials like glass, polyethene or other plastics under stress by bending,
twisting, then they become double refracting and colourful fringes are seen in the visible light. This effect is
known as photo elasticity and used to analyse the stresses in plastics.

EXERCISE
Chose the correct answers of the following questions
1. The principle of young double slit experiment is based on the division of:
a. Amplitude b. Frequency c. Velocity d. Wavelength
2. Which one of the following properties proves the transverse wave nature of light:
a. Interference b. Refraction c. Polarisation d. Diffraction
3. Coloured fringes observed in soap bubbles are the example of;
a. Diffraction b. Interference c. Polarisation d. Reflection
4. During a sunny day we see the objects in a class room even when all electric lights are off, due to:
a. Reflection of light b. Refraction of light c. Diffraction of light d. Interference
5. The principle of Michelson interferometer is based on the division of:
a. Wave front b. Amplitude c. Frequency d. speed of light
6. In Young double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is halved and the distance between the
slits and the screen is doubled. Then the fringe width is:
a. Halved b. Unchanged c. Doubled d. Quadrupled
7. Signal from remote control to the device operated by it travels with the speed of:
a. Sound b. Light c. Ultrasonic d. Supersonics
8. Light of wavelength  is incident normally on a diffraction grating for which the slit spacing is equal to
3 . What is the sin of the angle between the second order maximum and the normal?
1 1 2
a. b. c. d. 1
6 3 3
9. Which one of the following gives three regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing
wavelength, visible radiations:
a. Gamma rays, microwaves, visible radiation b. Radio waves, ultraviolet, X-rays
[Link], infra-red, microwaves d. Visible, gamma rays, radio waves
11. Two monochromatic radiations X and Y are incident normally on a diffraction grating. The second order
intensity maximum for X coincides with the third order intensity maximum for Y. What is the ratio of
Wavelenght of X
=?
Wavelenght of Y

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

1 2 3 2
a. b. c. d.
2 3 2 1
12. The tip of a needle does not give a sharp image. It is due to;
a. Polarisation b. Interference c. Diffraction d. Refraction
1. a 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. b 7. d 8. b 9. c 10. c 11. c 12. c
Write short answer of the following questions
1. A soap bubble looks black when it burst, why?
Answer: Colourful fringes in the soap bubble are the result of interference in thin films. For interference in
thin films, path difference and phase change both are responsible. When the thickness of the soap bubble
decreases to a certain limit or at the verge of bursting, the path difference become zero (∆t = 0) but the

phase change ( 180 = ) responsible for the complete destructive interference and the soap bubble seems
2
to be black at time of bursting.
2. What is the difference between interference and diffraction?
Answer: The clear difference between the interference and diffraction are given below;
i. Interference is the superposition of two coherent waves.
ii. Interference pattern formed on the screen is of uniform width.
iii. Intensity corresponds to the constructive interference is uniform.
a. Diffraction is the bending of light across the sharp of an obstacle or spreading of light.
b. Diffraction pattern obtained is the superposition of large number of wavelets in a single wave
passing through a single slit or the superposition of large number of waves passing through multi-
slits (Grating).
c. Diffraction fringes on the screen are not of uniform width.
d. In diffraction pattern, the intensity of zeroth order is maximum and decreases with the increase of
order.
3. In a Michelson interferometer, a second glass plate is also used. Why?
Answer: In Michelson interferometer, the vertical ray passes twice from the beam splitter, reduces the
wavelength twice. Therefore, to make the two rays identical, the horizontal ray must pass twice from the
same material of same thickness to produce stable interference. Therefore, a second glass plate which is
called compensator is used to compensate the wavelength of the horizontal ray.
4. How you can explain the Brewster law of polarisation?
Answer: According to the Brewster law, thepolarisation of light by reflection can take at certain angle of
incidence which is equal to the ratio of refractive indices of denser to rare mediums”.
When an unpolarised light falls on a glass, water etc, the reflected light is partially plane polarised but at
certain angle of incidence called polarising angle. At this angle the reflected and refracted are found to be
at right angle.
Applying the Snell law; n1 sin i p = n2 sin r ----------------------- (1)

Where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the rare and denser medium. From the diagram;
i p + 90 + r = 180  r = 90 − i p
Hence, putting this value in equation (1), we get;

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

n1 sin i p = n2 sin(90 − i p )
n1 sin i p = n2 cos ip

n2 sin i p
= = tan i p
n1 cos i p
n2
tan i p = ------------------------------- (2)
n1
This equation (2) is known as Brewster law. For glass of refractive index is 1.55, the angle of incidence is
ip = 57º.
5. What is meant by the path difference with reference to the interference of two wave motion?
Answer: The difference in lengths covered by the two waves originating from the two slits superpose each
at a point is called path difference. The interference depends on the path difference of the two waves. If the
path difference between the two waves is 0, , 2, 3, .........= m (m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...) , a constructive
interference will be take place. If the path difference between the two waves to superpose each other is,
 3 5 1
, , , .........= (m+ ) (m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...) , a destructive interference will take place.
2 2 2 2
6. Why it is not possible to see interference where the light beams from the head lamps of a car overlap?
Answer: The important conditions to observe the interference of light are the supposition of two coherent
and monochromatic light waves originating from two coherent monochromatic sources having small
separation. So, the heads light of the car produce non coherent, polychromatic light and are at large
distance from one another. Therefore, they cannot produce stable interference to observe.
7. A telephone pole casts a clear shadow in the light from the distant head lamp of a car but no such effect is
noticed for the sound from the car horn. Why?
Answer: A clear shadow of the pole in the light from the head lamp of a car shows that there is no
diffraction of light take place because for diffraction to be take place, the wavelength should be comparable
to the size of the obstacle. However, sound have a wavelength comparable the size of the pole and can be
diffracted through the pole. Therefore, we observe the clear shadow but not clear sound.
8. Why it is not possible to obtain the diffraction of X-rays by Young double slit experiment?
Answer: For diffraction of light, the wavelength of light should be comparable to the size of the obstacle or
the opening of the slit. Diffraction will more prominent, if the wavelength become greater than the slit
spacing. For ordinary visible light, the slit spacing in Young double slits experiment is comparable to the
wavelength of visible light and diffracted. However, the wavelength of X-rays (~10-10 m) is very less than
the spacing of the slit, therefore it is not possible to obtain the diffraction of X-rays.
9. Can we apply Huygens principle to radar waves?
Answer: Radar waves are electromagnetic radio waves emitted from radar in all direction. The propagation
of these waves exactly according to the Huygens principle in which each point on the wave front is the
source of secondary wavelets move with the speed of wave motion.
10. How would you justify that light waves are transverse?
Answer: Interference and diffraction effects had proved that light is wave, but these phenomena were
unable to tell us about the type of wave i.e. whether the light waves are transverse or longitudinal. The
polarization phenomena for light were able to prove that light is a transverse wave. In polarisation, the
transverse vibrations are block by the slit while the parallel vibrations are allowed to pass contain all
vibrations in single plane. This property is only exhibited by transverse wave.

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

Problems
1. In a young double slit experiment, the separation of the slit is 1 mm and red light of wavelength 620 nm is
falling on it. Determine the distance between the central bright band and the fifth bright fringe on the
screen which is 3 m away from the slits.
Solution: d = 1 mm = 1×10-3 m,  = 620 nm = 620 10-9 m , L = 3 m, m = 5,Y5(bright) = ?
We know that the position of 5th bright fringe is;
m L 5  620 10-9  3
Y5(bright ) = = −3
=9.3 10-3 m = 9.3 mm
d 110
Y5(bright ) = 9.3 mm
2. Two parallel slits are illuminated by light of two wavelengths, one of which is 5.8×10 -7 m. On the screen
the fourth dark line of the known wavelength coincides with the fifth bright line of the light of unknown
wavelength. Find the unknown wavelength.
Solution: 1 = 5.8 10−7 m , m1(dark) = 4 m2(bright) = 5 1 = ?
Y4( dark ) = Y5(bright) − − − − − − − (1)

1 L L 1 L L
(m1 + ) 1 = m2 2 Y1( dark ) = (m1 + ) 1 and Y2(bright) = m2 2
2 d d 2 d d
1 1
(m1 + )1 (4 + )  5.8 10−7
2 = 2 = 2 = 5.2 10−7 m
m2 5
2 = 5.2 10−7 m
3. When the movable mirror of the Michelson interferometer is moved 0.1 mm. How many dark fringes pass
through the reference point, if light of wavelength 580 nm is used?
Solution: P = 0.1 mm = 0.1×10-3 m,  = 580 nm = 580 10−9 m , m=?
We know that the displacement of the movable is given by;
m 2P
P= m= − − − − − − − (1) putting the values in equation (1) we get;
2 
2  0.110−3
m= = 345 fringes
580 10−9
m = 345 fringes
4. When movable mirror on the Michelson interferometer is moved in one direction, 400 fringes appear to
pass through the field of view when light of wavelength of 500 nm is used. What is the distance through
which the mirror has been moved?
Solution: Number of fringes = m = 400,  = 500 nm = 500 10−9 m , P = ?
m 400  500 10−9
P= = = 1.0  10 − 4 m = 0.1 mm
2 2
5. A soap film has a refractive index of 1.40. How thick must be the film, if it appears black, when mercury
light of wavelength 546.1 nm falls on it normally?
Solution: Refractive index = n = 1.40,  = 546.1 nm = 546.110−9 m , thickness = ∆t = ?

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Prof. Dr. Aurang Zeb Unit – 9

The expression for the thickness, refractive index and wavelength in case of thin film is;
 546.110−9
2nt =   t = = = 1.95  10−9 m = 1.95 nm
2n 2 1.40
6. A diffraction grating has 5000 lines per centimetre. At what angle does the second order spectrum of the
sodium yellow light of wavelength 589 nm occurs?
1 1 1 cm 110−2 m
Solution: N = 5000 lines/cm, d= = = = = 0.2×10-5 m
N 5000 / cm 5000 5000
 = 589 nm = 589 10−9 m , m=2 θ=?

 m  −1  2  589 10 
−9
We know that; d sin  = m   = sin −1   = sin  −5  = 0.34
 d   0.2 10 
7. Light is incident normally on diffraction grating which has 250 lines/mm. Find the wavelength of the
spectral line for which the deviation in second order is 12º.
1 1 1 mm 110−3 m
Solution: N = 250 lines/mm, d= = = = = 4  10−6 m
N 250 / m m 250 250
 = ?, m = 2 θ = 12º

d sin  4 10−6  sin12

We know that; d sin  = m   = = = 4158 10−10 m
m 2
8. In a certain X-rays diffraction experiment, the first order image is observed at an angle of 5º for a crystal
plane spacing of 2.8×10-10 m. what is the wavelength of X-rays used?
Solution: m = 1, θ = 5º d = 2.8×10-10 m,  =?
2d sin  2  2.8 10 −10  sin 5
From Bragg’s law; 2d sin  = m   = = = 0.49  10−10 m
m 1
9. An X-rays beam of wavelength of 0.48×10-10 m is used to get Braggs reflection from a crystal at an angle
of 20º for the first order maximum. What are the possible layer plane spacing which give rise to this
maximum?
Solution: m = 1, θ = 20º  = 0.48 10−10 m d=?

m 1 0.48 10−10
From Bragg’s law; 2d sin  = m  d = = = 0.70 10−10 m
2sin  2  sin 20
10. The spacing of one set of crystal planes in NaCl d =0.282 nm. A monochromatic beam of X-rays
produces a Bragg’s maximum when its glancing angle is 7º. Assuming that this is a first order maximum (m
= 1). Find the wavelength of x-rays?
Solution: m = 1, θ = 7º d = 0.282 nm=0.282x10-9 m,  = ?
From Bragg’s law;
2d sin  2  0.282  10 −9  sin 7
2dsin  = m   = = = 0.069  10 −9 m = 0.069 nm
m 1

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