Thermodynamics
Instructor
Prof. Dr. Lütfullah Kuddusi
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Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2008
Chapter 9
GAS POWER CYCLES
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the
working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.
• Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power
cycles.
• Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
• Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and
Ericsson cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle
with regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling,
reheating, and regeneration.
• Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.
• Identify simplifying assumptions for second-law analysis of
gas power cycles.
• Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES Thermal efficiency of heat engines
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up of totally internally
reversible processes is called an ideal cycle.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the
highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.
Unlike ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and
unsuitable as a realistic model.
Modeling is a
powerful
engineering tool
that provides great The analysis of many
insight and complex processes can be
simplicity at the reduced to a manageable
expense of some level by utilizing some
loss in accuracy. idealizations.
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On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the The idealizations and simplifications in the
area enclosed by the cyclic curve to analysis of power cycles:
the area under the heat-addition 1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
process curve represents the thermal Therefore, the working fluid does not
efficiency of the cycle. Any experience any pressure drop as it flows in
modification that increases the ratio pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
of these two areas will also increase 2. All expansion and compression processes
the thermal efficiency of the cycle. take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well
insulated, and heat transfer through them
Care should be exercised is negligible.
in the interpretation of the
results from ideal cycles.
On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed
by the process curve represents the net work of the
cycle.
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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS
VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally
reversible processes: isothermal heat addition,
isentropic expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and
isentropic compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal
efficiency increases with an increase in the average
temperature at which heat is supplied to the system
or with a decrease in the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the system.
P-v and T-s diagrams of
A steady-flow Carnot engine. a Carnot cycle.
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AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced
by a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores
the working fluid to its initial state.
The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to
be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression ratio
Mean effective
pressure
• Spark-ignition (SI) engines
• Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines.
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES (Closed System)
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
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The two-stroke engines are
Four-stroke cycle
generally less efficient than
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution their four-stroke counterparts
Two-stroke cycle but they are relatively simple
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution and inexpensive, and they
have high power-to-weight
and power-to-volume ratios.
T-s
diagram
of the
ideal Otto Schematic of a two-stroke
cycle. reciprocating engine.
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In SI engines,
the
compression
ratio is limited
by
autoignition
or engine
knock.
The thermal efficiency of the Otto Thermal efficiency of the ideal
cycle increases with the specific Otto cycle as a function of
heat ratio k of the working fluid. compression ratio (k = 1.4).
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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES (Closed System)
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of
autoignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines
can be designed to operate at much higher compression
ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.
• 1-2 isentropic
compression
• 2-3 constant-
pressure heat
addition
• 3-4 isentropic
expansion
• 4-1 constant-
volume heat
rejection.
In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced
by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed
during the compression process.
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Cutoff
ratio
for the same compression ratio
Thermal
efficiency of
the ideal Diesel
cycle as a
function of
compression
and cutoff
ratios (k=1.4).
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QUESTIONS
Dual cycle: A more realistic Diesel engines operate at
ideal cycle model for modern, higher air-fuel ratios than
high-speed compression ignition gasoline engines. Why?
engine. Despite higher power to
weight ratios, two-stroke
engines are not used in
automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel
engines are among the
most efficient power
producing devices (about
50%). Why?
What is a turbocharger?
Why are they mostly used
in diesel engines
compared to gasoline
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle. engines.
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Stirling cycle STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
• 1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
• 2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
• 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
• 4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to
the working fluid)
A regenerator is a device that
borrows energy from the working
fluid during one part of the cycle
and pays it back (without
interest) during another part.
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The Stirling and Ericsson cycles Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are
give a message: Regeneration totally reversible, as is the Carnot cycle,
and thus:
can increase efficiency.
The Ericsson cycle is very much like the
Stirling cycle, except that the two constant-
volume processes are replaced by two
constant-pressure processes.
The execution of the Stirling cycle. A steady-flow Ericsson engine.
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BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES (Open System)
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
An open-cycle gas-turbine engine. A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
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Pressure
ratio
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle as a
T-s and P-v diagrams for function of the
the ideal Brayton cycle. pressure ratio.
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The two major application areas of gas- The highest temperature in the cycle is
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion limited by the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand. This
and electric power generation.
also limits the pressure ratios that can be
used in the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the
necessary oxidant for the combustion of
the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to
keep the temperature of various
components within safe limits. An air–
fuel ratio of 50 or above is not
uncommon.
For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net
work of the Brayton cycle first increases
with the pressure ratio, then reaches a The fraction of the turbine work
maximum at rp = (Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k - 1)], and used to drive the compressor is
finally decreases. called the back work ratio.
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Development of Gas Turbines
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components (turbines,
compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating).
Deviation of Actual Gas-
Turbine Cycles from Idealized
Ones
Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and
compressors, pressure drops, heat
losses
Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor
and turbine
The deviation of an actual gas-
turbine cycle from the ideal
Brayton cycle as a result of
irreversibilities.
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THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
REGENERATION
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust
gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than
the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor
can be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow
heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since less fuel is used for the
same work output. T-s diagram of a Brayton
cycle with regeneration.
A gas-turbine engine with regenerator. 21
Effectiveness
of regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-
air standard assumptions
Under cold-air
standard assumptions
T-s diagram of a Brayton
cycle with regeneration. Can regeneration
be used at high
The thermal efficiency pressure ratios?
depends on the ratio of the
minimum to maximum
temperatures as well as the Thermal
pressure ratio. efficiency of
the ideal
Regeneration is most
effective at lower pressure Brayton cycle
ratios and low minimum-to- with and
maximum temperature ratios. without
regeneration. 22
For minimizing work input to
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH compressor and maximizing
INTERCOOLING, REHEATING, work output from turbine:
AND REGENERATION
A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with intercooling, two-stage
expansion with reheating, and regeneration and its T-s diagram.
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Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas
between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the compression
process in stages and cooling the gas in between. This keeps the specific volume as low
as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as
high as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration. Why?
Comparison
of work inputs
to a single-
stage
compressor
(1AC) and a
two-stage
compressor
with
intercooling
(1ABD).
As the number of compression and expansion
stages increases, the gas-turbine cycle with
intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
approaches the Ericsson cycle.
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IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and
compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in that
the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they
are expanded to a pressure such that the power produced by the turbine is just
sufficient to drive the compressor and the auxiliary equipment.
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the turbine
at a relatively high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the
thrust to propel the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. This
is accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid (propeller-
driven engine) or greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid (jet or turbojet
engine) or both (turboprop engine).
In jet engines, the high-
temperature and high-
pressure gases leaving the
turbine are accelerated in a
nozzle to provide thrust.
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Thrust (propulsive force)
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive power
Propulsive power is
the thrust acting on the
aircraft through a
distance per unit time.
Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
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Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-
driven, with propellers powered by engines
essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-
propulsion-driven engines have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts
have been made to combine the desirable
characteristics of both in one engine.
Energy supplied to an aircraft
Two such modifications are the propjet engine
and the turbofan engine. (from the burning of a fuel)
manifests itself in various forms.
A turbofan engine. The most widely used
engine in aircraft
propulsion is the
turbofan (or fanjet)
engine wherein a large
fan driven by the
turbine forces a
considerable amount
of air through a duct
(cowl) surrounding the
engine.
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A modern jet engine
used to power Boeing
777 aircraft. This is a
Pratt & Whitney
PW4084 turbofan
capable of producing
374 kN of thrust. It is
4.87 m long, has a 2.84
m diameter fan, and it
weighs 6800 kg.
Various engine types:
Turbofan, Propjet, Ramjet, Sacramjet, Rocket
A turboprop engine. A ramjet engine.
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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Exergy
destruction for a
closed system
For a steady-
flow system
Steady-flow, one-inlet, one-exit
Exergy destruction of a cycle
For a cycle with heat transfer
only with a source and a sink
Closed system exergy
Stream exergy
A second-law analysis of these cycles reveals;
where the largest irreversibilities occur and
where to start improvements. 29
SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
𝑆gen = ∆𝑆sys + ∆𝑆surr
Entropy of system, 𝑺: It shows entropy of a system at a given state .
Entropy change of system, ∆𝑺𝐬𝐲𝐬: It is entropy of system at final state minus entropy of
system at initial state during a process.
Entropy generation, 𝑺𝐠𝐞𝐧: Entropy which is produced during a process.
Entropy transfer, 𝑺𝐢𝐧 and 𝑺𝐨𝐮𝐭 : Entropy which enters to a system (𝑆in), and, entropy which
leaves a system (𝑆out).
During a process, some entropy may enter, some entropy may leave, the system. Also, some
entropy is produced during the process. So, entropy change of the system can be formulated as
follows.
𝑆in − 𝑆out + 𝑆gen = ∆𝑆sys
Entropy change of the system can also be formulated in a rate form as
ሶ − 𝑆out
𝑆in ሶ + 𝑆gen
ሶ = 𝑑𝑆sysΤ𝑑𝑡 30
SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Entropy change of the system during a process is equal to entropy of the system at final state
minus entropy of the system at initial state
∆𝑆sys = 𝑆final − 𝑆initial
Sometimes initial and final states are referred to as 1 and 2 states, respectively. In this case,
entropy change of the system can be formulated as
∆𝑆sys = 𝑆2 −𝑆1
𝑄in 𝑄out
𝑆in,𝑄 = 𝑆out,𝑄 = 𝑆in,𝑊 = 0 𝑆out,𝑊 = 0
𝑇 𝑇
The equations can also be expressed in a rate form.
𝑄 ሶ 𝑄 ሶ
𝑆ሶin,𝑄ሶ = in 𝑆ሶout,𝑄ሶ = out 𝑆ሶin,𝑊ሶ = 0 𝑆ሶout,𝑊ሶ = 0
𝑇 𝑇
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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
It should be noted that heat transfer to (𝑄in,surr) or from (𝑄out,surr) the surroundings is the
opposite of heat transfer to (𝑄in) or from (𝑄out) the system, respectively. That is, heat that
enters to a system leaves the surroundings, and, heat that leaves a system enters the
surroundings. So, the following equalities are valid mathematically.
𝑄in = 𝑄out,surr 𝑄out = 𝑄in,surr
The equalities in a rate form are as follows.
𝑄ሶ in = 𝑄ሶ out,surr 𝑄ሶ out = 𝑄ሶ in,surr
Usually, heat that enters to or leaves a system is assumed to be positive or negative, and,
work that enters to or leaves a system is assumed to be negative or positive, respectively.
Considering this sign convention, the relation for heat transfers of system and surroundings
is
𝑄sys = −𝑄surr
or, for heat transfers in a rate form the relation is
𝑄ሶ sys = −𝑄ሶ surr
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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Mass contains both energy and entropy. Mass transfer to (𝑚in ) or from (𝑚out ) the system
accompanies entropy transfer to (𝑆in,𝑚 ) or from (𝑆out,𝑚 ) the system, respectively. The
following equations can be used to calculate entropy transfer to (𝑆in,𝑚 ) or from (𝑆out,𝑚 ) the
system due to mass transfer to (𝑚in ) or from (𝑚out ) the system.
𝑆in,𝑚 = 𝑚in 𝑠in,𝑚 𝑆out,𝑚 = 𝑚out 𝑠out,𝑚
Similarly, the equations can be expressed in a rate form as well.
ሶ
𝑆in,𝑚 = 𝑚ሶ in 𝑠in,𝑚 ሶ
𝑆out,𝑚 = 𝑚ሶ out 𝑠out,𝑚
𝑠in,𝑚 and 𝑠out,𝑚 are the entropies of unit mass that enters to and leaves the system,
respectively. Note that entropy of unit mass must be determined in the state that mass flows to
or from the system.
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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
- Closed systems:
𝑄surr
∆𝑆sys = 𝑚 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 ∆𝑆surr = σ 𝑆gen = ∆𝑆sys + ∆𝑆surr
𝑇surr
Open systems or control volumes:
a) Steady-flow open systems
𝑄 ሶ
ሶ = σ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 𝑠𝑒 − σ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖
∆𝑆sys ሶ
∆𝑆surr = σ surr ሶ
𝑆gen ሶ + ∆𝑆surr
= ∆𝑆sys ሶ
𝑇surr
b) Unsteady-flow open systems
𝑄surr
∆𝑆sys = σ 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 − σ 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 + 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 CV ∆𝑆surr = σ
𝑇surr
𝑆gen = ∆𝑆sys + ∆𝑆surr
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Summary
• Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard sssumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines
• Stirling and Ericsson cycles
• Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
• The Brayton cycle with regeneration
• The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration
• Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
• Second-law analysis of gas power cycles
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