LECTURE-01

INTRODUCTION

Rural structures play a major role in increasing agricultural productivity and overall
production. Rural buildings are used not only for storing agricultural inputs such as
fertilizers, but also for preserving agricultural outputs. In Africa this is particularly important
because a significant percentage of grain production is stored on the farm for own
consumption. It is therefore important to develop methods and structures for effective
storage, especially for the modern high-yielding grain varieties, which tend to be more
susceptible to pests than the traditional types.

Improved management and breeding programmes to increase livestock production have also
created a need for improved livestock housing and services. In addition, general
development, which has led to improved standards of living for the rural population, has led
to increased demand for durable, comfortable and healthy dwellings with clean water,
sanitation facilities, telecommunications and community infrastructure. Most of these
facilities would normally be owned by the individual farmer, while some may be communally
owned.

All these rural structures and services play a significant role in increasing agricultural
production, helping countries to achieve food security. These are some of the most important
investments that rural dwellers will make in their lifetime.

Increasing value and incomes in rural areas by transforming agriculture and making it more
productive is a major objective of most planners and policy makers in developing countries.
They all aim to raise incomes in crop, livestock, forestry and fishery production, as industrial
production and the service sector expand. This will be achieved partially through processing,
which will add value to agricultural produce before it reaches the market.

All countries of the region want agricultural producers to be competitive not only nationally,
but also regionally and globally. The aim is to accomplish this by means of an innovative,
commercially oriented, modern style of agriculture that includes the crop, livestock, forestry
and fishery sectors. Agricultural production should also be sustainable and every effort
should be made to protect the environment.

The transformation of agriculture and other rural enterprises and livelihoods will require the
planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of a broad range of rural structures
and infrastructure. Innovation is a key factor in the success of this endeavour because it will
lead to the efficient and effective design and construction of rural structures. This is essential
as there are major challenges, in particular limited financial resources.

The development of rural structures may be divided into four phases: planning; design;
construction; operation and maintenance:

Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors that
affect the general layout and dimensions of the desired structures. It leads to the selection of
one, or perhaps several, alternative types of structure that provide the best overall solution.
The primary consideration is the structure’s function. Secondary considerations include
aesthetics, sociology, law, economics and the environment. In addition, structural and
constructional requirements and limitations may affect the type of structure to be selected.
Equipment and machinery to be installed in the structures also need to be factored in during
the planning phase.
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Design: This phase involves the detailed consideration of the different options involved in
the planning phase. It leads to the definition of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and
details of the structural elements and connections required for constructing each option under
consideration. Details of equipment and machinery to be installed in the structure also form
part of the designs.

• Construction: This phase involves the procurement and transportation to the site of
materials, equipment, machinery and personnel, as well as actual field erection. During this
phase, some redesigning may be required due to unforeseen circumstances such as
unavailability of specified materials or foundation problems.

Operation and maintenance: During this period, the structure is in use. It requires planned
and unplanned maintenance. Experience gained in this phase leads to the design of better
structures in the future.

Engineers who specialize in designing rural buildings and services need to have a thorough
knowledge of farming systems, crop and livestock production systems, climate factors and a
genuine understanding of rural life and the farmer’s social and economic situation. They
should also be familiar with the full range of building materials and types of construction,
from traditional indigenous to industrially produced, as applied to rural structures. They must
be able to select appropriate installations and equipment for such buildings.

This knowledge will enable them to produce specifications, in cooperation with the farmer,
for functional building designs that provide a good environment and durable construction,
thereby contributing to efficient and economically sound farm operations. Further important
tasks for the engineers responsible for rural structures and services are interpreting and
explaining the drawings and technical documentation to farmers, as well as supervising
construction work. However, engineers should be aware of the need to consult specialists in
related fields where necessary.

This subject is intended as a resource for practitioners engaged in the planning, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of rural structures and services in support of
agricultural production. It focuses mainly on the structures and services required by
smallholder farmers in rural areas.

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 LECTURE-02

FARM STRUCTURES

Any structural work built for confining, enclosing or covering animals, machinery, or
materials within the farm is called farm structures or farmstead. Thus fences, paddocks, pens,
gates, etc., would be called confining structures, while enclosing and covering structures
would include houses, barns, and sheds, together with any building work which would
improve them or make them more efficient; for example, a manure pit and a silo would add to
the efficiency of a dairy barn.

Types of farm structures

Human shelter
• Farmer homes
• Workers’ homes

Animal shelters
• Dairy barns
• Feed barns
• Milking barns
• Poultry houses
- brooder
- laying house
- broiler house
• Horse barns
• Beef cattle barns
• Sheep barns
• Bull and calf barns

Crop storage and processing

• Hay barn
• Grain bins
• Corn cribs
• Silos
• Drying sheds
• Grinding and cleaning rooms
• Green houses
• Vegetable storage

Equipment shelter
• Machinery sheds
• Garages
• Shops
• Fuel storage

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 LECTURE-03

PLANNING FARM AND RURAL STRUCTURES

Background: As buildings and other rural structures are fixed assets that have a relatively
long lifespan and require a relatively large amount of resources to construct, it is important
that they are planned and designed for efficient and profitable use throughout their life. Once
a building is erected, however, it is expensive to make changes. A plan for an individual farm
is influenced by a number of factors over which the farmer has no direct control, e.g. climate,
soil fertility, government policies, state of knowledge about agricultural techniques and the
value of inputs and outputs.

A good plan should provide an understanding of the situation and how it can be changed and
thus assist farmers to see the problems, analyse them and be able to make sound decisions
when choosing between alternative uses of their resources. While farm management planning
helps farmers to choose the type and quantity of commodities to produce, advice from crop
and livestock production specialists is required to help them decide how to produce them in
an efficient way. When an enterprise requires buildings or other structures, the rural building
specialist will suggest alternative designs for the efficient use of resources. The best plan for
the whole farm operation is normally the result of interaction between the various farm
planning disciplines.

What is planning? An overview

The term ‘planning’ is a very general one. Its various definitions cover a wide range but do
not provide a consensus. Various scholars have come up with different definitions, such as:

“…. Planning is the making of an orderly sequence of action that will lead to the achievement
of stated goals” (Hall, 1974).

“…. Planning is an activity by which man in society endeavours to gain mastery over himself
and shapes his collective future through conscious reasoned effort” (Friedmann, 1966).

“…Planning may be seen as the ability to control the future consequences of present action.
The more consequences of controls, the more one has succeeded in planning. The purpose is
to make the future different from what it would have been without this intervention”
(Wildavsky, 1973).

Farmstead planning
The farmstead forms the nucleus of the farm operation where a wide range of farming
activities are undertaken. It normally includes the dwelling, animal shelters, storage
structures, equipment shed, workshop and other structures. A carefully developed plan should
provide a location for buildings and facilities that allows adequate space for convenient and
efficient operation of all activities, while at the same time protecting the environment from
such undesirable effects as odours, dust, noise, flies and heavy traffic.

Zone planning
Zone planning can be a useful tool, but it is most effective when planning a new farmstead.
The farmstead is divided into zones 10 metres to 30 metres wide by concentric circles, as
shown in Figure 2.4

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Zone 1 — Family living
Zone 1 is the inner circle, with a radius of 30 m and an area of 0.3 ha. It contains the
farmhouse and farm office, and provides space for family living, driveways, and parking.
Zone 1 at the centre of the farmstead is for family living, and should be protected from odour,
dust, flies, etc.
The family living zone includes the house, garage, guest parking, garden and orchard. It
should have water for drinking, washing, cooking, cleaning, landscaping and gardening.
Make sure drainage is sloped away from the house and lay weeping tile around the basement.

Zone 2 — Machinery storage and service

Clean, dry and quiet activities, such as implement sheds and small storage structures, can be
placed in Zone 2.
Zone 2 (30-60 m in radius) can include machinery storage and service areas.
Zone 2 can include the farm workshop, machine shed, work yard, equipment parking, fuel
and chemical centers, and transformer pole. Machinery storage and other facilities that are
relatively quiet and odor-free are located in this ring.

Zone 3 — Grain handling and storage, and small animal buildings

Larger grain stores, feed stores and small animal units are placed in Zone 3,
Zone 3 (60-90 m in radius) holds small buildings for animals and facilities for storing,
handling, and processing grain and crops.
Zone 3 can include general-purpose and maternity barns, brooder houses, grain storage,
handling and drying facilities, feed-processing equipment, and feed and fertilizer storage.
Storage and processing units for grain and feed can be dusty and noisy when operating, so put
them further from the house.

Zone 4 — Major livestock facilities

Zone 4 (90-120 m in radius) has the major animal facilities.
Zone 4 can include feedlots, dairy, sheep, poultry and beef facilities, forage and silage
storage, pastures, and manure storage and disposal. Major livestock facilities are furthest
from the house, largely because of odors.
The advantage of zone planning is that it provides space for present farm operations, future
expansion and a good living environment.

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Farmstead planning factors
Good drainage, both surface and subsurface, provides a dry farm courtyard and a stable
foundation for buildings. Set buildings on high ground. Ditching and grading can correct
some problems, but earthwork is expensive and should be kept to a minimum. Use existing
slopes to direct surface runoff away from buildings and other parts of the farmstead. Slopes
of 2-6% for surface water are enough to drain runoff without eroding most soils. To provide
good drainage, operators normally have to do some grading and filling in preparing the site.
Provide diversion channels for surface runoff and ensure that all floors are above grade.

A gentle slope across the site facilitates drainage, but a pronounced slope may make it
difficult to site larger structures without undertaking extensive earthmoving work.

Adequate space should be provided to allow for manoeuvring vehicles around the buildings
and for the future expansion of farm operations.

Air movement is essential for cross-ventilation, but excessive wind can damage buildings. As
wind will carry odours and noise, livestock buildings should be placed downwind from the
family living area and neighbouring homes. Undesirable winds can be diverted and reduced
by hedges and trees or fences with open construction. In addition to affecting the choice of a
location for the house, wind will affect how a house is laid out. If possible, the main entrance
is commonly located on a side of the house away from prevailing winds. For example, in an
area with strong north winds, the main entrance may be on the south side of a building. If the
door faces the direction of the prevailing winds, rain, dust, and debris may blow into the
house, and the wind may cause damage when the door is opened. Snow drifts can also
accumulate around the door and may make it inaccessible. Wind breaks are a key to success
in dealing with wind erosion. Most wind breaks are rows of trees strategically planted and
spaced to interrupt a prevailing wind.

Solar radiation may adversely affect the environment within buildings. An orientation close
to an east-west axis is generally recommended in the tropics.

An adequate supply of clean water is essential on any farm. When planning buildings for
expanded livestock production, the volume of the water supply must be assessed. Where
applicable, the supply pipe in a good building layout will be as short as possible. Similarly,
the length of utility supply lines (e.g. electric, gas) should be kept to a minimum.

The safety of people and animals from fire and accident hazards should form part of the
planning considerations. Children, especially, must be protected from the many dangers at a
farmstead. It is often desirable to arrange for some privacy in the family living area by
screening off the garden, outdoor meeting/ resting places, veranda and play area.

Measures should be taken for security against theft and vandalism. This includes an
arrangement of buildings where the farmyard and the access driveway can be observed at all
times, especially from the house.

A neat and attractive farmstead is desirable and much can be achieved toward this end, at low
cost, if the appearance is considered in the planning, and effective landscaping is utilized.

Road access: It is usually desirable to locate the farmstead adjacent to a main traveled road.
The farmstead should have one or more driveways at least 5 m wide with 2 m of additional
clearance on each side. Drains can be set inside this 2-m clearance.

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7
 LECTURE-04

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Introduction
A wide range of building materials is available for the construction of rural buildings and
structures. The proper selection of materials to be used in a particular building or structure
can influence the original cost, maintenance, ease of cleaning, durability and, appearance.
Several factors need to be considered when choosing the materials for a construction job,
including:

1. Type and function of the building or structure and the specific characteristics required of
the materials used, i.e. great strength, water resistance, wear resistance, attractive appearance,
etc.

2. Economic aspects of the building/structure in terms of original investment and annual cost
of maintenance.

3. Availability of materials in the area.

4. Availability of the skilled labour required to install some types of material.

5. Quality and durability of different types of material.

1. WOOD
Wood is a commonly used construction material in many parts of the world because of its
reasonable cost, ease of working, attractive appearance and adequate life if protected from
moisture and insects. However, forests are a valuable natural resource that must be
conserved, particularly in areas with marginal rainfall.

Wood for building is available from many different species with widely varying
characteristics. Some species are used in the form of small poles for light construction, while
other species are allowed to mature so that timber may be sawn from the large logs.

Wooden poles
In farm buildings and rural structures, wood is often used in the form in which it has grown,
i.e. round poles. In some areas where enough trees are grown on the farm or in local forests,
wooden poles can be obtained at very low cost. These poles have many uses in small building
construction, such as columns for the load bearing structure, rafters, trusses and purlins.
Sticks and thin poles are often used as wall material or as a framework in mud walls.

Seasoning of timber
The strength, stiffness and dimensional stability of wood are related to its moisture content.
Hence, if wood is dried (seasoned) before use, not only can higher strength values be used in
a design, but a more durable structure will result. In developing countries, most timber is not
seasoned and it is sold in what is called its ‘green’ state.

Air seasoning
Timber should be protected from rain and from the ground. It should therefore be stacked so
that air can circulate freely around all surfaces, reducing the risk of twisting and cupping, as
well as minimizing attacks by fungi and insects.

Artificial seasoning
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Artificial seasoning can be either moderate or rapid, depending on the temperature of the air
injected into the chamber where the timber is piled, and on the rate at which the air is
circulated and extracted from the chamber. This method is expensive and can only be applied
on small quantities of timber. Timber can be artificially seasoned from the green condition,
but often hot-air seasoning is used only at a later stage, after most of the moisture has been
removed by air seasoning.

Plywood
Plywood is produced by gluing together three to seven veneers that have been peeled from
logs. The grain of each successive veneer is angled at 90° from the previous one, resulting in
a board that has considerable strength and rigidity in all directions. Waterproof glue is most
commonly used, giving a product that is highly resistant to moisture. Waterproof glue panels
should always be chosen for farm buildings. As the wood itself is not waterproof, the panels
are still subject to swelling and shrinkage from moisture changes.

2. BAMBOO
Bamboo is a grass with over 550 species, found in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.
It contains a large percentage of fibre, which has high tensile, bending and straining capacity.
However, bamboos have some short comings that limit their application. The low durability
of bamboo is one of its most serious defects, along with its flammability and tendency to split
easily. This usually prevents the use of nails. It is used mainly in building construction, for
wall poles, frames and roof construction.

3. NATURAL FIBRES
Natural fibres have been used for building since ancient times. Fibrous materials can be used
by themselves as roofing material or for walls and mats. Natural fibres can also be combined
with hydraulic-setting binders to make various types of roofing board, wall board, block and
shingle.

Thatch
Thatch, whether made of grass, reeds, palm or banana leaves, is susceptible to decay caused
by fungi and insects, and to destruction by fire.

Grass
The use of thatched roofs is common in many countries, and suitable grass can be found
almost everywhere. When well laid and maintained, it can last for 10–20 years or longer.

A good-quality thatching grass must be fibrous and tough, with a minimum length of 1 metre.
It should also have thin stems without hollows, a low content of easily digestible nutrients
and the ability to withstand repeated wetting without decaying.

Reeds
Reeds must be dry before use as a building material. Reeds can be woven into mats for use as
wall or ceiling panels, shade roofs, etc.

Sisal stems
Before dying, at 7–12 years of age, the sisal plant forms a pole shoot to carry the flowers. The
pole may reach a height of 6 metres or more and has a fibrous circumference, which makes it
tough, but the inner parts are quite soft. Sisal poles have limited structural strength and
durability, but are sometimes used for wall cladding in semi-open structures, such as maize
cribs.

Sisal fibre
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Sisal fibre is one of the strongest natural fibres. It has traditionally been used as
reinforcement in gypsum plaster sheets.

Straw
Baled straw, if supported by a framework of wooden poles, can be used to construct
temporary walls. Straw has also been used as raw material for manufactured building boards.
Straw and split bamboo can be cement plastered to permanent structures, such as vaults and
domes, at low cost.

4. NATURAL STONE PRODUCTS

Natural stones are strong in compression and are generally extremely durable, although
deterioration may result from the action of soluble salts, wetting and drying, or thermal
movement. According to the manner of their geological formation, all stones used in building
fall into one of three classes: igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.

Igneous rocks are mostly very hard and difficult to cut to size and shape. However, they are
very durable.

Sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, are used extensively for building. They
are not difficult to work, yet are quite durable.

Metamorphic stones consist of older stones that have been subjected to intense heat and
pressure, causing structural change. Thus clay becomes slate, limestone becomes marble and
sandstone becomes quartzite.

Stones may also be used in the forms and sizes in which they naturally occur, and be
embedded in mortar for foundation and wall construction. Stones are also crushed and sorted
for size and use. Small crushed stones are used in making concrete.

5. EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Earth is one of the oldest materials used for building construction in rural areas. The
advantages of earth as a building material are:

1. It is resistant to fire.
2. It is cheaper than most alternative wall materials, and is readily available at most building
sites.
3. It has a very high thermal capacity, which enables it to keep the inside of a building cool
when it is hot outside and vice versa.
4. It absorbs noise well.
5. It is easy to work using simple tools and skills.

Despite its good qualities, earth has the following drawbacks as a building material:

1. It has low resistance to water penetration, resulting in crumbling and structural failure.
2. It has a very high shrinkage/swelling ratio, resulting in major structural cracks when
exposed to changing weather conditions.
3. It has low resistance to abrasion, and requires frequent repairs and maintenance when used
in building construction.

However, there are several ways to overcome most of these weaknesses that make earth a
suitable building material for many purposes.

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Soil classification
Soil and earth are synonymous when used in relation to building construction. Topsoil is
generally removed before any engineering works are carried out, or before soil is excavated
for use as a building material. Mud is the mixture of one or more types of soil with water.

Only a few mixes can be used successfully for building construction in the state in which they
are found. However, many mixes can be improved to make good building material by
correcting the mix and/or adding stabilizers.

The clay fraction is of major importance in earth construction because it binds the larger
particles together. However, soils with more than 30 percent clay tend to have very high
shrinkage/swelling ratios which, together with their tendency to absorb moisture, may result
in major cracks in the end product.

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Soil stabilization
The main weakness of earth as a building material is its low resistance to water. Tropical
rains of any intensity can damage unprotected walls. Due to the clay fraction, which is
necessary for cohesion, walls built of unstabilized soil will swell on taking up water, and
shrink on drying. This may lead to severe cracking and difficulty in making protective
renderings adhere to the wall.

However, the quality as a building material of nearly any inorganic soil can be improved
considerably by the addition of a suitable amount of the correct stabilizer. The aim of soil
stabilization is to increase the soil’s resistance to destructive weather conditions, in one or
more of the following ways:

1. By cementing the soil particles together, leading to increased strength and cohesion.

2. By reducing the movements (shrinkage and swelling) of the soil when its moisture content
varies according to weather conditions.

3. By making the soil waterproof, or at least less permeable to moisture.

A great number of substances may be used for soil stabilization. Owing to the many different
kinds of soil and types of stabilizer, there is no single solution for all cases. It is up to the
builder to make trial blocks with various amounts and types of stabilizer. Stabilizers in
common use are:

o sand or clay;
o portland cement;
o lime;
o pozzolana (e.g. fly ash, rice husk ash, volcanic ash);
o natural fibres (e.g. grass, straw, sisal, sawdust);
o sodium silicate (water-glass);

Sand or clay is added to improve the grading of a soil. Sand is added to soils that are too
clayey, and clay is added to soils that are too sandy. The strength and cohesion of the sandy
soil is increased, while moisture movement of a clay soil is reduced. Improved grading of the
soil material does not stabilize the soil to a high degree, but will increase the effect, and
reduce the required amount, of other stabilizers.

Portland cement greatly improves the soil’s compressive strength and imperviousness, and
may also reduce moisture movement, especially when used with sandy soils. As a rough
guide, sandy soils need 5–10 percent cement for stabilization, silty soils, 10–12.5 percent and
clayey soils, 12.5–15 percent. The cement must be thoroughly mixed with dry soil. This can
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be rather difficult, especially if the soil is clayey. As soon as water is added, the cement starts
reacting and the mix must therefore be used immediately (1–2 hours). Soil-cement blocks
should be cured for at least 7 days under moist or damp conditions.

Non-hydraulic lime, or slaked lime, gives best results when used with fine soils, i.e. silty and
clayey soils.
Lime decreases moisture movement and permeability, by reaction with the clay, to form
strong bonds between the soil particles. The amount of lime used varies between 4 percent
and 14 percent. Lime breaks down lumps and makes it easier to mix clayey soils. Curing at
high temperatures strengthens the cementing molecules, which should be an advantage in the
tropics. The curing time is longer than for soil-cement.

A combination of lime and cement is used when a soil has too much clay for cement
stabilization, or too little clay for an extensive reaction with the lime. Lime will make the soil
easier to work and the cement will increase the strength. Equal parts of lime and cement are
used. Mixing the dry soil with lime first makes the soil more workable. Blocks are cured for
at least 7 days under moist conditions.

A combination of lime and pozzolana makes a binder that can be almost as good as portland
cement. It is used in the same way as a combination of lime and cement, but 2-4 parts of
pozzolana are mixed to 1 part of lime, and the curing time is longer than for ordinary cement.

Natural fibres, used in a mixing ratio of about 4 percent, greatly reduce moisture movement.

Sodium silicate, or water-glass, is best used to coat the outside of soil blocks as a
waterproofing agent.

Cob
The best soil mix consists of gravel, sand, silt and clay in roughly equal proportions.
Sometimes chopped grass or straw is added to reduce cracking. Water is slowly added to the
loose soil, which is then kneaded by treading until the soil has a wet, plastic consistency. In
arid and semi-arid climates, this type of wall may last for years if built on a proper foundation
and protected from rain by a roof overhang or veranda.

Wattle and daub (mud and wattle)

This method of building small houses is very common in areas where bamboo or stalks (e.g.
sisal) are available. It consists of a framework of split bamboo, stalks or wooden sticks,
supported by wood or bamboo poles. The soil, prepared as cob, is daubed on either side of the
laths, which act as reinforcement. Wattle and daub construction generally has a short lifespan
because of soil erosion, and the uneven settling of poles and damage by fungi and termites.
However, the durability can be improved considerably (20– 40 years) by using a proper
foundation, raising the building off the ground, applying a surface treatment and using
termite-resistant or treated poles.

Clay/straw
The technique of building walls of clay/straw has been highly developed in China, where
grain storage bins of up to 8 m in diameter, 8.5 m in height and a 250-tonne holding capacity
have been constructed with these materials. Any type of straw can be used, but it must be of
good quality. The clay should be of strong plasticity, containing less than 5 percent sand.
Some lime may be added for stabilization if the sand content is a bit too high.

First, the straw bundles are produced, spread out flat and soaked with clay mud. Thorough
covering of each straw is essential for the final strength. The straw is then twisted together,
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and any excess mud removed. The final clay/straw bundle should be thick in the middle and
tapered at both ends. The ideal proportion of straw and clay is 1:7 on a dry weight basis.

The clay/straw bundles are placed on the wall either straight and flat, or slightly twisted
together. It is important to compact the wall thoroughly during construction to ensure high
density, strength and durability. The wall must be built in separate layers, and be left to dry
out to about 50 percent moisture content before the next layer is added.

Burnt-clay bricks
Burnt-clay bricks have good resistance to moisture, insects and erosion, and create a good
room environment. They are moderate in cost and have medium to high compressive
strength. Bricks can be made using sophisticated factory methods and simple labour-intensive
methods.

Labour-intensive production methods are the most suitable for rural areas where the demand
for bricks is limited. Handmade bricks will be of comparatively lower quality, especially in
terms of compressive strength, and will tend to have irregular dimensions. However, they are
economical and require little capital investment or transportation costs.

6. BINDERS
When binders are mixed with sand, gravel and water, they make a strong and long-lasting
mortar or concrete. Binders can be broadly classified as non-hydraulic or hydraulic. The
hydraulic binders harden through a chemical reaction with water, making them impervious to
water and therefore able to harden under water. Portland cement, blast furnace cement (super
sulphated), pozzolanas and high-alumina cement belong to the category of hydraulic binders.
High-calcium limes (fat or pure limes) are non-hydraulic because they harden by reaction
with the carbon dioxide in the air. However, if lime is produced from limestone containing
clay, compounds similar to those in portland cement will be formed, i.e. hydraulic lime.

Lime
Non-hydraulic lime refers to high-calcium limes that are produced by burning fairly pure
limestone (essentially calcium carbonate), in order to drive off the carbon dioxide, leaving
calcium oxide or quicklime. The burning process requires a temperature of 900–1 100 °C.
Quicklime must be handled with great care because it reacts with moisture on the skin and the
heat produced may cause burns. When water is added to quicklime, considerable heat is
generated, expansion takes place, breaking down the quicklime pieces into a fine powder, and
the resulting product is calcium hydroxide, also called hydrated lime, or slaked lime. After
drying, the powder is passed through a 3-mm sieve, before being poured into bags for storage
(in dry conditions) and distribution.

Slaked lime is used mainly in building because it is fat, i.e. it makes workable mortar and
rendering and plaster mixes. Initially, a lime mortar becomes stiff by evaporation loss of
water to absorptive materials such as bricks, but subsequent hardening depends on the
chemical reaction with carbon dioxide from the air (carbonation) reforming the original
calcium carbonate (limestone).

Hydraulic lime is produced by mixing and grinding together limestone and clay material, and
then burning it in a kiln. It is stronger but less fat, or plastic, than nonhydraulic lime. During
burning, the calcium oxide from the limestone reacts with siliceous matter from the clay to
form dicalcium silicate. This compound may react with water, forming ‘mineral glue’ –
tricalcium disilicate hydrate. The reaction is slow and may take weeks or months, but after
some time a very good degree of strength is achieved. The reaction that forms dicalcium

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silicate requires a very high temperature to be complete. In practical production, a lower
temperature of 1 200 °C is used, leaving some of the ingredients in their original state.

Cement
Portland cement hardens faster and develops considerably higher strength than hydraulic
lime. This is because cement contains tricalcium silicate. However, the manufacturing
process is much more complicated than for lime. The ingredients are mixed in definite and
controlled proportions, before being ground to a very fine powder. The fine grinding is
necessary because the formation of tricalcium silicate can only take place in a solid state, and
therefore only the surface of the particles in the mix is accessible for the chemical reaction,
which requires a temperature of 1250–1900 °C to be completed. During burning, the small
particles of limestone and clay are sintered together to form clinker. After cooling, the clinker
is ground to cement powder, with a small amount of gypsum being added during the
grinding. The finer the cement particles, the larger the surface area available for hydration by
water, and the more rapidly setting and hardening occurs.

Ordinary portland cement is the least expensive, and by far the most widely used, type of
cement. It is suitable for all normal purposes.

Rapid-hardening portland cement is more finely ground, which accelerates the chemical
reaction with water and develops strength more rapidly. It has the same strength after 7 days
as ordinary portland cement does after 28 days. Early hardening may be useful where early
stripping of formwork and early loading of the structure is required.

Low-heat portland cement develops strength very slowly. It is used in very thick concrete
work where the heat generated by the chemical reactions in ordinary portland cement would
be excessive and lead to serious cracking.

7. AGGREGATE
Aggregate or ballast is either gravel or crushed stone. Aggregates that pass through a 5 mm
sieve are called fine aggregate or sand and those retained are called coarse aggregate or stone.
The aggregate should be hard, clean and free from salt and vegetable matter. Too much silt
and organic matter makes the aggregate unsuitable for concrete.

8. CONCRETE
Concrete is a building material made by mixing cement paste (portland cement and water)
with aggregate (sand and stone). The cement paste is the ‘glue’ that binds the particles in the
aggregate together. The strength of the cement paste depends on the relative proportions of
water and cement, with a more diluted paste being weaker. In addition, the relative
proportions of cement paste and aggregate affect the strength, with a higher proportion of
paste making stronger concrete. The concrete hardens through the chemical reaction between
water and cement, without the need for air. Once the initial set has taken place, concrete cures
well under water. Strength is gained gradually, depending on the speed of the chemical
reaction. Admixtures are sometimes included in the concrete mix to achieve certain
properties. Reinforcement steel is used for added strength, particularly for tensile stresses.
Concrete is normally mixed at the building site and poured into formwork of the desired
shape, in the position that the unit will occupy in the finished structure. Units can also be
precast, either at the building site or at a factory.

Reinforced concrete
Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension. The underside of a loaded
beam, such as a lintel over a door, is in tension. Concrete subject to tension loading must be
reinforced with steel bars or mesh.
15
Concrete blocks
It is faster to build with concrete blocks than with bricks, and using concrete blocks reduces
the mortar requirement by half or more. If face-shell bedding is used, in which the mortar is
placed only along the edges of the blocks, the consumption of mortar is reduced by a further
50 percent. However, the total amount of cement required for the blocks and mortar is far
greater than that required for the mortar in a brick wall. Concrete blocks are often made of
1:3:6 concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm, or a cement- sand mixture with a
ratio of 1:7, 1:8 or 1:9. If properly cured, these mixtures produce concrete blocks with
compression strength well above what is required in a one-storey building. The blocks may
be solid, cellular or hollow. Cellular blocks have cavities with one end closed, while in
hollow blocks the cavities pass through. Lightweight aggregate, such as cracked pumice
stone, is sometimes used. Blocks are made to a number of coordinating sizes, the actual sizes
being about 10 mm less in order to allow for the thickness of the mortar.

9. MORTAR
Mortar is a plastic mixture of water and binding materials, used to join concrete blocks,
bricks or other masonry units. It is desirable for mortar to hold moisture, be plastic enough to
stick to the trowel and the blocks or bricks, and to develop adequate strength without
cracking. Mortar need not be stronger than the units it joins. In fact, cracks are more likely to
appear in the blocks or bricks if the mortar is excessively strong.

There are several types of mortar, each suitable for particular applications and varying in
cost. Most of these mortars include sand as an ingredient. In all cases, the sand should be
clean, free of organic material, well graded (a variety of sizes) and not exceed 3 mm of silt in
the sedimentation test. In most cases, particle size should not exceed 3 mm, as this would
make the mortar ‘harsh’ and difficult to work with.

Lime mortar is typically mixed using 1 part lime to 3 parts sand. Two types of lime are
available. Hydraulic lime hardens quickly and should be used within an hour. It is suitable for
both above- and below-ground applications. Non-hydraulic lime requires air to harden, and
can only be used above ground. If it is smoothed off while standing, a pile of this type of lime
mortar can be stored for several days.

Cement mortar is stronger and more waterproof than lime mortar, but it is difficult to work
with because it is not ‘fat’ or plastic and falls away from the blocks or bricks during
placement. In addition, cement mortar is more costly than other types. Consequently, it is
used in only a few applications, such as a damp-proof course or in some limited areas where
heavy loads are expected. A 1:3 mix using fine sand is usually required to obtain adequate
plasticity.

Compo mortar is made with cement, lime and sand. In some localities, a 50:50 cement-lime
mix is sold as mortar cement. The addition of the lime reduces the cost and improves
workability. A 1:2:9, cement-lime-sand mix is suitable for general purposes, while a 1:1:6 is
better for exposed surfaces, and a 1:3:12 can be used for interior walls, or stone walls, where
the extra plasticity is helpful.

10. FERROCEMENT
Ferrocement is a highly versatile form of reinforced concrete made with closely spaced light
reinforcing rods or wire mesh, and a cement mortar. It can be worked with relatively
unskilled labour. The function of the wire mesh and reinforcing rods is first to act as a lath,
providing the form to support the mortar in its plastic state, while, in the hardened state, it
absorbs the tensile stresses in the structure, which the mortar alone is not able to withstand.
16
The reinforcing can be assembled in any desired shape, and the mortar applied in layers to
both sides. Simple shapes, such as water tanks, can be assembled using wooden sticks as
support for the reinforcing while the first coat of mortar is applied. The mortar should have a
mixing ratio of 1:2 to 1:4 cement/sand by volume, using the richer mix for the thinnest
structures. The water/cement ratio should be below 0.5/1.0. Lime can be added in the
proportion 1 part lime to 5 parts cement in order to improve workability. The mechanical
behaviour of ferrocement depends on the type, quantity, orientation and strength of the mesh
and reinforcing rods. The most common types of mesh used are illustrated in Figure 5.33.
Standard galvanized mesh (galvanized after weaving) is adequate. Although non-galvanized
wire has adequate strength, the problem of rusting limits its use. A construction similar to
ferrocement has recently been developed for small water tanks, sheds, huts, etc. It consists of
welded 150 mm-square reinforcement mesh (6 mm rods), covered with hessian and plastered
in the same way as ferrocement.

11. METALS
Several ferrous metals (those containing iron) are useful in the construction of farm buildings
and other rural structures. Cast iron is used for making sanitary waste pipes and fittings. Steel
consists of iron, plus a small percentage of carbon in chemical combination. High-carbon or
‘hard’ steel is used for tools with cutting edges. Medium carbon steel is used for structural
members such as I-beams, reinforcing bars and implement frames. Low carbon or ‘mild’ steel
is used for pipes, nails, screws, wire, screening, fencing and corrugated roof sheets. Non-
ferrous metals, such as aluminium and copper, are corrosion-resistant and are often chosen
for this quality. Copper is used for electric wire, tubing for water supply and for flashing.
Aluminium is most commonly used for corrugated roofing sheets, gutters and the
accompanying nails. Using nails of the same material avoids the problem of corrosion caused
by electrolytic action. Brass is a corrosion-resistant alloy of copper and zinc used extensively
for building hardware.

17
 Lecture 05
Dairy Housing or Cattle Housing

18
19
HOUSING FOR MEDIUM TO LARGE HERDS
In general a medium- or large-scale dairy unit may include the following facilities:
1. Resting area for cows:
(a) paved shade; or
(b) deep bedding in an open sided barn; or
(c) free stalls in an open-sided barn.
2. Exercise yard (paved or unpaved).
3. Paved feed area:feed trough (shaded or unshaded)
4. Milking Centre:
(a) milking shed or parlour; and
(c) dairy, including milk store; and
(d) motor room.
5. Bull pen with a service stall.
6. Calving pen(s).
7. Calf accommodation.
8. Young stock accommodation (yard with paved shade and feed area).
9. Bulk feed store (hay and silage).
10. Concentrate feed store.
11. Veterinary facilities:
(a) diversion pen with artificial insemination stalls; and
(b) isolation pen.
12 Waste store:
(a) slurry storage; or
(b) separate storage of solids and effluents.
13 Office and staff facilities.

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21
22
23
24
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BULL PENS

A bull pen should have a shaded resting area of 12–15 square metres and a large exercise area
of 20–30 square metres. The walls of the pen must be strong. Eight horizontal rails made of
minimum 100 mm round timber or 50 mm galvanized steel tubes to a total height of 1.5
metres, fixed to 200 mm timber posts not more than 2 metres apart, will be sufficient. The
gate must be designed so that the bull cannot lift it off its hinges, and there should be at least
two exits where the herd worker can escape.

26
CALF PENS

Calf mortality is often high in tropical countries, but proper management and suitable housing
that protects the calf from climatic stress, infections and parasites can reduce this. Individual
pens for calves from birth to two to three months of age are often built with an elevated
slatted floor. This floor, which is best constructed from sawn timber boards measuring 37–50
mm by 75–100 mm, leaving a 25–30 mm slit between each board, will ensure that the calf is
always dry and clean.

The required minimum internal dimensions for an individual calf pen are 1200 mm by 800
mm for a pen where the calf is kept to two weeks of age，1200 mm by l000 mm where the
calf is kept to six to eight weeks of age; and 1500 mm by 1 200 mm where the calf is kept
from 6 to 14 weeks of age. Three sides of the pens should be enclosed to prevent contact with
other calves and to prevent draughts.

The front of the pen should be made so that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water
easily from buckets or a trough fixed to the outside of the pen, and so that the calf can be
moved out of the pen without lifting.

All calves, but especially those that are weaned early, should have access to good-quality
forage as soon as possible to stimulate rumen development. Forage can be supplied in a rack
placed above the side wall of the pen. Figure 10.8 shows a thatched shed with six slatted floor
calf pens. This construction, with a feed alley, will be rather expensive but can be cheaper if
calves are fed from outside.

Another system that works well is the use of individual hutches, as shown in Figure 10.9. The
hutch must be thoroughly cleaned and set up in a new location every time a new calf is
housed in it. Plenty of litter is placed directly on the ground inside the hutch. Protection from
wind, rain and sun is all the calf requires, but the key to success is to always move the hutch
to clean ground.

27
MILKING AND MILK HANDLING

Hand milking versus machine milking

In developed countries, where labour is scarce and expensive, machine milking has become
very widespread and it is also practiced on many large commercial dairy farms in the tropics.
Milking machines not only reduce labour requirements and eliminate the drudgery of hand
milking but, in most cases, perform a better quality milking operation than would be done by
hand. However, most of the many small dairy farms in developing countries have a surplus of
cheap labour, and the number of cows milked at each of them is not sufficient economically
to justify the installation of a machine. Furthermore, machines require power and are more
expensive to purchase than the few pieces of equipment needed for hand milking. In many
developing countries there is an irregular supply of spare parts and a lack of skilled
mechanics.

A bucket milking machine is the simplest and least expensive to install, but the milk must be
carried by hand to the cooler. This type of system is often chosen for the small- and medium-
size herd and where the cows are milked on a level floor of a stable or milking shed.

A pipeline milking plant transports the milk through a pipe direct from the cows udder to the
milk cooler.
28
Milk room and cooler
Sanitation is the primary consideration in the handling of milk, whether it is from one or two
cows belonging to a smallholder or from a commercial herd supplying milk for the city.
Milk should be handled in a separate area that is easy to clean and is free of insects, birds,
rodents and dust. A smallholder producing milk only for the household may be able to
process, curdle, or consume the milk within a short time so that cooling is not necessary.

Selling milk to the public requires higher standards of sanitation and more elaborate facilities.
Whether the cows are hand- or machine-milked, a separate milk room adjacent to the milking
stalls or milking parlour is needed. This room should be well ventilated and designed with a
concrete floor with a slope of 20 mm/m to a drain and masonry walls with a smooth, water-
resistant surface that can be easily and thoroughly cleaned.

Milk is strained and cooled in this room in preparation for selling. As soon as the cow has
been milked, the bacteria in the milk start to multiply, but cooling the milk to about 4 °C
within two hours will drastically reduce bacterial growth. However, proper cooling is a very
difficult problem for the small-scale producer. The only practical solution for individual
farmers in an area may be to bring their milk to a central collection depot for cooling
immediately after milking.

On dairy farms of sufficient size and where power is available, the milk can be cooled by
cold water circulated between an evaporative water cooler and a milk cooler (plate heat
exchanger), through which the milk is passed until it is adequately cooled. Where milk is
stored and transported in cans, cooling can be accomplished by immersing the full cans in a
water-filled refrigerated cooler or by passing cold water through a coil, which is immersed in
the can. Large-scale dairy farms with a pipeline milking system and milk collection by road
tanker require a refrigerated cooler and holding tank.

Milking shade

On commercial farms where several cows are milked at the time, a milking shade becomes a
feasible investment. Milking shade should have a high quality concrete floor and metal
railings for durability and ease of cleaning. Walls are not required but, if supplied, they
should at least be plastered masonry walls. The pit where the milker stands should have a
floor level 900 mm below that of the cattle stands to ensure the most comfortable work
position.

Collecting yard
The cows are normally assembled in a collecting yard (holding area) before milking. This
may be a portion of the yard that is temporarily fenced off with chains. The collecting yard
should have a minimum size of 1.1 metres to 2.0 metres per cow.

The area should slope away from the milking shade with an incline of 20–100 millimetres per
metre. The collecting yard should be paved for easy cleaning and to ensure sanitary
conditions in the shade. A roof is desirable for shade and to avoid wet cows entering the
milking shade in the rainy season.

FEEDING EQUIPMENT
29
One advantage of loose housing of cattle is the opportunity to construct the feed trough in the
fence to allow easy access for filling. The dimensions of the trough must be chosen to
conform with the required height, reach and width of the feeding space for the animals to be
fed, while providing enough volume for the amount of feed distributed at each feeding time
(as shown in Figures 10.18).

Although timber construction is simple to install, concrete should be considered because of

its greater durability. When timber is used, the base should be well treated with wood
preservative. However, the preservative should not be used on any surface that cattle can
reach to lick, as some preservative materials are toxic to animals.

When concrete is used, the grade should be at least C20, or a nominal mix of 1:2:4, because a
lower grade concrete would soon deteriorate as a result of chemical attack by feedstuffs and
the cow’s saliva. The cows will press against the barrier before and during feeding, so the
head rail must be firmly fixed to the vertical posts, which are set immovably in the ground.

The bottom of the feed trough should be at a level 100 mm to 400 mm above the level at
which the cow is standing with her front feet.

A simple roof constructed over the feed trough and the area where the cows stand to eat will
provide shade and encourage daytime feeding in bright weather, while protecting the feed
from water damage in rainy periods.

30
31
WATERING EQUIPMENT (Water troughs)

The size of a water trough depends on whether the herd is taken for watering periodically or
is given water on a continuous basis. If water is limited, the length of the trough should be
such that all the cows can drink at the same time.

Figures 10.20a and 10.20b show a well-designed trough made of concrete.

32
FEED HANDLING
The types and quantities of feedstuffs to be handled vary greatly from farm to farm.

Dry hay or forage

If an adequate supply of green forage can be grown throughout the year, then only temporary
storage and space for chopping is required. On the other hand, if a prolonged dry season
makes it necessary to conserve dry forage, a storage method that will prevent spoilage is
essential.

A raised slatted floor with a thatched or corrugated steel roof will provide good protection for
hay. A simple storage similar to the sunshade shown in Figure 10.4 will be adequate.

MANURE HANDLING

Careful waste management is needed to:

• utilize the fertilizing qualities of the manure, urine and other waste;
• maintain good animal health through sanitary facilities;
• avoid pollution of air and water and to provide good hygiene around the farmstead.

The method of disposal depends on the type of waste being handled. Solids can be stacked
and spread on fields at the optimum time of year, while liquids must be collected in a tank
and may be spread from tank-wagons.

Manure from a livestock production unit may contain not only faeces and urine, but also
straw or other litter materials, spillage from feeding, and water.

33
Manure is handled as a solid when the dry matter content exceeds 25 percent. In this
condition, the manure can be stacked to a height of 1.5–2 metres. This condition of the
manure is obtained only when urine is drained away immediately and a prescribed amount of
litter, such as straw or sawdust, is used.

Manure with less than 20 percent solids has the consistency of thick slurry. It must be
collected in a tank or pit but is too thick to handle effectively with pumps. It must be diluted
with water to less than 15 percent solids before it can be pumped with a conventional
centrifugal pump.

The amount of manure and the composition vary depending upon factors such as feeding,
milk yield, animal weight, position in the lactation period and the health of the animal. Cattle
fed on ‘wet’ silage or grass produce more urine. Table 10.8 shows the manure production in
relation to the weight of the animals.

To estimate the volume of manure and bedding, add the volume of manure from Table 10.8
to half the volume of bedding used. Heavy rain requires the removal of liquid for stacked
manure during the storage period. The storage capacity must then be increased by about 50
percent, or a roof should be built over the storage for slurry or liquid manure.

34
 Lecture 06
Poultry Housing
Poultry (which includes chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese) offers one of the best sources of
animal protein, in the form of both meat and eggs, at a cost most people can afford. Chickens
are the most widely raised and are suitable even for the smallholder who keeps a few birds
that largely forage for themselves and require minimum protection at night.

At the other extreme, commercial farms may have highly mechanized systems housing
thousands of birds supplying eggs and meat to the city market.

General housing requirements for chickens

Proper planning of housing facilities for a flock of laying hens requires knowledge of
management and environmental needs during the various stages of the chicken’s life. A
typical life cycle is illustrated in Figure 10.37.

The laying period may be up to 16 months but, in flocks kept for commercial egg production,
the hens are normally culled after a laying period of 11–12 months, or when production has
dropped to a point where the number of eggs collected per day is about 65 percent of the
number of hens in the flock.

The hens may come into production again after a moulting period of a couple of months, but
the production then is not as high and the egg quality is generally not quite as good as in the
first laying period. Where prices of poultry meat are reasonable, it is usually more economic
to cull all the hens after one year of egg production.

Site selection
The best site is one that is well drained, elevated but fairly level, and has an adequate supply
of drinking water nearby.

Regardless of the type or size of the housing system, the site for construction should be
selected to provide adequate ventilation, but be protected from strong winds. An area under
cultivation, producing low growing crops, will be slightly cooler than an area of bare ground.
High trees can provide shade while at the same time actually increasing ground-level breezes.
Bushes planted at one windward corner and also at the diagonally opposite corner will induce
air currents within the building to reduce the effect of the heat from direct solar radiation.

As all buildings used for poultry housing tend to produce odours, they should be located well
downwind of nearby dwellings. If there are several poultry buildings in a group, it is
desirable to have them separated by 10–15 metres in order to minimize the possibility of
spreading disease.

All buildings should be constructed on well-drained sites where drives and paths between
buildings will not become muddy, even during the rainy season.

35
Environmental requirements
The principal environmental concern is to keep the flock as cool as possible. Shade, good
ventilation with natural breezes, freedom from roof radiation and the indirect radiation from
bare ground are all important.

Humidity seems important in only two respects. Very low humidity causes objectionably
dusty conditions and high humidity, combined with temperatures above 27 °C, seems to
interfere with the physiological cooling mechanism and increases the possibility of death.

Day-old chicks require a temperature of 33–35 °C. This temperature is maintained for a week
and is then gradually lowered to the ambient temperature by the end of five weeks.

In addition to providing a good environment, the housing should offer protection from
predators and theft, as well as keeping out rodents and birds. Not only do they carry diseases,
they can also consume enough feed to make a significant economic difference.

Additional hours of light can be achieved by installing one 40-watt electric light bulb per 15
square metres of floor space in a position about 2.2 metres above floor level. More important
than the hours of light, however, is maintenance of the lighting schedule, because any sudden
change in the length of the photo-period is likely to result in a significant drop in production.

Fourteen hours of light throughout the laying period is optimum. A schedule with gradually
decreasing hours of light may be used in windowless houses for maturing pullets. This
postpones laying. However, in warm climates near the equator, houses are open for natural
ventilation and the length of the day is close to 12 hours throughout the year. The result is
that pullets start to lay at 14–18 weeks of age and egg size, which is small at first, gradually
increases during the first three months.

Broiler houses are often lighted 24 hours a day to encourage maximum feed consumption and
rate of gain.

Proper design and management of the poultry house can effectively contribute to disease
prevention in the flock. In general, it is best if the litter is dry but not too dusty. If no litter is
used, the floor and wall surfaces should be designed so that they can be cleaned easily
between flocks and stay reasonably clean during use.

Construction details
In most hot climates there will be many more days when a cooling breeze is needed rather
than protection from a chilling wind. A wall construction consisting of a solid base, which
protects against indirect radiation from the ground, and an open space covered with mesh
above it, is therefore preferred for all four walls in most types of chicken house.

A hessian or reed curtain that can be dropped on the windward side will offer extra protection
and, if installed on the east and west orientation, it may also protect from direct sunshine. An
arrangement where the top end of the hessian is fixed to the wall plate and the bottom end is
attached to a gum-pole, around which it can be rolled when not in use, provides for smooth
operation. In high altitude areas, offcuts may be used on the gable ends, but 15–20 mm
spaces should be left between them to improve ventilation. The width of the building should
not exceed 9 metres for efficient cross-ventilation.

36
The lower wall design, up to 1 metre of solid wall, can be made of any available masonry
units. Bagwashing will give a smooth, easily cleaned finish, but adobe blocks will require the
extra protection of plastering to prevent the birds from destroying the wall by pecking.

The upper wall design to the total height of the wall, including the solid base, should be about
2 metres. gum-poles treated with wood preservative and set 500 mm deep in concrete provide
a practical means for supporting the roof and upper wall structure. Eighteen-millimetre wire
mesh is small enough to keep out rodents and birds. A tight-fitting door is essential.

The floor in a poultry house may consist of gravel or well-drained soil, but concrete is
desirable because it is easy to clean, durable and considerably more rat proof. A concrete
floor should be 80–100 mm thick and be made of a stiff 1:2:4 or 1:3:5 mix, laid on a firm
base at least 150 mm above ground level, and given a smooth finish with a steel trowel.

Roof structures with a free span are desirable to avoid any inconvenience from roof-
supporting poles inside the building. Corrugated steel sheets are the first choice for roofing
material because they are much easier to keep clean than thatch. Insulation under the metal
roofing will improve the environment in the house. However, a thatched roof may result in
even better conditions and can be used on narrow buildings. The roof overhang should be 500
mm or more in order to give adequate protection from sun and rain. A ventilation opening
along the ridge is usually supplied in layer houses, but not in brooding houses.

Housing systems for layers

The pullets are transferred from the rearing accommodation to the laying accommodation at
the age of 17–18 weeks and start laying when they are 20–24 weeks old. At the time of
transfer, they should be grouped according to size and stage of maturity.

There are five major systems used in housing for layers: semi-intensive; deep litter; slatted or
wire floor; a combination of slatted floor and deep litter; and a cage system. Having
considered the factors that affect the comfort, protection, efficiency and production of the
birds, it is also important to design a system that is labour-efficient, reasonable in terms of
investment and easy to manage.

How well each of the systems fills the needs of both the chickens and the people supervising
the operation should be the determining factor in the selection of an appropriate system for a
specific situation.

Semi-intensive systems
Semi-intensive systems are commonly used by small-scale producers and are characterized
by having one or more pens in which the birds can forage on natural vegetation and insects to
supplement the feed supplied.

It is desirable to provide at least two runs for alternating use to avoid a build-up of disease
and parasites. Each run should allow at least 10–15 square metres per hen and be fenced, but
a free-range run allowing 40–80 square metres per hen will be required where the hens are
expected to obtain a substantial part of their diet from foraging.

A small, simple house, which allows 0.3–0.4 square metres per bird and has a thatched roof, a
littered earth floor and slatted or chicken wire walls on at least three sides, will provide
protection from inclement weather and from predators at night, as well as providing shade in
the daytime. The shelter should be large enough for entry to collect eggs and be equipped
with nest boxes, feeders, drinkers and perches. For convenience, the house should be situated
so that access to each of the runs can be provided with small outlet doors.
37
Figure 10.38 shows another type of shelter for roosting and laying that can be used in
combination with daytime foraging by the hens. The legs of this structure have rat guards and
ant protection and may be equipped with skids or wheels to make the whole unit easily
movable between runs. Feed and water are provided in troughs outside the house.

This system is low in cost, but bird growth and egg production are likely to be lower than
with systems offering closer confinement and better feed. Losses may be caused by birds of
prey and by failure to find eggs laid in bushy areas. The poultry run requires a considerable
amount of fencing.

Deep-litter system
Deep-litter houses, as shown in Figure 10.40, confine the birds in a building that offers good
protection with a reasonable investment. If well designed, with low masonry walls set on a
concrete floor and wire mesh completing the upper part of the walls, the building will keep
out rats and birds.

The principal advantages of this system are easy access for feeding, watering and egg
gathering, good protection and reasonable investment. The principal disadvantage is the need
for high quality litter. If this is produced by the owner, it is of little significance but, if it must
be purchased, it becomes an economic factor. In either case, the litter and manure must be
removed periodically.
38
The deep-litter house can be designed up to 9 metres in width and any length that is needed.
A satisfactory density is approximately 4–5 birds per square metre of floor area.

Slatted or wire-floor system

A small house of this type with a slatted floor is shown in Figure 10.41. Alternatively, wire
mesh can be used for the floor. It is built on treated wooden piers 0.8–1 metres above the
ground. Ventilation and manure removal are both facilitated, no litter is required and bird
density can be 6–8 per square metre. Feeding, watering and egg-gathering are all efficiently
handled from the outside. Either a double pitch thatch roof or a single-pitch corrugated steel
roof may be installed, with the eaves about 1.5 metres above the floor. If the latter is used,
some insulation under the roof is desirable.

The feed troughs should be equipped with hinged covers, and rat guards should be installed at
the top of each pier. The width of this type of building should be limited to about 2 metres to
allow easy removal of manure and adequate wall space for feed and nests. The building
should be oriented east and west and may be of any length. However, if it is more than 5
metres long, nests will need to be put on the sides, and all remaining wall space on either side
used for feeders in order to allow the required 100 mm/bird (see Table 10.13).

If using a slatted floor sufficiently strong for a person to walk on, then a wider building is
feasible, as feeders can be placed completely inside where the chickens have access to both
sides of the trough. The floor is sectioned for easy removal during cleaning out of manure.

39
This type of house is said to be cooler than other types, but the building cost is high and
management is more complicated.

40
Combination of slatted floor and deep litter
A combination deep-litter/slatted-floor house offers some advantages over a simple deep-
litter house, but with some increase in investment. Figure 10.42 shows a house of this type
for the small producer. Approximately half of the floor area is covered with small gum-pole
slats or with wire mesh. This area is raised above the concrete floor by 0.5 metres or more to
make it possible to clean under the slatted portion from the outside. Waterers and feeders are
placed on the slatted area. This type of house is limited in width to 3–4 metres to enable
feeders and waterers to be handled from the litter area, and manure beneath the slatted area
can be easily removed from the outside without moving the slats or disturbing the birds.

This system saves on litter, increases litter life, reduces contact between birds and manure,
and allows manure removal without disturbing the hens. Ventilation is improved by the
slatted floor.

In medium- to large-scale houses of this type, the slatted floor must be made removable in
sections, and at least part of it made strong enough to walk on. However, this results in
increased building cost and more complicated management. The house shown in Figure 10.43
has slats over two-thirds of the floor area.

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This is generally considered the maximum for this type of house and allows for a stocking
density of up to eight birds per square metre. Automatic tube feeders are placed on the slatted
floor. One such feeder, with a bottom diameter of 0.6 metres can serve 60–75 birds,
depending on the size of the breed.

The water troughs are suspended from the ceiling. The nest boxes are doubled by arranging
them back to back, and have one end resting on the slatted floor and the other suspended from
the ceiling.

Egg-collection can be facilitated by the use of a trolley, which is supported on a rail just
below the ceiling.

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Cage systems
Cage management of layers in very large, well-insulated, windowless buildings has become
standard practice in much of Europe and the colder parts of the United States. With complete
mechanization of feed, water, egg-collection, manure removal and environmental control,
two to three people can care for thousands of birds.

It should be noted that a very large investment is made in order to obtain labour efficiency
and ideal environmental conditions. East and southeast Africa currently have relatively low
labour costs and a mild climate, which could make a mechanized cage system in an insulated
building unnecessary and impractical.

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Nevertheless, there are much simpler cage systems that may work very well for commercial
growers in this region. These consist of rows of stair-step cages in long, narrow shelters
(Figure 10.44). The thatch roof, or insulated metal roof shelter, can be completely open on
the sides, with perhaps some hessian curtains in areas where cold winds are experienced. The
buildings should be oriented east to west, and be designed to provide shade for the cages near
the ends.

A 3.4-metre width can accommodate four cages without overlap and an alley of about 0.9
metres. While a concrete floor makes cleaning easy, smooth, hard soil is less expensive and
quite satisfactory. A little loose sand or other litter spread on the soil before the manure
collects will make manure removal easier. The building posts should be treated with wood
preservative and be sturdy enough to support the cages. Rat guards should be installed on the
posts at a height of 0.8–1 metre.

A cast-concrete central alley raised 20 cm is easy to clean and keeps manure from
encroaching on the work area. Feeding and egg-collecting are easily done by hand, while
watering may be either by hand or with an automatic system. It is important for the watering
trough to be carefully adjusted so that all birds receive water. The simplest method of
supplying water automatically, or by hand at one end, is to slope the entire building and row
of cages by 10 mm per 3 metres of length.

The trough can then be attached parallel to the cages. Water must run the total length of the
trough and it is inevitable that some will be wasted. Consequently a good water supply is
essential.

Even though feed is distributed by hand, feed stores should be built convenient to each
building to minimize carrying. Eggs can be collected directly on ‘flats’ stacked on a cart that
is pushed down the alley. The cart can be made self-guiding by means of side rollers that
follow the edge of the feed troughs or the raised central alley.

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Housing for breeders
Breeders must be housed in one of the floor systems because cocks need to run with the hens.
One cock per 5–10 hens is sufficient. Special emphasis is placed on disease control, so often
a partially or completely slatted floor design is preferred. Few commercial producers breed
their own replacements, but instead buy day-old chicks from a commercial hatchery.
However, most chicks of indigenous breeds are produced by natural incubation in small-scale
farms. Although a hen sitting on some 8–10 eggs needs little feed and even less attention,
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breeding results may be improved by a cool, clean nest at ground level that is enclosed to
protect the hen, and later the chicks, from insect pests, vermin and predators, and by a supply
of feed and clean water.

Brooders
Naturally hatched chicks are reared and protected by the broody hen and can be left
undisturbed, provided that their yard is protected from predators, is of a good sanitary
standard and has a supply of feed and water.

Artificially incubated chicks must be started under gas-fired or oil-fired brooders to

compensate for the absence of a natural mother, and to keep them warm without crowding
together. If electricity is available, a 250-watt infrared lamp is a more reliable and
comfortable solution, but it is also more expensive.

A cheap, simple but still efficient brooding arrangement that will serve for about 100 chicks
is shown in Figure 10.47. The hover, which prevents the heat from escaping and protects the
chicks from draughts, is made from a halved oil drum and is equipped underneath with two
heaters, e.g. kerosene storm lanterns protected by netting. The hover is suspended by chains
from the roof structure, and its height over the floor is adjusted to achieve the required
temperature.

Housing for pullets and broilers

In the past, poultry meat has been derived chiefly from culled layers. This is still the main
source of poultry meat in most developing countries, although there is an increasing shift
towards rearing chickens specifically for meat.

46
Broilers, the common term for meat birds, are fast-growing strains that reach market weight
of 1.6 kg in 8–12 weeks. The commercial production of poultry meat is now based primarily
on broilers.

In a semi-intensive system, the growing pullets may obtain part of their food by scavenging
for forage, seed, etc. A fenced yard allowing 5–8 square metres per bird is preferable to
open land. At least part of the yard should have shade cover, and a simple building in which
the birds can be enclosed at night will be required. The building should allow 0.2 square
metres per bird, have good ventilation and perches for roosting, and offer protection against
predators and inclement weather. The birds should be moved at regular intervals to a different
yard in order to avoid a build-up of worm infestation.

There is little difference between the system for rearing chicks to become pullet replacements
for the laying flock and the system for rearing broilers for market. The same environment and
housing are suitable, so they will be considered together.

Brooding and rearing are floor-managed operations. It is common practice to keep broilers or
pullets in the same house from the time they are one day old: first on newspapers or thinly
spread litter, and later on deep litter.

Pullets and broilers are not grown together owing (because) to the difference in the length of
their growing periods and differing schedules for artificial lighting.

Equipment and stores

The chicken house will require equipment such as waterers, feeders and a feed store, and
perhaps perches for roosting.

Houses for floor-managed layers or breeders will require nest boxes. A store for eggs may be
required in any laying house. There should be sufficient feeders and waterers for easy access
(particularly important for young chicks), long enough for each bird to have its place, and

47
with sufficient holding capacity. Tables 10.13 and 10.15 provide some information relevant
to their design.

Feeders
Either trough or tube feeders are used for day-old chicks, growing birds and layers, but their
size must be selected to suit the birds to be fed. The number of feeders should be such that the
distance to the nearest feeder does not exceed 2 metres from any point in the house. A trough
should be not too wide, easy to clean and designed to prevent the hens from leaving their
droppings in it.

Figure 10.49a shows a good trough design that can be made by the farmer. If used outside in
a run, the trough should be sheltered by a roof. Small trough feeders for chicks are used on
the floor, but the larger ones are usually mounted on a stand to prevent the chickens from
kicking litter into them, and have perches where they can stand while eating (see Figure
10.49b). Tube feeders, as shown in Figure 10.49c, are suspended from the ceiling and are
easily adjusted for height (0.3 metres above ground is recommended for mature birds).

Drinkers
An ordinary 10-litre or 15-litre bucket serves very well as a drinker for layers. If it is sunk
into the floor or ground so that only about 10 centimetres shows above ground, it may be
used for chicks as well. Another arrangement for chicks consists of a shallow bowl supplied
with water from an upside-down bottle, as shown in Figure 10.62. Water fountains of the type
shown in Figure 10.49d are available in sizes for all ages.

Just like feeders, they are used on the floor for small chicks and on stands for older birds. The
number of drinkers should be such that all chickens have access to one within a distance of 3
metres.

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Nest boxes
49
Layers and breeders, except those managed in cage systems, should have access to nest boxes
in which they can lay their eggs. The nests can be used by one or more birds at a time. Single
nests commonly have the dimensions 250–300 mm wide, 300–380 mm deep and 300–350
mm high. They have a 100 mm litter-retaining board across the bottom of the opening and a
perch 150–200 mm in front of the entrance.

Communal nests should have a space allowance of at least 0.09 square metres per bird. The
top of the nest should be steeply sloped to prevent birds from roosting there. One nest should
be supplied for every five birds in the flock. Figure 10.50 shows a two-tier nest box
arrangement. The bottom row of nests should be 450–600 mm from the floor.

Perches
Chickens have a natural instinct to roost in trees at night. To provide for this, perches are
commonly installed in chicken houses from six to eight weeks of age or more, in particular in
semi-intensive systems. Perches for young birds should have a diameter of about 35 mm and
provide 0.1–0.15 square metres of space per bird, while adult birds need about 50 mm
diameter and 0.2–0.3 square metres of space. The perches should be fixed to solid stands 0.6–
1 metres above the floor and 0.35–0.4 metres apart, preferably placed lengthwise at the centre
of the house. A deck about 200 mm underneath to collect manure is desirable.

Feed stores
Grain stores are discussed in Chapter 16. The feed stores required for a small flock are very
similar to those for food grains. For commercial flocks, the type of store depends on how the
feed is handled. If it is purchased in bag lots, then a masonry building with an iron roof that is
secure against rodents and birds is most suitable. If feed is delivered in bulk, then one or
more overhead bins, from which the feed is removed by gravity, will be convenient and safe.

The size of the store required depends entirely on the frequency and size of deliveries, but
can be estimated as 0.0035 m2 floor area per bird in the flock where feed is purchased in
bags. If part of the grain is produced on the farm, then some long-term storage of the type
shown in Chapter 16 will be required.

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Manure handling
A layer is estimated to produce an average of 0.15– 0.20 kg manure per day, and a broiler
produces 0.08– 0.12 kg of manure per day. In deep-litter systems, the litter used may more
than double these amounts. Poultry manure is commonly allowed to accumulate in the house
under a wire or slatted floor, or as deep litter, for quite extended periods, but alternatively it
may be cleaned out regularly and stored in a concrete pond.

Egg handling
Eggs are an excellent source of animal protein and are usually less expensive than meat. If
properly handled under sanitary conditions, they store well for short periods and reach the
consumer in good condition.

The following list includes several recommended practices and facilities: 1. A clean nest and
floor litter will minimize the number of dirty eggs.

2. The egg-handling and storage building should be screened, free of rodents and other
vermin.

3. The water supply should be potable and ample.

4. Lavatory and toilet facilities should be available.

Egg-cooling for large commercial laying operations requires approximately 0.25 m3 of cool
store per 1000 layers per day of storage. For smaller flocks, the store will need to be
proportionately larger.

Figure 10.52 shows an evaporative charcoal cooler for small farms. A store measuring 100 ×
100 cm (for example) is covered by a water tray, from which cloth strips or ‘wicks’ drip
water down into side frames. The frames consist of a 5 cm layer of broken charcoal,
sandwiched between 1.25 cm chicken wire mesh. A hinged and latched door is constructed
similarly to the sides. The action of water evaporating from the charcoal cools the interior of
the box.

Other methods for short-term storage of eggs at the small poultry unit include underground
cellars, storage in lime water and storage after dipping in water glass.
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For longer periods of storage, a refrigeration system and a well-insulated room is required to
maintain a storage temperature of 5–10 °C. To allow storage for six to seven months, a
temperature of between -1.5 °C and 0 °C will be required. The refrigeration capacity needed
is approximately 200 watts for 5 000 layers, or 300–400 watts for 10 000 layers. Other
capacities would be proportionate.

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 Lecture 07
Sheep and goat housing
Sheep and goats are important sources of milk and meat. Both readily adapt (adjust) to a wide
range of climates and available feed supplies. They also have similar housing requirements
and will therefore be treated together.

Management systems
Depending primarily on the availability and use of land, three systems of production are
practiced:

1. Subsistence, in which a few animals are tethered during the day and put into a protective
shelter at night.

2. Extensive (wide-spread), in which the herd grazes over large areas of marginal (secondary)
land unsuitable for agriculture. The herd is usually shut into a yard at night. Both these
systems are practiced extensively in East Africa.

3. Intensive (concentrated), in which the animals are confined to yards and shelters, and feed
is brought to the herd. This system offers the greatest protection for the herd from both
predators and parasites. Although it may make the best use of limited land resources, this
system also increases labour and the capital investment required for facilities.

Housing
In the arid tropics, no protection other than natural shade is required. In humid climates,
a simple thatched shelter will provide shade and protection from excessive rain. As sheep and
goats do not tolerate mud well, yards and shelters should be built only on well-drained
ground.

Figure 10.54 shows a sheep/goat house for 100 animals. Unless (if not) predators are a
serious problem, gum-poles can be substituted for the brick walls. If thatching is difficult to
obtain, a lower-pitch roof of galvanized steel is feasible, but some insulation under the roof is
desirable.

Where housing facilities are provided, in addition to water, feed troughs and permanent
partitions, it will be necessary to provide temporary panels to help divide and handle the herd
when necessary, in order to carry out such operations as disease treatment, docking, shearing,
milking and lambing.

In temperate climates and at high altitudes, a more substantial (important) structure may be
needed. An open-front building facing north provides wind protection and a maximum of
sunshine. A rammed-earth floor with a slope of 1:50 towards the open front is recommended.
A concrete apron sloped 1:25 and extending from 1.2 metres inside to 2.4 metres outside will
help maintain clean conditions in the barn.

In areas of high rainfall it may be desirable to keep the animals off the ground. Stilted houses
with a slatted floor raised 1–1.5 metres above the ground, to facilitate cleaning and the
collection of dung and urine, are shown in Figures 10.55 and 10.56.

Milking can be facilitated by providing a platform along the feeding fence where the animals
can stand while being milked from behind. Such a platform should be 0.8 metres deep and
elevated 0.35–0.5 metres above the floor where the milker stands.

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54
55
Parasite control
A dipping tank is essential in the layout for a large herd or for a community facility for the
use of many smallholders. A typical dipping tank is shown in Figure 10.57.

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 Lecture 11
Structural Design

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