INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

INTRODUCTION
An internal combustion (I.C.) engine is basically a heat engine in which
combustion takes place inside the engine. The fuel supplies the thermal (heat) energy
when it burns inside the I.C. engine. E.g. petrol engine, diesel engine etc.
An engine in which combustion takes place outside the engine is called external
combustion (E.C.) engine. E.g. Steam engine.
Many experimental engines were developed till 1878. But the breakthrough in
engine technology was achieved when German engineer Otto built the famous Otto
(petrol-operated) engine.

THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The basic mechanism used in an IC engine is a piston which moves linearly inside
the engine cylinder and force is applied on this piston due to fuel combustion. Due to this
force acting on the piston, the piston moves and hence work is done which is utilized in
various domestic and industrial applications. The reciprocating motion (linear motion)
of the piston is converted into rotary motion with the help of linkages.

APPLICATIONS OF IC ENGINES
• They find wide applications in transportation in the form of road, rail, airway and
water way engines.
• They are used in electrical power generation.
• They are used in civil engineering (construction) and industrial applications.
• IC engines have replaced steam engines used in transportation. They are efficient
than boilers since they are light in weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

IC engines are classified based on:
1. Thermodynamic cycles
• Otto cycle known as constant volume cycle.
 • Diesel cycle known as constant pressure cycle.
• Dual cycle which is a combination of both constant volume and constant
pressure.
• Other cycles: Stirling cycle, Ericsson cycle, Lenoir cycle, Atkinson cycle and
Brayton cycle.
2. Type of fuel used
• Engines using volatile liquid fuels ignited by spark ignition (S.I. engines) or
compression ignition (C.I. engines). (S.I. engines - Spark Ignition engines ;
C.I. engines - Compression Ignition engines).
• Engines using gaseous fuels like CNG, LPG, blast furnace gas, biogas etc.
• Engines using solid fuels in the form of coal and charcoal which are combusted
externally (outside the engine cylinder).
• Dual fuel engines which use a mixture of fuels to improve efficiency and/or
economy.
3. Method of charging
• Naturally aspirated engines in which air or sir-fuel mixture (A/F mixture)
which is close to atmospheric pressure is admitted in to the engine.
• The air or A/F mixture is first compressed to higher pressure and then let in to
the engine.
4. Number of strokes
• Two stroke and four stroke engines.
5. Applications
• Stationary engines and mobile engines.
6. Cooling of engine
• Air-cooled, water-cooled and liquid-cooled engines.
7. Type of ignition
• Battery ignition and magneto ignition.
8. Speed-based
• High speed, medium speed and low speed engines.
9. Power-based
 • High power, medium power and low power engines.
10. Cylinder arrangement
• Single cylinder (for low power), and
• Multicylinder (uses more than on e cylinder to generate power. Multicylinder
engines are classified as: o In-line cylinders: Here all cylinders are arranged
linearly in the engine. o „V‟-engines: Here the cylinders are arranged in the
form of the letter „V‟ and two cylinders transmit power to a single mechanism.
• Radial engines: Cylinders are arranged radially around a common power
transmission arrangement.
11. Type of motion
• Reciprocating engines and rotary engines.

BASIC PROCESS
The reciprocating IC engine, in an operating cycle, has the following processes involved:
• Fuel and its oxidizer (air).
• Ignition of fuel to convert chemical energy into thermal energy.
• Generation of force to produce output power, and
• Exhaust of the burnt gases.

MAJOR PARTS OF AN IC ENGINE

1. Cylinder block: The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for engine
components. It houses cylinders, cylinder head and water jacket (in case of water-
cooled engines) or cooling fins (air-cooled engines). The bottom portion of the
cylinder block is called crank case where lubricating oil sump is present.
2. Cylinder: This is the cylindrical portion in which the piston moves up and down.
The varying volume inside the cylinder is due to reciprocation of the piston, which
finally leads to generation of force.
3. Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is closed by a removable cylinder
head. The cylinder head consists of two valves the inlet valves and the exhaust
valves.
4. Piston: It is an air-tight and gas-tight movable cylindrical component which
reciprocates inside the cylinder. Working fluid h=generates force on the piston
which transmits power to the moving linkages.
5. Combustion chamber: This is the space between the piston and the cylinder head
where combustion of fuel takes place. Here the fuel releases thermal energy and
exerts high pressure and temperature on the piston.
6. Inlet manifold: This is the [passage which connects the intake gas into the inlet
valve of the engine and through which air or A/F mixture is drawn in to the
cylinder.
7. Inlet and exhaust valves: These are mechanical members which are provided at
the top or side of the cylinder for intake of charge and exhaust of gases. In a two
stroke engine, valves are replaced by ports which open and close by the surface
of the piston.
8. Spark plug or injector: The SI engine has spark plug and the CI engine has
injector for the fuel to be ignited. They are normally mounted on top of the
cylinder.
9. Connecting rod: It links the piston with the crank and transmits the force
exerted by the gases on the piston. Its small end is connected to the piston using
a gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crank pin.
10. Crank: Crank transmits the motion given by the connecting rod to the rotary
motion of the crankshaft. One end of the crank is connected to the connected rod
and the other end to the crankshaft.
11. Crankshaft: It is the principal rotating component of any engine through which
power is transmitted to the wheels or other systems. It is enclosed in a crank
case where lubricating oil is present and using splash method, the shaft bearing
and the connecting road are lubricated.
12. Piston rings: These are fitted to the slot provided around the piston and form a
tight seal between cylinder and the piston wall.
13. Compression rings: The compression rings press the cylinder walls hard, forming
a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder. This prevents escape of high
pressure gases into the crank case.
14. Oil rings: The function of oil rings is to extract the lubricating oil from the cylinder
walls and send it back to the oil sump (crank case) through the holes provided on
the piston.
 15. Cams: These are connected to the camshaft using a simple gear arrangement and
operate at half the speed of the crankshaft. Cams have followers, push rod and
rocker arm linked to the inlet and outlet valves.
16. Flywheel: It is mounted on the crankshaft and eliminates the cyclic fluctuations
created by gases inside the engine. It is heavy circular mass gets energy during
power stroke and gives it back during other strokes of the engine.
17. Carburettor: It is provided in the petrol engine for proper mixing of air and fuel.
18. Feed pump: It is provided in the diesel engine to pump fuel to the injector which
is kept on the cylinder head.

IC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

1. Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore.

2. Top dead center (TDC): The extreme position of the piston nearer to the cylinder
head is called top dead center or TDC.

3. Bottom dead center (BDC): The extreme position of the piston nearer to the
crankshaft is called bottom dead center or BDC.

4. Stroke: It is the linear distance travelled by the piston from the TDC to BDC or BDC
to TDC.
 5. Clearance volume (Vc): It is the volume of cylinder above the top of the piston,
when the piston is at the TDC.

6. Swept volume or Stroke volume (Vs): It is the volume swept by the piston as it
moves from BDC to TDC or TDC to BDC.

7. Compression ratio (RC): The ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance
volume is called the compression ratio.

8. Total cylinder volume = Stroke volume (Vs) + Clearance volume (Vc)

9. Piston Speed: The average speed of the piston is called „piston speed‟.

Piston Speed = 2 . L . N
where L = Stroke length in m (metres); N = Speed of engine in rpm (rev per min).

4-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

The working principle of a 4-stroke Petrol engine is based on theoretical Otto
cycle. Hence it is also known as Otto cycle engine. A 4-stroke petrol engine performs
four different strokes to complete one cycle. The working of each stroke is shown in the
figure below and its details have been discussed further.
1. Suction stroke
At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, the piston
moves from TDC to BDC. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. As
the piston moves downwards, suction is created in the cylinder as a result, fresh air-
petrol mixture (charge) is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. As the piston
reaches BDC, the suction stroke completes and inlet valve closes. The suction stroke is
represented by the line AB on P- V diagram as shown in the figure.4.

P-V diagram
2. Compression stroke
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke the piston
moves from BDC to TDC. Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves
upwards, the air -petrol mixture in the cylinder is compressed adiabatically. The
pressure and temperature of the charge increases and this is shown by the curve BC on
the P- V diagram. When the piston reaches the TDC, the spark plug ignites the charge.
The combustion of the fuel takes place at the constant volume and is shown by a line CD
on the P- V diagram. The compression ratio in petrol engines ranges from 7:1 to 11:1.
3. Power stroke/Expansion stroke/Working stroke
At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke piston moves
from TDC to BDC. Both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. The combustion of fuel
liberates gases and these gases starts expanding. Due to expansion, the hot gases exert a
large force on the piston and as a result the piston is pushed from TDC to BDC. The power
impulse is transmitted down through the piston to the crank shaft through the
connecting rod. This causes crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is obtained in
this stroke. Hence, this stroke is also called working stroke. Also gas expands and does
work on the piston so this stroke is also called an expansion stroke.
The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and this is shown by the curve DE
on P- V diagram. As the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens. A part of the
burnt gases escape through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to their own
expansion.

4. Exhaust stroke
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke the piston moves
from BDC to TDC. The inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is opened. As the piston
moves upward, it forces the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder to the atmosphere
through the exhaust valve. This is shown by the line EB and SA on P- V diagram. When
the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes and this completes the cycle.
In the next cycle the piston which is at TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh
charge to enter the cylinder and the process continues. The working principle of a 4-
stroke diesel engine is based on theoretical diesel cycle. Hence it is also called diesel
cycle engine.
 A 4-stroke diesel engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle of
operation. The 4 different strokes are
1. Suction Stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power Stroke (Expansion Stroke or Working Stroke)
4. Exhaust Stroke

The details regarding the working of each stroke and the theoretical diesel cycle have
been shown in the respective diagrams.

1. Suction stroke
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves from
TDC to BDC. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. The downward
movement of the piston creates suction in the cylinder and as a result, fresh air is drawn
into the cylinder through the inlet valve. When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction
stroke completes and this is represented by the line AS on P-V diagram as shown in the
figure.
2. Compression stroke
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke piston moves from
BDC to TDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards,
air in the cylinder is compressed to a high pressure and temperature. The compression
process is adiabatic in nature and is shown by the curve BC in P-V diagram. At the end of
the stroke, the fuel (diesel) is sprayed into the cylinder by fuel injector. As the fuel comes
in contact with the hot compressed air, it gets ignited and undergoes combustion at
constant pressure. This process is shown by the line CD on PV diagram. At the point D
fuel supply is cutoff. The compression ratio ranges from 16:1 to 20:1.
3. Power stroke / Expansion stroke/ Working stroke
At the beginning of this stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves from
TDC to BDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valve remain closed. As combustion of fuel takes
place, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston. Due to this, piston is
pushed from TDC the BDC. The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston
to the crank shaft through the connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high
speeds. Thus work is obtained in this stroke.
The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and this is shown by the curve DE on P- V
diagram. When the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens. A part of burnt gases
escapes through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to self expansion. The drop in
pressure at constant volume is shown by the line EB on P- V diagram.
4. Exhaust stroke
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during this stroke, piston moves from
BDC to TDC. The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened. As the piston moves
upward, it forces the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve.
This is shown by the line SA on P- V diagram. When the piston reaches the TDC the
exhaust valve closes. This completes the cycle. In the next cycle the piston which is at the
TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh air to enter into the cylinder and the process
continues.
 P-V diagram
TWO STROKE ENGINES
In a 2-stroke engine, ports are present in the cylinder in place of valves. The
ports are the openings in the cylinder opened and closed by the movement of piston
within the cylinder. There are three ports, namely
1. Inlet port: Through which admitting of charge into the crankcase takes place.
2. Transfer port: Through which the charge is transferred from the crankcase to
the cylinder.
3. Exhaust port: Through which the burnt gases are discharged out of the
cylinder.

In a 2-stroke engine, piston performs two different strokes or crankshaft

completes one revolution to complete all the operations of the working cycle. In these
engines there are no suction and exhaust strokes, instead they are performed while the
compression and power strokes are in progress. Based on the type of fuel used, 2-stroke
engines are classified as 2-stroke petrol engines and 2-stroke diesel engines.
Comparison of Petrol engine (S.I. engine) and Diesel engine (C.I. engine) (S.I. – Spark
Ignition; C.I. - Compression Ignition)

SI.
Petrol Engine (S.I. Engine) Diesel Engine (C.I. Engine)
No.
Draws a mixture of petrol and air
1 Draws only air during suction stroke.
during suction stroke
The carburettor is employed to mix air
2 The injector is employed to inject the fuel at
and petrol in the required proportion
the end of compression stroke.
and to supply it to the engine during
suction stroke.
Compression ratio ranges from 8:1 to
3 Compression ratio ranges from 15:1 to 20:1
12:1
4 The ignition of the diesel is accomplished by
The charge (petrol and air mixture) is the compressed air which will have been
ignited with the help of spark plug. heated due to high compression ratio, to the
This type of ignition is called spark temperature higher than the ignition
ignition. temperature of the diesel. This type of
ignition is called compression ignition.
The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place
5
approximately at constant volume. approximately at constant pressure.
6 Works on theoretical Otto Cycle. Works on theoretical Diesel Cycle.
7 Power developed is less. Power developed is more.
Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is higher.
8
It is up to about 25 to 30% It is up to about 35%.
9 These are high speed engines These are low speed engines.
10 The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more.
The running cost is high because of The running cost is low because of
11
the higher cost of petrol. lower cost of diesel
Lighter and cheaper because of low Heavier and costlier because of high
12
compression ratio compression ratio.
 Comparison between 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke I.C. Engines

SI. No 2-Stroke Engine 4-Stroke Engine

1. Requires two separate strokes to complete Requires four separate strokes to

one cycle of operation. complete one cycle of operation.

2. Power is developed in every revolution of Power is developed for every

the crankshaft revolutions of the crankshaft.
3. The inlet, transfer and exhaust The inlet and exhaust are opened and
ports are opened and closed by the closed by the valves.
movement of piston itself.
4. Turing moment is not uniform and Turing moment is uniform and hence
hence requires a heavier flywheel. Requires lighter flywheel.
5. The charge is first admitted into the The charge is directly admitted in to
crankcase and then transferred to the the engine cylinder during the suction
engine cylinder. stroke.
6. For the same power developed the For the same power developed the
engine is heavy and bulky. Engine is light and compact.

7. Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.

Requires lesser lubricant and coolant.

8. Requires greater lubricant and coolant.

9. Fuel consumption is more. Fuel consumption is less.

10.
Initial cost is less. Initial cost is more.