5/17/2017

HEADWORKS

Subject: Irrigation Engineering (ID-605)

[Link] Ahmed Shaikh

Headwork: Definition and Types

Any hydraulic structure which
supplies water to the off-taking
canal is called a headwork.

Headwork may be divided into

two:

Storage headwork.

Diversion headwork.

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Storage Head Works

Dam is constructed across a river valley
to form storage reservoir, known as
storage head works.

Water is supplied to the canal from this

reservoir through canal regulator.

These serves for multipurpose function

like hydro- electric power generation,
flood control, fishery.

Diversion Head Works

Weir or barrage is constructed

across a perennial river to raise
water level and to divert the water
to canal, is known as diversion
head work.

Flow of water in the canal is

controlled by canal head regulator.

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Objective of Diversion Head Work

It raises the water level on its upstream side.

It regulates the supply of water into canals.

It controls the entry of silt into canals

It creates a small pond (not reservoir) on its upstream and
provides some pondage.
It helps in controlling the fluctuation of water level in river
during different seasons.

Site Selection For Diversion Head Work

The river section at the site should be narrow and well-defined.

The river should have high, well-defined, in erodible and non-submersible banks
so that the cost of river training works is minimum.

The canals taking off from the diversion head works should be quite economical
and should have a large commanded area.

The site should be such that the weir (or barrage) can be aligned at right angles to
the direction of flow in the river.

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There should be suitable arrangement for the diversion of river during construction.

There should be suitable locations for the under sluices, head regulator and other
components of the diversion head works.

The diversion head works should not submerge costly land and property on its upstream.

Good foundation should be available at the site.

The required materials of construction should be available near the site.

The site should be easily accessible by road or rail.

The overall cost of the project should be a minimum.

Components of a Diversion Headwork

Weir or barrage

Undersluices

Divide wall

Fish ladder

Canal head regulator

Silt excluders/ Silt prevention devices

River training works (Marginal bunds and guide banks)

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Marginal Bunds

Guide Banks

Silt Excluder

Components
Divide Wall
Head Regulator of a Diversion
Headwork
Fish Ladder

Under Sluices Proper Weir / Barrage

Weir
Normally the water level of any perennial river is such that it cannot be
diverted to the irrigation canal.

The bed level of the canal may be higher than the existing water level of the
river.

In such cases weir is constructed across the river to raise the water level.

Surplus water pass over the crest of weir.

Adjustable shutters are provided on the crest to raise the water level to some
required height.

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Gravity and Non-gravity weirs

When the weight of the weir (i.e. its body and floor) balances the uplift pressure
caused by the head of the water seeping below the weir, it is called a gravity weir.

On the other hand, if the weir floor is designed continuous with the divide piers as
reinforced structure, such that the weight of concrete slab together with the weight
of divide piers keep the structure safe against the uplift then the structure may be
called as a non-gravity weir.

In the latter case, RCC is to be used in place of brick piers

Considerable savings may be obtained, as the weight of the floor can be much
less than what is required in gravity weir.

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Types of Weir: Vertical Drop Weir

A crest gate may be provided to store more water during flood period.

At the upstream and downstream ends of impervious floor cut off piles
are provided.

Launching apron are provided both at upstream and downstream ends

of floor to safeguard against scouring action.

A graded filter is provided immediately at the downstream end of

impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure.

This type of weir is suitable for any type of foundation.

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Types of Weir: Sloping Weir of Concrete

This type is suitable for soft sandy foundation.

It is used where difference in weir crest and downstream

riverbed is not more than 3 m.

Hydraulic jump is formed when water passes over the

sloping glacis.

Weir of this type is of recent origin.

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Types of Weir: Parabolic Weir:

A parabolic weir is almost similar to spillway section of dam.

The weir body wall for this weir is designed as low dam.

A cistern is provided at downstream.

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Types of Weir: Dry Stone Slopping Weir:

• It is dry stone or rock fill weir.
• It consists of body wall and upstream and downstream dry
stones are laid in the form of glacis with some intervening core
wall.

Barrage

When the water level on the up stream side of the weir is required
to be raised to different levels at different time, barrage is
constructed.

Barrage is an arrangement of adjustable gates or shutters at

different tires over the weir.

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Barrage Weir
Low set crest High set crest
Ponding is done by means of gates Ponding is done against the raised crest or
partly against crest and partly by shutters
Gated over entire length Shutters in part length
Gates are of greater height Shutters are of smaller height, 2 m
Perfect control on river flow No control of river in low floods
High floods can be passed with minimum afflux Excessive afflux in high flood
Less silting upstream due to low set crest Raised crest causes silting upstream
Longer construction period Shorter construction period
Silt removal is done through under sluices No means for silt removal
Costly structure Relatively cheaper structure

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Under Sluices
Also known as scouring sluices.

The under sluices are the openings provided at the base of the weir or barrage.
These openings are provided with adjustable gates. Normally, the gates are kept
closed.

The suspended silt goes on depositing in front of the canal head regulator.
When the silt deposition becomes appreciable the gates are opened and the
deposited silt is loosened with an agitator mounting on a boat.

The muddy water flows towards the downstream through the scouring sluices.

The gates are then closed. But, at the period of flood, the gates are kept opened.

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Divide Wall
The divide wall is a long wall constructed at right angles in the weir or barrage, it may be
constructed with stone masonry or cement concrete.
On the upstream side, the wall is extended just to cover the canal head regulator and on the
downstream side, it is extended up to the launching apron.
To form a still water pocket in front of the canal head so that the suspended silt can be
settled down which then later be cleaned through the scouring sluices from time to time.

It controls the eddy current or cross current in front of the canal head.

It provides a straight approach in front of the canal head.

It resists the overturning effect on the weir or barrage caused by the pressure of the
impounding water.

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Fish Ladder
The fish ladder is provided just by the side of the divide wall for the free movement of
fishes.

Rivers are important source of fishes (anadromous).

The tendency of fish is to move from upstream to downstream in winters and from
downstream to upstream in monsoons.

This movement is essential for their survival.

Due to construction of weir or barrage, this movement gets obstructed, and is detrimental to
the fishes.
In the fish ladder, the fable walls are constructed in a zigzag manner so that the velocity of
flow within the ladder does not exceed 3 m/sec.
The width, length and height of the fish ladder depend on the nature of the river and the
type of the weir or barrage.

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Canal Head Regulator

A structure which is constructed at the head of the canal to regulate flow of
water is known as canal head regulator.
It consists of a number of piers which divide the total width of the canal into
a number of spans which are known as bays.

The piers consist of number tiers on which the adjustable gates are placed.

The gates are operated form the top by suitable mechanical device.
A platform is provided on the top of the piers for the facility of operating the
gates.
Again some piers are constructed on the down stream side of the canal head
to support the roadway.

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Functions of Canal Head Regulator

It regulates the supply of water entering the canal

It controls the entry of silt in the canal

It prevents the river-floods from entering the canal

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Silt Regulation Works

The entry of silt into a canal, which takes off from a head works, can be
reduced by constructed certain special works, called silt control works.

These works may be classified into the following two types:

Silt Excluders

Silt Ejectors

Silt Excluders
Silt excluders are those works which are constructed on the bed
of the river, upstream of the head regulator.

The clearer water enters the head regulator and silted water enters
the silt excluder.

In this type of works, the silt is, therefore,, removed from the
water before it enters the canal.

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Silt Ejectors
Silt ejectors, also called silt extractors, are those devices which
extract the silt from the canal water after the silted water has travelled a
certain distance in the off-take canal.

These works are, therefore, constructed on the bed of the canal, and
little distance downstream from the head regulator.

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River Training Works

River training works are required near the weir site in order to ensure a
smooth and an axial flow of water, and thus, to prevent the river from
outflanking the works due to a change in its course.

The river training works required on a canal headwork are:

Guide banks
Marginal bunds
Spurs or Groynes

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Guide Bank
When a barrage is constructed across a river which flows through the
alluvial soil, the guide banks must be constructed on both the
approaches to protect the structure from erosion.
It protects the barrage from the effect of scouring and erosion.

It provides a straight approach towards the barrage.

It controls the tendency of changing the course of the river.

It controls the velocity of flow near the structure.

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Marginal Bunds
The marginal bunds are earthen embankments which are constructed parallel
to the river bank on one or both the banks according to the condition.
The top width is generally 3 m to 4 m.
The side slope on the river side is generally 1.5: 1 and that on the country
side is 2:1.
It prevents the flood water or storage water from entering the surrounding
area which may be submerged or may be water logged.
It retains the flood water or storage water within a specified section.
It protects the towns and villages from devastation during the heavy flood.
It protects valuable agricultural lands.

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Spurs or Groynes
Groynes are the embankments type structure, constructed traverse the river
flow.

It extends from bank into the river

They may be also called spur or traverse dykes.

They are constructed to protect the banks by the deflecting the current away
from the bank.

It requires heavy pitching at nose to sustain tremendous water pressure

They may be built perpendicular to the bank line or inclined upstream or

downstream.

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[Link]. Spur Groyne

1 It is a temporary structure. It is a permanent structure.
2 It is permeable. It is impermeable.
It is constructed with bamboo
It is constructed with rubble
3 pile, timber pile, sand bag,
masonry with cement mortar.
boulders etc.
It does not require any repair
4 It requires repair works.
work.
It is recommended for small It is recommended for large
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rivers. rivers.
It is useful for low or medium It is suitable for high velocity of
6
velocity of flow flow.

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Failure of Structure: Causes

Irrigation structures (or hydraulic structures) for the diversion and distribution works are
weirs, barrages, head regulators, distributary head regulators, cross regulators, cross-
drainage works, etc.

These structures are generally founded on alluvial soils which are highly pervious.

These soils are easily scoured when the high velocity water passes over the structures.

The failures of weirs constructed on the permeable foundation may occur due to various
causes, which may be broadly classified into the following two categories:

Failure due to subsurface flow

Failure due to surface flow

1. Failure due to- Subsurface flow: Piping or Undermining

Water from the upstream side continuously percolates through the bottom of the foundation
and emerges at the downstream end of the weir or barrage floor.

The force of percolating water removes the soil particles by scouring at the point of
emergence.

As the process of removal of soil particles goes on continuously, a depression is formed

which extends backwards towards the upstream through the bottom of the foundation.

A hollow pipe like formation thus develops under the foundation due to which the weir or
barrage may fail by subsiding.

This phenomenon is known as failure by piping or undermining.

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1. Failure due to- Subsurface flow: Direct Uplift

The percolating water exerts an
upward pressure on the
foundation of the weir or barrage.

If this uplift pressure is not

counterbalanced by the self
weight of the structure, it may fail
by rapture.

2. Failure due to- Surface Flow: By Hydraulic Jump

When the water flows with a very high
velocity over the crest of the weir or
over the gates of the barrage, then
hydraulic jump develops.

This hydraulic jump causes a suction

pressure or negative pressure on the
downstream side which acts in the
direction uplift pressure.

If the thickness of the impervious floor

is not sufficient, then the structure fails
by rapture.

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2. Failure due to Surface Flow: By scouring

During floods, the gates of the
barrage are kept open and the water
flows with high velocity.

The water may also flow with very

high velocity over the crest of the weir.

Both the cases can result in scouring

effect on the downstream and on the
upstream side of the structure.

Due to scouring of the soil on both sides

of the structure, its stability gets
endangered by shearing.

Remedies Against Failure

The structure should be designed such that the piping failure does not occur due to
subsurface flow.

The downstream pile must be provided to reduce the exit gradient and to prevent piping.

An impervious floor of adequate length is provided to increase the path of percolation and
to reduce the hydraulic gradient and the seepage force.

The seepage path is increased by providing piles and impervious floor to reduce the uplift
pressure.

The thickness of the floor should be sufficient to resist the uplift pressure due to subsurface
flow.

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A suitably graded inverted filter should be provided at the downstream end of

the impervious floor to check the migration of soil particles along with water.

The filter layer is loaded with concrete blocks.

The piles (or cut-off walls) at the upstream and downstream ends of the
impervious floor should be provided upto the maximum scour level to protect
the main structure against scour.

The launching aprons should be provided at the upstream and downstream

ends to provide a cover to the main structure against scour.

A device is required at the downstream to dissipate energy. For large

drops, hydraulic jump is used to dissipate the energy.

Additional thickness of the impervious floor is provided at the point

where the hydraulic jump is formed to counterbalance the suction
pressure.

The floor is constructed as a monolithic structure to develop bending

resistance (or beam action) to resist the suction pressure.

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Bligh’s Creep Theory for Seepage Flow

According to Bligh’s Theory, the percolating water follows the outline of the base
of the foundation of the hydraulic structure.

In other words, water creeps along the bottom contour of the structure.

The length of the path thus traversed by water is called the length of the creep.

Further, it is assumed in this theory, that the loss of head is proportional to the
length of the creep.

If HL is the total head loss between the upstream and the downstream, and L is the
length of creep, then the loss of head per unit of creep length (i.e. HL/L) is called
the hydraulic gradient.

Further, Bligh makes no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.

Consider a section a shown in Fig shown next.

Let HL be the difference of water levels between

upstream and downstream ends.

Water will seep along the bottom contour as

shown by arrows.

It starts percolating at A and emerges at B.

The total length of creep is given by

L = d1 + d1 + L1 + d2 + d2 + L2 + d3 + d3
= (L1+ L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
= b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)

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𝑯𝑳 𝑯𝑳
Head loss per unit length or hydraulic gradient = =
𝒃+𝟐 𝒅𝟏 +𝒅𝟐 +𝒅𝟑 𝑳
𝐻𝐿
Head losses equal to × 2𝑑1 ,
𝐿
𝐻𝐿
× 2𝑑2 ,
𝐿
𝐻𝐿
× 2𝑑3 will occur respectively, in the planes
𝐿
of three vertical cut offs.

The hydraulic gradient line (H.G. Line) can then be drawn by joining
them.

Bligh’s Solution: Safety Against Piping or Undermining

According to Bligh, the safety against piping can be ensured by providing
sufficient creep length, given by L = [Link],

Where C is the Bligh’s Coefficient for the soil. Different values of C

for different types of soils are tabulated in Table below:

The hydraulic gradient i.e. HL/L is then equal to 1/C. Hence, it may be
stated that the hydraulic gradient must be kept under a safe limit in order to
ensure safety against piping.
[Link]. Type of Soil Value of C Safe Hydraulic
gradient should be
less than
1 Fine micaceous sand 15 1/15
2 Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
3 Sand mixed with boulder and gravel, and for loam soil 5 to 9 1/5 to 1/9
4 Light sand and mud 8 1/8

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Bligh’s Solution: Safety Against Uplift Pressure

The ordinates of the H.G line above the bottom of the floor represent the residual uplift water head at each point.

Say for example, if at any point, the ordinate of H.G line above the bottom of the floor is 1 m, then 1 m head of
water will act as uplift at that point.

If h′ meters is this ordinate, then water pressure equal to h′ meters will act at this point, and has to be
counterbalanced by the weight of the floor of thickness say t.

Uplift pressure = γw ×h′ [where γw is the unit weight of water]

Downward pressure = (γw ×G).t [Where G is the specific gravity of the floor material]
ℎ′ − 𝑡 ℎ
For equilibrium, γw ×h′ = γw ×G. t 𝑡 =
𝐺−1
=
𝐺−1
h′ – t = h
Then, we have, h′ = G × t G=Submerged
specific gravity
of the floor
Subtracting t on both sides, we get , (h′ – t) = (G×t – t) = t (G – 1) material

Examples: Stability Check Against Piping

If, H = 9.57 m , L = 106 m. Then 𝐻 1
For Coarse Sand, ≤
check the stability for fine sand, 𝐿 𝐶
coarse sand and clay soil? For coarse sand value of 𝐶 = 12
9.57 1
≤
106 12
Solution: 0.09 ≰ 0.083 (Not Ok)
𝐻 1
𝐻 1 For Clay soil, ≤
For fine sand, ≤ 𝐿 𝐶
𝐿 𝐶 For clay soil value of 𝐶 = 3
For fine sand value of 𝐶 = 15 9.57 1
9.57 1 ≤
≤ 106 3
106 15
0.09 ≰ 0.066 (Not Ok) 0.09 ≤ 0.33 (Ok)

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Example: Uplift Pressure

The figure shows the section of hydraulic structure
founded on sand. Calculate the average hydraulic gradient.
Also find the uplift pressure at 6m, 12m and 18m from the
upstream end of the floor. Find the thickness of the floor.
Given data:
𝜌 = 2.24
𝐻 = 4𝑚
𝜔 = 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠Τ𝑚3
Solution:
𝐻
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐿
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿 = 𝑆 + 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 2𝑥3
= 22 + 2 6 + 2 8 = 50𝑚
𝐻 4
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = = 0.08 (𝑚Τ𝑚)
𝐿 50

Uplift pressure Thickness of floor:

At point A, 4 ℎ
𝐿𝑝𝑡 18 𝑡=
3 𝜌−1
ℎ′ = 𝐻 1 − =4 1− = 2.56𝑚
𝐿 50 4 ℎ′ − 𝑡
𝑡=
3 𝜌−1
𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 6𝑚 = 𝜔 × ℎ′ = 1 × 2.56 Thickness of floor at A,
= 2.56 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠Τ𝑚2
4 2.56 − 𝑡
At point B, 𝑡= = 1.32𝑚
3 2.24 − 1
𝐿𝑝𝑡 24
ℎ′ = 𝐻 1 − =4 1− = 2.08𝑚
𝐿 50 Thickness of floor at B,

𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 12𝑚 = 𝜔 × ℎ′ = 1 × 2.08 4 2.08 − 𝑡

= 2.08 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠Τ𝑚2 𝑡= = 1.078𝑚
3 2.24 − 1
At point C,
Thickness of floor at C,
𝐿𝑝𝑡 30
ℎ′ = 𝐻 1 − =4 1− = 1.6𝑚
𝐿 50 4 1.6 − 𝑡
𝑡= = 0.83𝑚
3 2.24 − 1
𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 18𝑚 = 𝜔 × ℎ′ = 1 × 1.6
= 1.6 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠Τ𝑚2

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Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory

Bligh, in his theory, had calculated the length of the creep, by simply adding the
horizontal creep length and the vertical creep length, thereby making no distinction
between the two creeps.
However, Lane, on the basis of his analysis carried out on about 200 dams all over
the world, stipulated that the horizontal creep is less effective in reducing uplift (or in
causing loss of head) than the vertical creep.
He, therefore, suggested a weightage factor of 1/3 for the horizontal creep, as against
1.0 for the vertical creep.
Thus, the total Lane’s creep length (Ll) is given by
Ll = (d1 + d1) + (1/3) L1 + (d2 + d2) + (1/3) L2 + (d3 + d3)
= (1/3) (L1 + L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
= (1/3) b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)

To ensure safety against piping, according to this theory, the

creep length Ll must not be less than C1HL, where HL is the head
causing flow, and C1 is Lane’s creep coefficient given in table
below:

Sr. No. Type of Soil C

1. Very fine Sand 8.5
2. Fine Sand 7.0
3. Coarse Sand 5.0
4. Gravel and Sand 3 to 4
5. Boulders + Gravel + Sand 2.5 to 3
6. Clay 1.6 to 3

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Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets

Many of the important hydraulic structures, such as weirs and barrage, were designed on
the basis of Bligh’s theory between the periods 1910 to 1925.

In 1926 – 27, the upper Chenab canal siphons, designed on Bligh’s theory, started posing
undermining troubles.

Investigations started, which ultimately lead to Khosla’s theory.

The main principles of this theory are summarized below:

The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca floor as stated by
Bligh, but on the other hand, this water moves along a set of stream-lines.

This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a homogeneous soil can be expressed by
Laplacian equation:

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𝑑2 ∅ 𝑑2 ∅
+
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2

Where, φ = Flow potential = Kh; K = the co-efficient of permeability

of soil as defined by Darcy’s law, and h is the residual head at any
point within the soil.

The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each

other orthogonally.

The resultant flow diagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow
Net.

Stream Lines
The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows
through the sub-soil.

Every particle entering the soil at a given point upstream of the

work, will trace out its own path and will represent a streamline.

The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is
the same as Bligh’s path of creep.

The remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting

slowly from the outline of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as
shown on next slide

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Equipotential Lines
Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the
downstream side, it can be easily stated that every streamline possesses a head
equal to h1 while entering the soil; and when it emerges at the down-stream
end into the atmosphere, its head is zero.

Thus, the head h1 is entirely lost during the passage of water along the
streamlines.

Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is certain residual head
(h) still to be dissipated in the remaining length to be traversed to the
downstream end.

This fact is applicable to every streamline, and hence, there will be points on
different streamlines having the same value of residual head h.

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If such points are joined together, the curve obtained is called an

equipotential line.

Every water particle on line AB is having a residual head h = h1,

and on CD is having a residual head h = 0, and hence, AB and CD
are equipotential lines.

Since an equipotential line represent the joining of points of equal

residual head, hence if piezometers were installed on an
equipotential line, the water will rise in all of them up to the same
level as shown in previous slide.

The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines as shown in figure above.

This force (F) has an upward component from the point where the streamlines turns upward.

For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this force should be counterbalanced
by the submerged weight of the soil grain.

This force has the maximum disturbing tendency at the exit end, because the direction of this
force at the exit point is vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its upward component.

For the soil grain to remain stable, the submerged weight of soil grain should be more than this
upward disturbing force.

The disturbing force at any point is proportional to the gradient of pressure of water at that point
(i.e. dp/dt).

This gradient of pressure of water at the exit end is called the exit gradient.

In order that the soil particles at exit remain stable, the upward pressure at exit should be safe. In
other words, the exit gradient should be safe.

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Critical Exit Gradient

This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force on the grain is just
equal to the submerged weight of the grain at the exit.

When a factor of safety equal to 4 to 5 is used, the exit gradient can then be taken as safe.

In other words, an exit gradient equal to 1/4 to 1/5 of the critical exit gradient is ensured, so as to
keep the structure safe against piping.

The submerged weight (Ws) of a unit volume of soil is given as: w (1 – n) (Ss – 1)

Where, w = unit weight of water, Ss = Specific gravity of soil particles, n = Porosity of the soil
material

For critical conditions to occur at the exit point, F = Ws ,Where F is the upward disturbing force
on the grain

Force F = pressure gradient at that point = dp/dl = w ×dh/dl

Khosla’s Method of Independent Variables For

Determination of Pressures and Exit Gradient
In order to know as to how the seepage below the foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking
place, it is necessary to plot the flow net.

In other words, we must solve the Laplacian equations.

This can be accomplished either by mathematical solution of the Laplacian equations, or by

Electrical analogy method, or by graphical sketching by adjusting the streamlines and
equipotential lines with respect to the boundary conditions.

These are complicated methods and are time consuming.

Therefore, for designing hydraulic structures such as weirs or barrage or pervious foundations,
Khosla has evolved a simple, quick and an accurate approach, called Method of Independent
Variables.

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In this method, a complex profile like that of a weir is broken into a number of
simple profiles; each of which can be solved mathematically.

Mathematical solutions of flownets for these simple standard profiles have been
presented in the form of equations and curves shown on next slides, which can be
used for determining the percentage pressures at the various key points.

The simple profiles which are most useful are:

A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line on the u/s
end and d/s end.

A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without any vertical cut-offs.

A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate point.

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The key points are the junctions of the floor and the pole lines on either side,
and the bottom point of the pile line, and the bottom corners in the case of a
depressed floor.

The percentage pressures at these key points for the simple forms into which
the complex profile has been broken is valid for the complex profile itself, if
corrected for

(a) Correction for the mutual interference of piles

(b) Correction for the thickness of floor

(c) Correction for the slope of the floor

Correction for the Mutual Interference of Piles

The correction C to be applied as percentage of head due to this effect, is given by:

Where, b′ = The distance between two pile lines.

D = The depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on the neighboring
pile of depth d.
D is to be measured below the level at which interference is desired.
d = The depth of the pile on which the effect is considered
b = Total floor length

The correction is positive for the points in the rear of back water, and subtractive for the points
forward in the direction of flow.

This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an intermediate pile, if the
intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a distance less than twice the
length of the outer pile.

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Suppose in the above figure, we are

considering the influence of the pile no (2) on
pile no (1) for correcting the pressure at C1.
Since the point C1 is in the rear, this
correction shall be positive.

While the correction to be applied to E2 due

to pile no (1) shall be negative, since the point
E2 is in the forward direction of flow.

Similarly, the correction at C2 due to pile no

(3) is positive and the correction at E2 due to
pile no (2) is negative

Correction for the Thickness of Floor

In the standard form profiles, the floor is assumed to have negligible
thickness.

Hence, the percentage pressures calculated by Khosla’s equations or

graphs shall pertain to the top levels of the floor. While the actual
junction points E and C are at the bottom of the floor.

Hence, the pressures at the actual points are calculated by assuming

a straight line pressure variation.

Since the corrected pressure at E1 should be less than the calculated

pressure at E1′, the correction to be applied for the joint E1 shall be
negative.

Similarly, the pressure calculated C1′ is less than the corrected

pressure at C1, and hence, the correction to be applied at point C1 is
positive.

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Correction for the Slope of the Floor

A correction is applied for a slopping floor, and is taken
as positive for the downward slopes, and negative for
the upward slopes following the direction of flow.

Values of correction of standard slopes such as 1 : 1, 2 :

1, 3 : 1, etc. are tabulated in Table.

The correction factor given above is to be multiplied by

the horizontal length of the slope and divided by the
distance between the two pile lines between which the
sloping floor is located.

This correction is applicable only to the key points of

the pile line fixed at the start or the end of the slope.

Exit Gradient (GE)

It has been determined that for a
standard form consisting of a floor
length (b) with a vertical cutoff of
depth (d), the exit gradient at its
downstream end is given by:

α = b/d
H = Maximum Seepage Head

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Example: Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in

figure below. Also determine the exit gradient and plot the hydraulic
gradient line for pond level on upstream and no flow on downstream.

Solution: (1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1

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Solution: (1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1

Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m
Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 – 148 = 6 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
1/α = 1/9.5 = 0.105
From curve plate 11.1 (a)
φC1 = 100 – 29 = 71 %
φD1 = 100 – 20 = 80 %
These values of φC1 must be corrected for three corrections as
discussed in pervious slides

Solution: (1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1

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Corrections for φC1

(a) Correction at C1 for Mutual Interference of Piles (φC1) is affected
by intermediate pile No.2

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(2) For intermediate Pile Line No. 2

(2) For intermediate Pile Line No. 2

d = 154 – 148 = 6 m φE2 = 100 – 30 = 70 %

b = 57 m (Where 30 % is φC for a base ratio of 0.702

and α = 9.5)
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
φC2 = 56 %
Using curves of plate 11.1 (b),
(For a base ratio 0.298 and α = 9.5)
we have b1 in this case φD2 = 100 – 37 = 63 %
b1 = 0.6 + 15.8 = 16.4 (Where 37 % is φD for a base ratio of 0.702

b = 57 m and α = 9.5)

b1/b = 16.4/57 = 0.298 (for φC2)

1 – b1/b = 1 – 0.298 = 0.702

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(2) For Intermediate Pile Line No. 2

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(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3

(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3

d = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m

b = 57 m
1/α = 10.3/57 = 0.181
From curves of Plate 11.1 (a), we get
φD3 = 26 %
φE3 = 38 %

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(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3

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Important Terms
Khadir: It is the flood plain of the river.

Khadir Axis (Flood Plain Axis): It is the line

passing through the center of the river course, b/w
the two banks up to the back water effect.

Weir Axis (Barrage Axis): It is the line along

which the crest of the weir is laid.

River Axis: It is a line parallel to the khadir axis

at the center of the barrage axis b/w the
abutments.

Headwork Axis: The headwork axis is a line

perpendicular to the barrage axis at the center of
the weir abutments.

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Pond Level: The water level required in the under-sluice pocket

upstream of the Canal Head Regulator, so as to feed the canal with its
full supply, is known as Pond Level. The FSL of the canal at the head
depends upon the level of the irrigated areas and the slope of the canal.
Pond Level = Canal FSL + 1.0 to 1.2 m

Afflux: In hydrology, afflux is defined as a rise in the water level

immediately upstream of and due to a natural or artificial obstruction.
Backwater is a consequence of afflux, in other words the afflux brings
'backwater effect'.

Retrogression
It is a temporary phenomenon which occurs after the construction of barrage in the river flowing through
alluvial soil.

As a result of back water effect and increase in the depth, the velocity of water decreases resulting in
deposition of sedimentation load.

The water flowing through the barrage have less silt, so water picks up silt from downstream bed.

This results in lowering d/s river bed to a few miles. This is known as retrogression.

It may occur for the first few years and bed levels often recover their previous level. Within a few years, water
flowing over the weir has a normal silt load and this cycle reverses.

Then due to greater depth, silt is deposited and d/s bed recovers to equilibrium.

Retrogression value is minimum for flood discharge and maximum for low discharge. The values vary (2-8.5)
ft.

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Accretion

It is the reverse of retrogression and normally occurs u/s, although it

may occur d/s after the retrogression cycle is complete.

There is no accurate method for calculating the values of retrogression

and accretion but the values which have been calculated from different
barrages can be used as a guideline.

Practice Problems
Use Khosla’s curves to calculate the percentage uplift pressure at
various key points for a barrage foundation profile shown in figure
below applying necessary corrections. Assume the thickness of the floor
is 0.8 m. Also find exit gradient considering upstream pond level at 103
m.

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Use Khosla’s curves to calculate the percentage uplift pressure at points

C1, E2, C2, D3 and E3 for a barrage foundation profile shown in figure
below applying necessary corrections. Also determine the exit gradient.
[Assume: floor thickness = 1 m]

Using Khosla’s curves, determine the following for the apron shown
below: (i) Uplift pressure at points E,D, C, E1 and D1 (ii) Exit gradient.
Neglect the effect of floor thickness.

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Using the Khosla’s curves, determine the following for the apron shown below: (iii)
If percentage of pressure at C2 is 56%, what will be the percentage of pressure at this
point after corrections due to pile interference and slope (iv) Find exit gradient
where, corrections factor for slope, 3:1 = 4.5, Assume floor thickness = 1 m

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