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EFN302. Philosophy OF Education

Philosophy of Education (Kenyatta University)

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING

IN COLLABORATION WITH

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION

EFN 302: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

WRITTEN BY:

NYANJE D. BATSO & F. LIKOYE

EDITED BY:

[Link] KOMBO

Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2009

All Rights Reserved

Published By:

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

Most Education Students who are expected to do Philosophy of Education as a

compulsory unit is new to the world of Philosophy. It is, therefore, logically prudent to

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introduce you to Philosophy, before embarking on “Philosophy of Education” or

Philosophy of X,Y,Z. Consequently, this lesson introduces you to the world of
Philosophy, beginning with the obvious question of what Philosophy is.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

∙ Define what Philosophy is

∙ Effectively discuss the two worlds of Philosophy.

∙ Give some characteristics of Philosophy.

CONTENT

What is Philosophy?

∙ The Word “Philosophy” is derived from two Greek words, “Philein” and “Sophia
s”.

∙ “Philein” means to Love, to search for; and “Sophias”, means “Wisdom”.

∙ Philosophy is, therefore, a combination from the two Greek words cited above
and literally means “Love of Wisdom”, or “Search for Wisdom”.

∙ Given the above, you will realize that Philosophers are Lovers of Wisdom,
People who search for wisdom as they live in this world. Sometimes, wisdom is
referred to as knowledge, so Philosophy has come to be associated with love of
knowledge.

∙ Philosophers are people who are puzzled and wonder about many things in the
world they live in. As a result of this, they ask themselves many questions with
a hope of getting rational answers that will help them understand, and survive
in the world, themselves being part of that world.

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∙ Many Philosophers have argued, infact, that Philosophy begins in wonder and
wonder is the feeling of a Philosopher. What, however, is it to wonder?

∙ To wonder is to realize that there is something strange behind the things that
we ordinarily perceive; something that needs MORE answers than what we
ordinarily take for granted.

∙ For this reason, Philosophers take nothing for granted. They constantly try to
look for answers particularly to the MEANING and SIGNIFICANCE of life.

∙ In a way also, Philosophers, through their questioning habit, admit that they
are ignorant of some issues. By questioning, they want answers; they want to
know because they know that they don’t know. It is this knowledge that makes
them love or search for further knowledge.

∙ Basically, therefore, Philosophy is based on man’s curiosity and wonder about

the world we live in and consists in finding possible rational answers to many
questions about its nature (world). It tries to rationally investigate certain
fundamental problems with regards to the relationship between man and the
world he lives in.

NOTEIt is important to know that Philosophy is an activity undertaken by man in this

world and to discard a notion you may have probably heard that Philosophers are
detached and always absorbed in abstract deep thought completely unaware of the
world around them. In reality actually, the contrary is true

∙ The above information not withstanding, you need to realize that Philosophy
consists of two worlds. The World of General Philosophy which is wide and the
small world of Technical or Professional Philosophy. We need to explain each
of these.

GENERAL PHILOSOPHY – THE WIDE WORLD

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∙ As a general Philosophy, this means that it is not the preserve of a few people.
As Njoroge and Bennars (1986) put it, general Philosophy is and has always
been the concern of all human beings for the simple reason that they are
humans, questioning their humanity, the human condition, the human
experience of life.

∙ Any person, who seriously and genuinely tries to come to terms with life in the
sense of understanding it, does Philosophy at the general level.

∙ Done by all, though in different contexts, it includes what we can call

“Philosophy of life”, where different groups could be said to have a Philosophy
of life – a set of thought out beliefs or ideas that guide ones life. For example, a
student can have a Philosophy of life, and so is a farmer, a parent or even a
political leader.
∙ Included in the wide world of Philosophy are National Philosophies such as
“Nyayo Philosophy”, “Ujamaa”, and “Humanism” etc.
∙ From this we realize that general Philosophy can be both personal as well as
collective in nature.

NOTE

The important point is that, all of them whether personal or collective, Philosophy
expresses man’s response to life. In this context all human beings have a Philosophy
or are Philosophers since they have a set of ideas or beliefs that guide their [Link]
we, however, say this of Technical or Professional Philosophy? We need to show this.

TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY – THE SMALL WORLD

Different from the wide world of general Philosophy, Technical or Professional

Philosophy is associated with a small world of academic scholars who have
undergone formal training. Philosophy, in this sense has a structure, a system of
organized thought evidenced in a world of books, and scholarly writings.

This Philosophy has a specific form of thought, has emerged from ‘Western
Philosophy’ i.e. European in origin and characterized by specialization, a matter of
experts.

The student of Philosophy of Education need not become a professional Philosopher.

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As it has been argued, he only needs a general introduction to help him/her

understand and appreciate the meaning and significance of Technical Philosophy as
an Educator. The next lesson on the content of technical Philosophy should help.

ACTIVITIES

With the help of a friend discuss the following:

∙ When did you first hear of Philosophy as a subject?

∙ What was your general impression of Philosophy then?
∙ Having read through this lesson what is your perception now?
∙ Explain to your friends the main ideas from this lesson

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have tried to introduce you to the world of Philosophy. In the
course of this, we have suggested that Philosophy is caused by a spirit of wonder, a
wonder about the world, us being part of that world. It tries to rationally do this
through several questions about the meaning and nature of the world. We have also
argued that Philosophy consists of two worlds, the general and the Professional, both
concerned with the search for wisdom.

FURTHER READING

1. John – Terry C, 1994: For the Love of Wisdom: an explanation of the meaning
and purpose of philosophy. ALBA – House – New – Yord
2. Njoroge, R. J and Bennars, G.A, 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa Press, Nairobi
3. Peters R.S 1987: Philosophy and Education, Oxford University Press, Oxford
4. Sifuna, D. N et al (Ed). 2006: Themes in the study of the foundations of
Education. Jomo Kenyatta Foundations – Nairobi
5. Wambari, K (ed). 1992: Reading in Introduction to Critical Thinking. AIC Kijabe
Printing Press

Why is EFN 302 important in education today

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CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

Lesson one, was very instrumental in showing us the general definition of what
Philosophy is. In the course of that discussion, we distinguished between general
Philosophy and Technical Philosophy. Our main concern, however, is with Technical
Philosophy, with particular reference to its content and relationship to Education. As a
step towards that, Lesson 2 that follows, delineates and discusses the general content
of technical Philosophy as follows.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Lesson, the student should be able to:

∙ Identify the branches of Technical Philosophy

∙ Show the characteristics of each branch
∙ Correctly suggest reasons why the content of Technical Philosophy matters to
Education students.

CONTENT

∙ There are four distinct areas or branches in Technical Philosophy. These are:

1. LOGIC
2. EPISTEMOLOGY
3. AXIOLOGY
4. METAPHYSISCS

Let us examine each one of these separately.

LOGIC

∙ Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It studies how arguments are to be

constructed and how fallacies can be detected and avoided. Why is this
necessary?
∙ On many occasions where human beings discuss and argue, logical reasoning
is abandoned and people draw wrong conclusions that are unwarranted. Logic

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helps us avoid such problems and is, therefore, an indispensable tool if only to
show how correct arguments are made. But what are arguments?

∙ From a Philosophical standpoint, an argument is a set of statements one of

which is a conclusion and the rest designated as premises. An example of an
argument presented in a formal way is the following:

Dr. Nyanje is a 25 year old lady. All ladies aged 25 years and above are marriedDr.
Nyanje is a 25 year old married lady

NOTE

From the example given above, the first two statements are the premises and the last
statement is the conclusion. Given/Assuming that the first two statements are true, it
follows that the third statement/conclusion must be true. That is an example of a
valid Logical argument.

∙ In logic, we generally have two types of arguments or reasoning: Deductive

reasoning and inductive reasoning.
∙ Deductive reasoning is the type of reasoning where the conclusion is deduced
from the premises. Given true premises, the conclusion necessarily follows
from the premises.
∙ Inductive reasoning depends on the strengths of the premises. Strong premises
give a strong conclusion while weak premises give rise to a weak conclusion.
The conclusion is probabilistic in nature
∙ Consider the example below:

(1) Mr. Kobe is a kind person(2) Mr. Kobe is a Kenyan(3) Kenyans are kind people

NOTE

It is vital to remember that logic helps us to learn the art of correct reasoning and
also basically establishes the criteria by which we judge valid and invalid reasoning.
Because reasoning is carried out in any field of study, it (logic) is a necessary tool for
any student, hence the need for Education students to get acquainted with aspects of
logic. An argument is valid when the conclusion is entailed by, or logically follows
from, the premises. Accordingly, validity is a property of the argument's form and it
does not matter what the premises and the conclusion actually say. In fact, a valid
argument need not have true premises or a true conclusion. Consider the following

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argument which is considered to be valid:

(1) All dogs are birds

(2) Poppy is a dog

(3) (therefore) Poppy is a bird Let us now

consider the following three sentences:

(1) All women are bipeds.

(2) Helen is a woman.

(3) (therefore) a bicycle is a biped.

In the example above, we have an argument in which the purported conclusion, line
(3), does not follow from the premises at all. It is thus not a good argument since its
conclusion does not follow from its premises. We call such arguments invalid.

EPISTEMOLOGY

∙ As a branch of Philosophy, Epistemology forms part of the content of Technical

Philosophy.

∙ Epistemology is referred to as the study of knowledge or Philosophical

reflection on issues related to knowledge.

∙ The Epistemologist is interested in the “nature” of knowledge, asking questions

such as ‘what is knowledge? What does it mean to say that ‘I know? How do I
know that I know? Etc.

∙ These (questions) are seemingly simple, but very difficult to answer when one
attempts them. Two schools of thought are usually associated with the
“Philosophical study of knowledge. These are:

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1. RATIONALISM

2. EMPIRICISM

∙ The Empiricist Zeros in on ones sense experience in matters of acquisition of

knowledge. For him/her, all knowledge is derived from sense experience and
that any learning cannot take place in the absence of our senses.

∙ Educationists in this school plan their curriculum with this in mind, where
learners may/or are required to see, touch, hear, smell and possibly taste.

∙ The Rationalist on the other hand pays more attention to the part played by the
intellect in the acquisition of knowledge. The point stressed is that, it is possible
to acquire knowledge purely through the intellect since it is the source of all
knowledge. And because teachers deal with epistemological (knowledge)
issues, it is important that they be familiar with this branch. Next for discussion
is axiology.

NOTE

All learning involves getting certain knowledge. The content and how learners acquire
this knowledge is the area of epistemology and so is the justification of this
knowledge. Whether that knowledge is valuable or not is dealt with by another
branch, axiology which is next in discussion.

AXIOLOGY

A broad definition of axiology is that it is the Philosophical study of values. Values are,
however, grouped into two categories:

1. Ethical values or moral values, hence ethics as a sub-set of axiology

2. Aesthetic values or non-moral values – hence Aesthetics as another sub-branch

of axiology.

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ETHICS

∙ Also known as moral Philosophy, ethics studies moral values. This has to do
with what is right or wrong in human relationships within a given society. The
good or bad in human conduct is within the purview of Ethics

∙ Ethics also investigates the reasons why certain actions are universally
considered good or bad, prescribed or forbidden.

∙ Ethics seeks to give an answer to the question whether there is something in

the nature of an act that determines its rightness or wrongness or whether it
comes from without. A common question asked at this level is, for example,
what makes a right action right, or a wrong act wrong?

∙ In response to this question, we can make reference to Discuss here

Teleological and deontological arguments or theories.

∙ In the study of ethics, deontological ethics approaches the question of right or

wrong in terms of human actions by focusing on the motives and intentions of
the human actor. Accordingly, deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned
with what people do, not with the consequences of their actions. On the other
hand, teleological theories focus on the ends, results or the consequences the
action finally brings about. Accordingly the rightness of an act is determined by
its end in terms of whether it is acceptable or otherwise.

AESTHETICS

∙ Is the study of artistic values and these are not moral in nature. In this area, we
have issues such as the meaning of beauty, social cultural and political values.

∙ Aesthetics, to be precise, deals with norms according to which we judge the

object of perception to be beautiful or ugly.

∙ A car, for example, is beautiful/good aesthetically but not morally so.

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NOTE

Basically, therefore, axiology is the reflection of values, and this particularly so, when
people are no longer clear about what is valuable or worthwhile. With regards to
Educational links, we realize that education, as an enterprise in any country is
intricately associated with what is valuable. It would appear pointless to spend years
in schools if what we are doing is of no value. What is valuable, however, may need
insight before it can be adopted and this is where axiology comes in.

METAPHYSICS

∙ Metaphysics deals with ‘Being’ as such. It is the study of what there is, of being.
It enquires into the ultimate meaning of ‘being’

∙ Philosophers argue that both living and non-living have ‘Being’ as a common
element even though these ‘Beings’ participate in ‘being’ differently.

∙ The examination of the meaning of being belongs to that part of metaphysics

referred to as ontology. However, from a general point of view, the study of
‘being’ as such is what is referred to as metaphysics.

ACTIVITIES

Look back into your schooling years and discuss areas that in your opinion, represent
each of the four branches of Philosophy.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have briefly discussed the content of technical Philosophy. We have
identified four branches that constitute the content of technical Philosophy as being
logic, epistemology, axiology and metaphysics. We then amplified each of these
branches and suggested how or why they are related to education as a whole thereby
showing why Education students need to know this content. Technical Philosophy, like
any other subject has, however, its own methods of operation. The next lesson tries to
explain these methods.

FURTHER READING

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1. Njoroge R.J and Bennars G.A, 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa. Press – Nairobi

2. Sifuna D. et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of the Foundations of Education:

Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi

3. Peter, R.S – 1987: Philosophy and Education; Oxford University Press, Oxford.

METHODS OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

Methods in Philosophy are various depending sometimes on the Philosophers

perception. P. K. Wainaina in Sifuna et al (2006) basically talks of two methods of
Philosophy he terms as;

1. Conceptual analysis method

2. Phenomenon analysis method

Njoroge and Bennars (1986) front for four methods based on four functions of
Philosophy. In this Lesson, we shall from the critical function of philosophy

1. Critical/Socratic method- from the critical function of philosophy

2. Logical/rational method- from the rational function of philosophy

3. Reflective method- from the phenomenological function of philosophy

4. Speculative method- from the speculative function of philosophy

We must discuss each of these methods.

OBJECTIVES

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At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

∙ Correctly name the methods of Technical Philosophy

∙ Suggest characteristics of each method
∙ Correctly show why each method is critical for effective education

CONTENT

THE CRITICAL/SOCRATIC METHOD

∙ The word ‘critical’ is derived from the Greek work “krinein’, which translates to
“to judge”.
∙ The word points to criticism, to evaluation. To evaluate implies questioning. To
evaluate something one needs to ask questions, critical questions.
∙ The critical approach, it must be noted, is not negative or destructive in nature,
but rather it is positive and constructive in nature aimed at liberating man from
fanaticism, dogmatism and intolerance.
∙ As a historical fact, this method is associated with the Greek Philosopher –
Socrates – hence referred to as the “Socratic Method”.

THE LOGICAL/RATIONAL METHOD

∙ The rational function of Philosophy gives birth to the rational or logical method
in Philosophy. It stresses on logical reasoning that is very systematic. (Refer to
the discussion on logic in our discussion on the branches of Philosophy in
lesson two).
∙ As a method, it is based on clarity and is analytic in nature. To analyse is to
break an issue into simpler parts for purposes of easy understanding. Analysis
eventually aims at synthesis.
∙ The Philosopher using this method seeks to analyse concepts, statements and
language in order to clarify and justify their meaning. This is the method
referred to as conceptual analysis, one that enhances rationality of thought.
∙ The bottom line is that Education matters need to be approached very
rationally and logically if we have to fully benefit from it

THE REFLECTIVE/PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

∙ Phenomenologists go for “Lived” or “ordinary” experiences. The argument is

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that through analysis of or reflection of our ordinary experiences, we are able

to understand our own reality and our surroundings as conscious individuals.

∙ The method points further that living and experiencing things personally makes
us know the world in a personal way.
∙ These experiences, we are aware, may be different from person to person, but
discovering the underlying meaning and a deeper understanding must be the
concern. What, however, are these life experiences?
∙ These experiences include those of joy, loving, pain, fear and even those of
frustrations. These experiences, reflected upon in a concrete, existential way,
may give an individual meaning and substance in human life.
∙ The implication of the above is that Philosophy starts from ordinary human
experiences, emphasizing the idea that Philosophy or Philosophers are not
detached from this world in their quest to find answers to life issues. This
agrees with John Terry (1994) who argues that the experiences of growing,
seeing, feeling, thinking and loving are common experiences that all people in
all places have, and on which they build the Primary Philosophical notions.
Philosophy, it is being suggested, derives its Primary notions from the common
experiences of mankind which Santayana calls public experiences

THE SPECULATIVE METHOD

∙ The speculative function of Philosophy gives birth to the speculative method in

Philosophy
∙ This is a method used to try to give answers to questions that do not seem to
have simple answers. The question, for example, of death, suffering and
happiness invite in human beings not only the question of what happens but
why it happens
∙ Traditional answers have been offered mostly hinging on religion, but
Philosophers want to go beyond religion to a rational explanation to such
phenomena. It is in this realm that Philosophers, faced with these questions,
get very cautious and rationally speculate, hence the name speculative method

NOTE

It is suggested that the four methods discussed have a place in education matters. An
educationist can therefore be successful Philosophically, if she/he incorporates these
methods in handling educational issues.

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ACTIVITIES

Together with a few friends, discuss the following:

∙ What advantages are there in being critical in life?

∙ What do you think are the disadvantages of an Education system that ignores
the rational method of Philosophy
∙ What is the relationship between the phenomenological method of Philosophy
and the development of Philosophy?

SUMMARY

Lesson three has discussed methods of Technical or Professional Philosophy. It has

been suggested that the methods are various. While some scholars such as Wainaina
([Link].) reduce such methods to only two, viz- conceptual analysis and
phenomenological methods, others including Njoroge and Bennars ([Link].) have four
such methods of Philosophy.

This lesson adopted the Njoroge/Bennars approach and discussed four such methods.
These include the critical method, rational method, reflective method and finally the
speculative method.

The general assumption is that the above methods are crucial in matters pertaining to
our education and that education students need to acquaint themselves with them for
any effective approach to Education matters.

FURTHER READINGS

1. Njoroge R.J and Bennars, G.A 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa Press, Nairobi
2. Peters R.S. 1987: Philosophy and Education, Oxford University Press, Oxford
3. Sifuna D., et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of the Foundations of Education;
Jomo Kenyatta Foundation - Nairobi

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

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INTRODUCTION

In unit 1, we spent sometime trying to understand the discipline of philosophy. So far,

we have looked into its nature and more so,its [Link] have also looked at its
[Link], we have now gained some insights into the world of [Link]
is at this point that we feel that we can now focus our attention to the particular area
we are calling philosophy of education.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able:

∙ To define philosophy of education.

∙ To locate the discipline of philosophy of education within the study of
education
∙ To examine the nature of problems addressed by philosophy of education
∙ To outline the relevance of philosophy of education to teacher training
programs.

CONTENT

Philosophy of Education as an Educational Discipline

∙ To refer to a certain study as a discipline means a number of [Link] things

may include, but not limited to, the fact that it is an area of knowledge.
∙ And as an area of knowledge, it would mean that it has a distinct content or set
of concerns, distinct methods or approaches with which it studies and explains
their concerns and that it has a particular language or set of concepts through
which realties related to its nature or concerns can be easily rendered
meaningful.
∙ Now questions about what characterizes an area of knowledge are certainly
wider than can be handled under this section. For that reason, we shall put
them on hold until such a time when we start exploring the whole area of
Knowledge and the Curriculum.
∙ At the moment, we take note of the fact that, as a discipline (of education),
philosophy of education must then be having its own distinctive approach to
the study of issues within the field of education.
∙ As often happens, some disciplines of education, and especially those whose

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names start with a name of an academic discipline such as Economics,

Psychology, Sociology and even History have something in common. They
follow a distinctive approach in studying issues within or related to education
which in the real sense is derived from the academic discipline whose name is
part of the name of that discipline of education in question.

∙ This is to say that History of Education follows the approach of History, is

Economics of Education with Economics and Sociology of education with
sociology.

Development of Philosophy of Education

Not much of the historical development of philosophy of education is accounted for.

However, there seems to be a consensus that John Dewey (1859-1952) was one of the
first thinkers to develop a systematic framework now called philosophy of education.
He is also thought to be one of the first thinkers to use the phrase 'Philosophy of
Education' to refer to an educational discipline in its own right. This does not mean,
however, that John Dewey was the first philosopher to think about education.

∙ In the various education studies, we read of philosophers who lived long

before Dewey and their ideas, which are nevertheless, philosophical and which
are at the same time educational. Such philosophers include Plato, Aristotle,
St. Augustine, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Erasmus, John Locke and many others.
Much of the details concerning these thinkers have been left to historians of
education and you may have encountered these thinkers in your study of
History of education.
∙ It may appear that philosophy of education, contrary to what we are saying
here, existed long before John Dewey. However, prior to 1900, the study of
education as a distinct discipline or ‘educational discipline’ for that matter did
not exist the way we know it today. It was until 1900 that education became
recognized as a distinct field of study with its own disciples.
∙ As such, the earlier attempts to study education including the contributions by
the mentioned philosophers belong to what has now been referred to as 'The
History of Educational Ideas'.

Nature of Philosophy of Education

∙ In the earlier sections, we have often made reference to the discipline of

'philosophy of education'. We have so far presented it as an educational
discipline. We have also gone ahead to merely sketch its historical

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development given that details of this historical development are neither here
nor there.

∙ However, one clear observation one can quickly make is that we have not made
any attempt to address the question 'what is philosophy of education?'
∙ This section therefore seeks to explain the basic meaning of this phrase besides
locating it within the study of education and outlining its relevance to teacher
training programmes.

The Place of Philosophy of Education within the Study of Education

∙ Even before making an attempt to define philosophy of education, it is

important that we place it in its immediate context. We earlier on
characterized philosophy of education as an educational discipline among
other discipline of education such as Economics of Education, Sociology of
Education, History of Education and even Educational Psychology.
∙ We should remember however that the disciplines mentioned here are not the
only ones that constitute the study of education. There are many more. But
many as they are, it would be important to find out if at all they fall into any
categories of sorts and if they do, in which of these categories does philosophy
of education fall?
∙ Turning our attention for a moment on the way educational studies are
conducted, one discerns a kind of categorization in which education is studied
in at least two aspects. These are the practical courses and the foundational
courses.

(a) Practical Courses

∙ The word courses, here, has been used as synonymous to educational

discipline. Practical courses in educational studies are concerned with the
development of skills necessary for practicing education.
∙ These are courses, or educational disciplines for that matter, that equip the
teacher trainees with the practical skill they require to be effective in their
teaching responsibilities.
∙ These include methodological courses such as lesson planning, the use of
media and technology in teaching, tests and measurements, teaching, practice
and even courses on motivation in education.
∙ The practical skills these educational disciplines impart into the teacher
trainees are not only helpful in effective teaching but also in learning

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procedures and even evaluation techniques.

(b) Foundational Courses

∙ Unlike the practical courses, foundational courses are theoretical in nature. To

state that the foundational courses are theoretical is not to denounce them but
rather to imply that they enable us to justify educational practice.
∙ These courses constitute of framework within which what happens in the
process of education can be explained and justified. The educational
disciplines that fall under this category include History of Education, Sociology
of Education and many more.
∙ The manner in which we have described philosophy and the little we have, so
far, said about philosophy of education is enough to make us locate it within
the foundational courses.
∙ It is therefore one of the educational disciplines that provide explanations or
the underlying meanings of the things that we see happening as part of the
process of education.
∙ The expression philosophy of education comprises of two terms which we have
certainly come across before in separate and rather discrete contexts.
However, we are now faced with the task of finding out what they mean as one
segment or phrase for that matter.
∙ But even then, we cannot rule out the possibility of approaching this phrase by
first looking at what each of the two words mean in isolation and move ahead
to draw implications of what they would mean when treated as a phrase.
∙ In the meantime however, we may start thinking about this expression by
examining the other ways in which the phrase ‘philosophy of’ has been used in
other contexts and what it means in those contexts.
∙ The expression ‘philosophy of …’ is generally used to refer to certain areas of
specialization. Accordingly, we speak of philosophy of mathematics,
philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of law, philosophy of
History, philosophy of Language and in our present case, philosophy of
education.
∙ All these philosophies point to some particularized and differentiated forms of
enquiry, appraisal and action. They point to specializations involving a
concentration of philosophical thinking that is oriented to one specific area of
life.
∙ In the earlier sections, we tried to locate philosophy of education within the
study of the entire discipline of education. And we located it within the

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foundational courses, those which constitute a framework within which

educational practices are explained.

∙ Sometimes, in carrying out these educational practices we encounter certain

problems and challenges.
∙ Whenever this happens, we tend to inquire and so we readily get answers to
these problems. Some of these answers, however, originate from common
sense. By common sense here we mean an individual expression of the public
opinion.
∙ This therefore leads to a common sense outlook on educational matters.
However, a common sense outlook on educational matters tends to give
immediate solutions to problems.
∙ Now these solutions may not be very useful in formulating long-lasting
educational policies. This is because such long lasting polices require rigorous
yet careful and critical reflection and thinking before or in the process of
formulation.
∙ Certainly, implied here is the need to reaffirm the distinctive place of human
reason in the practice of education.
∙ Indeed reflection and thinking are activities associated with philosophy and
hence, there is need for a philosophical outlook on educational issues. In so
doing, we shall in a way be directing philosophical approaches and principles
to educational issues and/or problems.
∙ When philosophical approaches and principles are directed to education, we
talk of philosophy of education. It is in the same way that we also talk of, say,
philosophy of religion and many more.
∙ In the light of the fact that the phrase 'philosophy of education’ consists of two
words: 'Philosophy' and 'education', Langford (1968) observes that philosophy
of education is just philosophy but with an eye on the practices and problems
of those concerned with education.
∙ Perhaps R.S Peters (1970) gives more insight to the expression philosophy of
education when he observes that philosophy of education draws from the
branches and methods of philosophy and brings together those segments that
are relevant to the solutions of educational problems.
∙ This is to say that although the issues addressed are philosophical in nature,
they are addressed relative to the way they occur in a specific context which we
often identify with the main activities of teaching and learning.
∙ For that reason, philosophy of education has been defined as the application of
philosophical principles and methods or approaches to issues in education. It

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is the philosophical probing not educational problems. Its main purpose is to

discover and ascertain whether the rules and presuppositions that define the
practice of education at a historical moment are authentic versions.

∙ It is therefore an inquiry into the distinctive form human reason takes in the
practice of education, a task through which it seeks to bring about a better
understanding of the theory and practice of education.

NOTE

It is important to note that in defining philosophy of education the main aspects are
philosophical principles and philosophical methodsor approaches which are applied
to issues within the field of education.

Nature of Problems addressed by Philosophy of Education

∙ In the earlier sections we noted that the practice of education is confronted

with its own kind of problems.
∙ But the study of education comprises of a number of educational disciplines
and so, it is possible that each of these disciplines is effective at handling
educational problems of a certain nature.
∙ Whereas we may not at this point explore the details of the nature of problems
addressed by each of these disciplines, it is important at this point to highlight
the kinds of problems that the discipline of philosophy of education addresses.

Relevance of Philosophy of Education

One inescapable question that logically arises from the foregoing discussion of the
discipline of philosophy of education is the one concerning its relevance. Simply put,
how important is it for a teacher to have knowledge of philosophy of education. In
other words, does or can philosophy of education contribute towards giving direction
to the practice of education? To this end, Olela (1988) summarizes this importance in
the following way:

∙ It attempts to clarify the nature of problems which arise from the practice of
education, the kinds of problems which education cannot by itself resolve.
∙ Its contribution to education is seen in the various branches of philosophy,
thus theory of knowledge, theory of reality, theory of values.
∙ Historically, education and philosophy have shared the same sentiments;

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philosophers have always had something to say about education. Most

education theorists were philosophers.

∙ According to John Dewy "Philosophy thus sustains the closest of culture with
the succession of change in civilization… (Philosophy and civilization p.8). Any
change in the philosophy of education is in fact, a change in the philosophy of
education.
∙ Philosophy is concerned with both the practice and theory of education. It
provides the needed assumptions that are behind attitudes and actions in
education. Philosophy is indeed a guide to practice. Practice is manifested as
an outlook of philosophy.

ACTIVITY

Trace the development of the discipline of philosophy of education to its present

status citing the various scholars associated with this development.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, it has been established that:

∙ Philosophy of education is the application of philosophical principles and

methods or approaches to issues in education.
∙ It is also the philosophical probing not educational problems.
∙ It is in other words an inquiry into the distinctive form human reason takes in
the practice of education, a task through which it seeks to bring about a better
understanding of the theory of practice of education.

FURTHER READING

Langford, g 1968: Philosophy and Education, Macmillan Education Limited, London.

Njoroge, R,J and Bennaars, G.A 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa, Tran-Africa
press, Nairobi.

THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

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INTRODUCTION

In the last chapter, we have been examining the meaning and nature of the discipline
of philosophy of Education. We have also examined the nature of issues or problems
that philosophy of education concerns itself with in the field of education. In our
attempt to explore the whole area of philosophy of education, emphasis was put on
the whole expression 'philosophy of education’ and not on its constituent terms
'philosophy' and 'education' separately. But in the very first unit a great deal of
discussion focused on the discipline of philosophy. It is now at this point that we
would like to focus our attention on the concept of education. We shall therefore
begin by examining the basic meaning of the term education.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, the learner is expected to

∙ Examine the philosophical thinking about the basic meaning of the term
education

CONTENT

Thinking about Education

∙ In the common ways in which we think about this concept, we often relate it to
activities of the teachers and students as they occur in a classroom or school
situations. We think of it in terms of learning such subjects as English,
Geography, History, mathematics and many [Link] we think of it in
terms of the training that one undergoes to become teacher.

∙ These are some of the ways in which we think about the term education. We
may however, not go into the details of the various ways of thinking about
education. Rather we shall concentrate on the philosophical thinking about
education.
∙ We have earlier on spent enough time talking about philosophy and the
philosophical manner of doing things. At this point in time, in talking about
philosophical thinking about education, we have in mind the type of thinking
that seeks to examine the deeper meaning of the concept of education.
Therefore, this implies asking ourselves the question: what really is education?

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∙ This question necessarily requires us to adopt procedures that are

philosophical and which try to go beyond mere subjective aspects such as
appearances, prejudices and feelings. And so, education being a concept, we
shall proceed by way of conceptual analysis.

NOTE

Whereas you may have come across other definitions of education that appear rather
simpler than the one we seek to establish here, we are more concerned with the
manner in which we arrive at the definition

A Conceptual Analysis of Education

∙ In analyzing a concept, we aim at the underlying idea. So in this exercise, the

main concern would be to reach the underlying idea in the term
[Link], conceptual analysis can be quite involving.
∙ For that reason, we shall not concern ourselves here with he intricacies of this
analysis but rather, follow the works of analytic philosophers of education. One
such philosopher, who is also an educator, is Richard Stanley Peters.
∙ As explained earlier in the section dealing with philosophical methods,
conceptual analysis involves a careful logical and systematic search for criteria
or conditions that must be fulfilled if an activity is to be regarded as 'education'
learning or even teaching.
∙ The basic questions therefore would be:what then are the criteria for defining
the concept of education? Our discussion on the criteria of education will
therefore centre on the analysis by R.S peters as he outlined in his book Ethics
and Education (1966).
∙ In this book, R.S Peters proposes three conditions which he considers
necessary but individually not sufficient. Here again we encounter other terms:
necessary and sufficient. It would then be important to examine what these
terms mean in relation to the conditions or criteria of education.
∙ To R.S Peters, a necessary condition is one whose absence causes lack of
occurrence of a phenomenon while a sufficient condition is one which if
present, then an event may occur.
∙ Accordingly, for a process to be regarded as a process of education, the three
conditions or requirements that must be fulfilled are that the process must:

1. Transmit something worthwhile to the people.

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2. Transmit or involve some knowledge or understating.

3. Include some acceptable procedures or method of transmission of something
worthwhile and understanding.

Reflections on R.S. Peters’ conditions of Education

∙ A quick reflection on these conditions would give certain insights. Looking at

the first condition, one realizes that it is normative in its demands, that is, it
appears to be stating something regarding the nature of what is to be
transmitted to the people.
∙ In effect it appears to demand that what is transmitted must be something of
value, something good and something that is desired by the people engaged in
the process or at least those who designed the process.
∙ In other words, a process of education must involve the transmission of
aspects that are valued or cherished or held as standards, norms of the society
in which this education is to be practiced.
∙ The second condition is taken to be the cognitive condition or criterion. It
pertains to knowledge and understanding where the demand is that the
process of education must result in some change in the people's cognitive
orientation. The third appears to make reference to the methods of
transmitting the worthwhile aspects and also knowledge and understanding. It
is thus the demand for an appropriate methodology or procedure for that
mater. And that is why it is also called procedural condition.
∙ At this point, many questions can be raised, for instance, one may ask: what
appropriate methods are and what these appropriate methods that R.S. Peters
talks of are.
∙ To this second question, those who have read and interpreted R.S. Peters such
as Olela (1988) have argued that these are methods that exclude propaganda
and similar practices.
∙ This is yet another evasive way of going about this question since Olela is not
coming our clearly to declare what methods, he thinks, are these that R.S.
Peters is calling appropriate.
∙ Reading through R.S Peters’ explanation of this criterion, he at one point says
that these are methods or procedures that draw from the willingness and
voluntariness on the part of the learner.
∙ Once more, R. S Peters has chosen not to state what these methods are. It is
certainly not easy to tell why he has chosen to do so. Whatever the case might
be, this condition ends up frowning upon certain procedures that may be

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confusingly perceived of as part of education but does not state what the
acceptable procedure or methodology, for that matter, ought to be.

∙ As stated earlier, conceptual analysis aims at establishing conditions which

must be fulfilled if we were to talk of a certain concept, in this case education.
Accordingly, the concept of education, according to R.S Peters, can be defined
in terms of the three conditions or criteria of normative, cognitive and
procedural.
∙ Thus we can say;education is the process of transmission and assimilation of
something worthwhile and also knowledge and understanding through some
acceptable methodology.
∙ Despite this seemingly fruitful effort, certain issues are still not clear regarding
these conditions, leading to some difficulties regarding their definition of
education as a clearly fitting and comprehensive one.
∙ For instance, assuming we consider these conditions as tenable then we must
consider values as in the normative conditions as determinants since the
notion of worthwhile is culture-bound and thus invites the relativity of our
conceptions of education. Here we would have good reasons to want to know
who set the criteria of what is 'worthwhile'. In such a case we may end up only
talking in terms of a relative degree of being educated.
∙ The cognitive criterion does not make things any better [Link] one may ask;
how much knowledge does one need to have. All these are important questions
and which make a precise definition very difficult to arrive at.
∙ In the light of this difficulty of arriving at a precise definition other educational
philosophers have tended to extend their search for a more precise and
comprehensive definition. They have therefore continued reflecting on this
concept of education as put forward by R.S. Peters. One such attempt is by G.
A. Bennaars and R.J. Njoroge in their book Philosophy and Education in Africa
(1986) whose reflections have led to a new thinking that education should be
understood as a multidimensional concept.
∙ By multidimensional the two meant that which comprises of many dimensions
and that these dimensions are characterized by unity and plurality.
∙ Reading through their so called dimensions, one clear observation is that they
have an additional aspect or criterion since beyond the three conditions by R.S.
Peters, they add a fourth condition: the creative dimension and so they talk of
dimensions rather than conditions.
∙ As such, they talk of the normative dimension, the cognitive dimension, the
procedural or dialogical dimension and the creative dimension. With regards to
the creative dimension, the implied requirement is that a process of education

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must go beyond mere transmission (of values, norms, knowledge and

understanding) to the liberation of the human person.

∙ In other words, education should raise the people’s awareness to the level of
enabling them overcome barriers they were not able to overcome before. It
should therefore enhance the learners’ potential and enable them emerge as
creators in the world.

Who is an Educated Person?

∙ Many of the philosophers of education such as R.S Peters have associated the
aim of education with producing what he calls an 'educated person'.
∙ Accordingly, Njoroge and Bennaars' dimensions would imply that an educated
person is someone who has assimilated something worthwhile, has acquired
some knowledge and understanding and all these have led him or her to be a
free and creative person in the society.

ACTIVITY

Collect a number of definitions of education as suggested by the various authors and

scholars in other fields and discuss the differences between these definitions and the
one put forward by R.S Peters.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, it has been established that

∙ In trying to understand the process of education the three conditions or

requirements that must be considered are that it must transmit something
worthwhile to the people, transmit or involve some knowledge or understating
and should include some acceptable procedures or method of transmission of
something worthwhile and understanding.
∙ An educated person is someone who has assimilated something worthwhile,
has acquired some knowledge and understanding and all these have led him or
her to be a free and creative person in the society

FURTHER READING

Langford, g 1968: Philosophy and Education, Macmillan Education Limited, London.

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Njoroge, R,J and Bennaars, G.A 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa, Tran-Africa
press, Nairobi.

AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In the foregoing sections, we have taken more time examining the concepts of
philosophy and philosophy of education. We have also spent quite some time to
explain the concept of education. This, we did by way of trying to understand the
particular things (conditions) that have to be in place for us to talk of education. We
have thus attempted a definition of education and even that of an educated person.
We now wish to turn our attention to an aspect of education which we refer to as
Aims of education. We shall examine it together with the other related concepts of
goals and objectives of education.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson the student should be able.

∙ To establish what is an aim (of education)

∙ To establish the nature of aims (of education)

∙ To show the relationship between aims of education and goals and objectives
of education

CONTENT

Aims of education

∙ More often than not, we talk of aims of certain things or simply, aiming at
certain things. We also sometimes ask our colleagues and friends what it is that
they aim at in their various undertakings.
∙ Whenever we do this, we use the word aim almost as synonymous to a family
of terms including purpose, intention, desired end and so forth. Whereas this
may give an idea of what an aim or aiming means, it is important to have a
more focused examination of this term ‘aim’.

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∙ This is because even in the practice of education, it is such a basic term as seen
even in its usage as in 'aims of education'.
∙ When stated as an action, aiming can be likened to a form of trying in which
some difficulty is involved in the task and also a very real possibility of falling
short of or not hitting the target.
∙ The concept of 'aims' therefore implies some suggestion of an objective that is
not too near at hand or too easy to attain. That is, they are long-term targets.
∙ Seen in this way, it becomes easier to understand why aims are so typically
associated with institutions such as clubs, political parties, education and many
more in which members are to work towards achieving something of common
good, that is, their actions and activities are to be seen as directed towards this
overall objective (aim). The formulation of their aims therefore has an
important social function of summoning them to their efforts in a specific
direction.
∙ Taking education as an example of an institution with aims, a clear
understanding of aims of education would therefore enable teachers to
examine what they are doing, get their priorities straight and concentrate on
them by discarding irrelevancies.
∙ In other words, education is never an activity just but rather is an institution
whose activities seek to achieve some end in the long run.

General Features of the concept of 'Aim'

One way of trying to understand the concept of aim is by examining the features that
characterize it. In this section therefore, we shall identify the main features associated
with the concept of ‘aim’.

(a) Refers to the actions or activities done by a person who has some intentions.

(b) Refer to actions which are instrumental in bringing about something else.

(c) Suggests the concentration of efforts towards an object that is not too close at
hand

It is, however, often considered odd to ask for the aim of an activity that we have
ascertained that it is done for its own sake. With the above features in mind, we can
understand aims in the following ways:

1. The signposts or plans of what education is intended to achieve.

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2. The broad statement of intents or standards to be referred to in the process of

education.
3. The ends that societies set for their educational systems to operate on.
4. Alternative word for goals, objects, and ends of education. Here the specific
aims are called objectives and are usually specified in the curriculum, while the
general aims are called goals that are long term and are only achieved as a
matter of procedure.

Goals and Objectives of Education

Having specified the meaning and our usage of the term and concept of aim, there is
need to also interrogate the other related concepts. These are the concepts of goals
and objectives as often used in the study of education.

∙ Educational goals are seen as the ends that societies set for their educational
systems to operate on.
∙ Educational objectives are often specified in curriculum in measurable terms.
∙ The goals are often defined for the school by the larger society as determined
by the ideologies and priorities the larger society.

There are two basic categories of educational goals. These are:

(i)Preparing the young for their adult roles (individual aim)

(ii)Allocating the young within the role structure of the adult society (social/utilitarian
aim).

Nature of Goals of Education

Goals of education can be understood in three broad ways:

(a) The instrumental goals:

To state that something is instrumental is to state that it is basically utilitarian. This

means that it can be used to achieve another end. In our present case, we would talk
of goals that deal with economic values.

(b) Expressive goals:

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Generally geared towards the ideals of the society. These may include but are not
limited to unity, cohesiveness, equality, common identity and many more.

(c) Normative goals:

These are goals dealing with the development of acceptable or moral/social

standards, social beliefs and patterns of behavior.

It is however, important to note that these categories of goals are interrelated and are
only separated due to the emphasis given to:

∙ The intrinsic aims as opposed to the extrinsic/ instrumental aims.

∙ The good of the individual- hence child-centeredness
∙ The good of the society- the economic and moral values- hence the social aims/
goals.

Accordingly, the great goal of education should be to develop the fullness of the
individual possibilities in accordance with the general goal of a society.

ACTIVITY

Outline the aims of the Kenyan education system and in these aims; try to discuss the
features of the concept of aims as explained above.

SUMMARY

From the foregoing discussions, we can conclude that:

∙ The substance of the aims of education is bound to be culture-relative. There is

therefore no general theory of education that can provide recommendations of
aims that are applicable to all educational situations.
∙ An aim is a logical prerequisite of a practical their theory of education such that
unless some end/aim is regarded as valuable, no practical theory is possible.
∙ The purpose of education is not necessarily the same thing with the aim of
education. Whereas purpose points to ends that are external to the activity of
education (i.e. in instrumental terms), aim is not limited to the external ends.
∙ Aims refer to the value of education itself. It is internal to the activity.

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FURTHER READING

Hirst P.H and Peters, R.S 1970: The Logic of Education, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
London.

Peters, R.S 1973: Philosophy of Education, Oxford University Press, New York.

VALUES AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

It has been observed today that education is not only a serious business but also an
expensive one. Governments spend much time and money suggesting that it has a
serious purpose in education. In other words, education is a valuable activity.

R.S. Peters (1966) tells us that education is an activity aiming at developing desirable
qualities in people, valuable qualities. The aim of education, therefore, is to transmit
what is of value in all respects. But what are values and how are they connected to
education? This lesson tries to answer that question

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to: -

∙ Define values
∙ Categorise values
∙ Suggest reasons why values are necessary in any education system
∙ Discuss the sources or moral values

CONTENT

THE IDEA OF VALUES AND EDUCATION

∙ Values are usually expressed in terms of norms or standards. Norms generally

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refer to regulations, the set limit, the marked –out road, or the boundary
imposed to reach a determined goal.

∙ With reference to education, this explains why such norms or standards are
found in the aims and goals of Education in any country. It is clear that, going
by history of education, education is a process of developing and transmitting
values and other social norms. So they are important for a society.
∙ Values can, therefore, be thought of in an ontological way as what is worthy
and also as that which directs action and generates a principle of action. Such
values are determined culturally, socially and sometimes, even historically.
∙ However, the question of what values are to be transmitted through education
is very problematic. The answer to this has varied from place to place, the time
frame involved, as well as the interpretation of what desirable qualities mean.
∙ Historically viewed, and from among societies in Africa, values that took centre
stage were what Njoroge and Banners (1986) call survival values. They centre
around mans basic needs in the form of food, drink, health and sex. Education
was then tailored towards equipping the youth with skills to enable them
manage with respect to those values.
∙ Despite the importance of the above values, man in traditional society had
other important values which centred directly upon the quality of life. Such
values include RESPECT, DIGNITY, MUTUAL HELP, RESPONSIBILITY as well as
LAW AND ORDER. These are referred to as trans-survival values.

NOTE

In all, there is always an elaborate set of values both social and moral, which for us,
form the basis of the normative dimension of education. It is important to realize that
such values are usually grouped into moral and non-moral values. Moral values, deal
with judgments that we make with regard to human conduct; whether right or wrong,
good or bad. Non-moral values on the other hand, don’t relate to human beings
directly. They are judgments on material objects e.g. cars, buildings, objects of art etc.

∙ Because of their importance, a substantial part of our curriculum ought to be

devoted to the development of moral values. These offer social rules and
regulations, aspects that make social life a success.
∙ If we closely examine other traditions in education, for example, one sees an
emphasis on social and moral values or on a social ethic in general. Today,
however, it is emerging that this concern with matters moral years back, stands
in sharp contrast to the lack of concern with moral values in modern

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education.

∙ There is, today, an overemphasis on modernization, where production of

labour forces and skilled manpower takes centre stage. Promotion of economic
interests has taken over. This leads to an education system which is, so to
speak, amoral or neutral in character, leaving the current learners in a moral
crisis.
∙ Viewed from a very critical point, the crisis in morality is manifested in many
negative traits in our society today. The corruption that has engulfed the entire
system of governance may be attributed to this moral crisis. The instigated
tribal clashes and the loss of reverence to life, as is currently being witnessed,
has links to this moral crisis. What conclusion then can we come up with
regarding this crisis?
∙ For some of us, this crisis in morality emphasizes a point; that an education
system will ignore moral values at the peril of the entire society. An
overemphasis on economic development at the expense of moral development
creates a situation where the envisaged economic development may not be
realized because of corruption, for example. It is also evident that economic
development goes hand in hand with moral development.

SOURCES OF MORAL VALUES

∙ There are basically three sources of moral values/standards. These are the
divine or supernatural source. Second, we have the social sources and third we
have the personal sources.
∙ The first source i.e. Divine or supernatural source consists of the law of God.
This is expressed in the holy books. Examples include the 10 commandments of
God within the Christian traditions.
∙ The social sources of values are located within the various social institutions
e.g. the family, the community or the nation. These, again, vary from place to
place and also from time to time.
∙ The personal source of morality includes human reason, which implies
personal reflection. There is also the conscience.

NOTE

Both the divine sources and social sources have one thing in common. The moral
authority lies outside the individual. Moral values are imposed and are external to the
individual. We therefore speak of HETERONOMOUS EHTICS. The personal source has

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moral values originating from the person directly. Here we speak of autonomous
ethics

ACTIVITY

Suggest reasons why an emphasis on moral values is lacking in our curriculum today.
What effect does this have on our learners and society?SUMMARYThis lesson has
discussed values and education. It has generally discussed what values are and shown
that the type of values to be learned will depend heavily on the nature of society in
terms of place, time and what is considered desirable. We have tried to show that
values can be grouped into moral and non-moral, emphasizing that the development
of moral values in the society largely influences other developments and that ignoring
moral values could be a recipe for disintegration in society. This lesson has also
briefly discussed the sources of moral values. These values need to be incorporated in
our education systems.
FURTHER READING

1. Barke, C. 2007: Man and Values: A personalist anthropology. Scepter

Publishers, U.S.A
2. Njoroge R. and Bennars G.A: 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa Press, Nairobi
3. Peters R, 1966: Ethics and Education
4. Sifuna D. et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of the Foundations of Education
Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, Nairobi

ETHICS AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The previous lesson, discussed the question of values and education. Apart from
defining what values are, their categorization and their necessity, we also discussed
the sources of moral values. Apart from naming such sources there wasn’t very deep
reflection on them. Ethics, being a philosophical study of moral values needs now to
be brought on board for a deep understanding on their relationship values with
education. The present lesson attempts to do that.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

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∙ Define ethics
∙ Correctly identify and competently discuss theories of moral obligation
∙ Relate ethics to the process of education

CONTENT

ETHICS AND EDUCATION

∙ The term ‘ethics’ is derived form the Greek word ‘ethos’ meaning the
established customs or conventions. The Latin equivalent of ‘ethos’ is ‘mores’
also referring to the customs of peoples. From this, we derive terms like
‘morality’ moral etc.
∙ In regular usage, ethics refers to a set of standards by which a group of people
regulates its behaviour or conduct. Given these standards, behaviour is said to
be moral or ethical/or immoral.
∙ There is also the academic use of the term ‘ethics’ where three meanings are
distinguished. These are descriptive ethics, normative ethics and meta-ethics.
(For a deeper analysis of these see Njoroge and Bennars (1986: 172 – 175).
∙ The point we wish to examine here is whether education is a moral enterprise.
To do that, we need to look at the normative dimension of education.
∙ Given that education is a purposeful activity implying aims, goals and ideals, it
must involve moral question of what is good, right etc. Education, therefore, is
governed by ethics- referring to the philosophical study of moral values.
∙ The question that needs to be answered at this point is which moral standards
should govern education? Should one be guided by divine law, human law or
by ones conscience?
∙ Such questions are usually answered with reference to theories of moral
obligation. They (theories of moral obligation) try to identify and justify the
criteria of what is morally right, wrong, obligatory etc.

THEORIES OF MORAL OBLIGATION

∙ Philosophers distinguish two sets of theories in relation to moral obligation.

There are:

1. Teleological theories and

2. Deontological theories

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∙ Teleological theories judge moral decisions depending on whether they will

lead to consequences which are desirable or not desirable according to goals in
mind. The general determinant of what is good or bad, right or wrong is the
results or the consequences of the action you undertake. If the consequences
are good, the action is right. If the consequences are bad, the action is wrong.
The best example of a teleological theory is ‘utilitarianism’ by J.S. Mill. For Mill,
an action is right if the consequences of an act promote the greatest happiness
for the greatest number of people. (See Frankena (1973) For further reading on
teleological theories
∙ Deontological theories, on other hand, base their rightness not on
consequences but on the other issues. For example, they can base the
rightness or wrongness of an action on the intention or motive. If the motive is
good, then the action is right regardless of the nature of the consequences.
Sometimes also, the rightness or wrongness of an action is based on principles.
For example, the kind of deontology associated with I. Kant is based on the
principle of duty. An action is right as long it is done from the perspective of
duty.

NOTE

Both teleological and deontological theories provide guidance in the discovery of what
is ultimately good/right or bad/wrong.

∙ Both teleological and deontological theories have sub-division. For example, in

teleological theories, we have act-teleological and in deontological theories we
have act-deontological theories.
∙ The above theories are a guide to judgment in matters of what is good or bad,
right or wrong and can be useful guides in making educational choices. When
you choose values for example in society, do you choose them teleologically or
deontologically? What is desirable or not for an educational enterprise is still
problematic, but the message being sent out is that to come up with such
values that are either right or wrong, a philosophical approach is necessary; an
approach based on critical questioning, analysis and clarity of issues.
∙ How learners are approached in learning these values varies. Some are
subjected to rules and regulations both in schools and in homes as part of their
society. Sometimes justifications are given as to why certain actions are either
right or wrong. In schools, for example, certain subjects are used to teach
certain values. All in all, the society has to be involved if the effort is to succeed.

ACTIVITY

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With the help of friend, cite and justify actions on the basis of both teleologism and
deontologism. What are the strengths and weaknesses of both theories?

SUMMARY

This lesson has discussed ethics and education. We first defined ethics and showed
how this is related to education. In the process, we discussed theories of moral
obligation, theories which help in making judgments. In this respect two groups,
namely teleologism and deontologism were discussed.

FURTHER READING

1. Gichure C. 2008: Ethics for Africa Today. Paulines, Nairobi

2. Mackie J. 1977. Ethics; Inventing Right & Wrong. Penguin books, London
3. Njoroge & Bennars G, 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa. Trans-Africa
Press, Nairobi
4. Sifuna D, et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the study of the foundations of Education.
Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, Nairobi.

THE CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

INTRODUCTION

In lesson two of unit one, we explained the branches of philosophy, otherwise

referred to as content of philosophy. This was done by way of introducing the
branches or concerns of philosophy for later explication. In this chapter, we now
focus our attention on the branch earlier on referred to as epistemology and
explained briefly as the philosophical study of knowledge. The task of explicating this
branch, epistemology, will be approached by subjecting the concept of knowledge to a
conceptual analysis with an aim of establishing the basic conditions that must be
fulfilled if one was to think of himself as knowing. We shall also seek to establish the
relationship there is between the concepts of knowledge and education.

OBJECTIVES

This topic seeks to introduce the learners to an analysis of the concept of knowledge
as well as the processes of construction and validation of claims and statements to

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generate knowledge.

The following are the specific objectives considered relevant and so we hope that by
the end of the lesson; learners will be able to:

∙ Identify and explain the conditions necessary for defining the concept of
human knowledge.
∙ Understand and appreciate the meaning significance of this approach to the
concept of the knowledge.
∙ Develop a critical outlook with regard to the link between knowledge and
education in schools.
∙ Recognize the value of knowledge in the education context.

CONTENT

The Concept of Knowledge

∙ Just like other things such as book, pen or ball, the word knowledge
grammatically functions as a name of something. Such words as book, pen and
ball constitute a category of words that refer to things in order to say
something about them or simply to name them. However, more reflection on
the term knowledge reveals a difference in its nature as compared to the
others, which refer to concrete entities.
∙ Knowledge, though a noun that refers to something, the referent here comes
out, not as a concrete entity as in the case of ball or pen, book, but an abstract
one. Knowledge as a ‘thing’ therefore is not quite the same thing as, say, a
house or a table.
∙ Words are, however, not only understood from the grammatical categories to
which they belong, but also from the manner in which they are used. In this
case, it would be attractive to also try and examine, with an aim of
understanding, the use or meaning we assign the word knowledge as seen
from the use to which we put its verb form ‘know’.

Consider the following sentences:

(1) We know that light travels in a straight line.

(2) I know how to drive a lorry

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∙ In sentence, we would possibly be referring to a group of knowers who have

assimilated a certain property about light, that is, it (light) travels in a straight
line. A relationship therefore obtains between the We and a property of light,
that is, it travels in straight line.
∙ Seen from the structure of the sentence, there is a relationship between the we
and the particular property introduced by the word ‘know’ hence a relationship
that involves the act of knowing. In this kind of arrangement therefore, it would
follow that the We is a group of knowers.
∙ In sentence 2, there is the ‘I’ who is making a certain claim about the act of
driving. The nature of the claim about the act of driving is introduced by the
word know. Driving also being a happening that involves a series of actions that
constitute a certain procedure, the knower in this case would appear to be
saying that he/she has grasped and assimilated this series of actions that
constitute the procedure for driving leading to his/her ability to cause the
mechanical object, hereby referred to as a lorry, move from point A to point B.
∙ As such, he/she has a cognitive or mental grasp of the series of the actions that
constitute the procedure of bringing obout the act of driving. It is however, also
possible that the knower in question may only have assimilated these
procedures and has them as part of his/her mental content and not necessarily
being able to apply them but knows them as facts.
∙ This appears to introduce a certain dichotomy of knowledge, that is,
propositional knowledge (knowledge that) and practical knowledge (knowledge
how). This dichotomy may however not be pursued right away in this section.
∙ In both of these examples, the subjects, that is, We and I are the sorts of
subjects to whom it would make sense to attribute knowledge of the property
of light as expressed in sentence 1 or the act of driving in sentence 2. It is in
this way that they are considered as knowers, for they are thought of as having
the knowledge in question.
∙ It would however, at this stage, appear to be pretty early to assume that
whatever claims the knowers readily make constitute knowledge since some
claims could be mistaken or misguided or simply, mere beliefs that lack
sufficient grounds.
∙ There is therefore a glaring indication that the claims we, as knowers, make are
in fact expressions of our beliefs. Along the same line, it appears that beliefs
are not equivalent to knowledge but rather constitute an essential part or stage
in the process of knowing.

Consider the following claim:In know the capital city of Kenya is Nairobi but l do not
quite believe it.

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∙ In such a situation the person putting across this claim would be

dismissed as one who does not really have knowledge of Kenya’s capital
city. Given such a situation, knowing posits as a process, which
necessarily involves believing.
∙ However, it is appropriate to remember here that it is not always that
beliefs or all that is believed expressly forms the content of knowledge
since we have earlier stated that beliefs can be mistaken. For instance, at
a certain historical moment, it was strongly believed that the earth is
round.
∙ Speaking from a modern scientific standpoint, such a belief would be
seen as a mistaken one and as such it would definitely not be considered
a constituent or component of knowledge.
∙ At certain times, the concept of knowledge has commonly been used to
refer to a wide range of things, including familiarity with things, places,
persons and subjects, competence in a variety of learned performances
and even possession of claims held to be truthful.
∙ For instance, if a student in a mathematics class exhibits competence in
applying a certain mathematical procedure or formula in solving a
variety of related sums, then we are likely to think of this student as one
who knows mathematics.
∙ Seen in this way, knowing would be said to be fundamentally associated
with the notion of understanding that leads to one being in control of a
situation. The student in the mathematics class can therefore be said to
have an understanding of the ways in which mathematical principles can
be interrelated and manipulated to arrive at the hidden truth
responsible for a given mathematical problem.
∙ To know therefore would necessarily involve some form of awareness or
understanding of something or a situation.
∙ Along the same line of thought, to describe someone as knowing would
also appear to be a way of appraising or approving the person for having
successfully gone through certain processes that have led him/her to the
kind of competence or awareness exhibited.
∙ Perhaps we need, at this point to pause for a while and address
ourselves to the pertinent question; what then does knowing entail? Put
in another way; when can one confidently claim to know something? It
is, perhaps, after addressing such a question that one would
comfortably point towards the sorts of things the process of knowing

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shall have been found to entail as basically those, which constitute the
concept of knowledge. It is until then that we will be able to define the
concept of knowledge in terms of these sorts of things.

∙ These sorts of things in whose terms, we try to understanding and

defining the concept of knowledge, constitute what has popularly been
referred to as conditions of knowledge.

Conditions of Knowledge

∙ While we have not even defined knowledge, as one reflects upon the foregoing
discussion, he/she is led to feel that there are certain requirements that should
be met by a claim before it is taken to be knowledge.
∙ So far we have argued that one has to begin by believing a certain claim before
we see him/her as having knowledge of that particular claim or simply knowing
it. In this way, belief posits as one requirement that a claim has to meet before
it can qualify as worthy of being assimilated by knowers as knowledge. In any
case, once one denies a proposition the attribute of belief then other knowers
in quest for knowledge of that particular proposition the attribute of belief
then other knowers in quest for knowledge of that particular proposition or
claim become hesitant to assimilate it from him/her.
∙ This therefore implies that belief is a vital requirement or condition for the
generation and the subsequent existence of knowledge.

NOTE

The kind of definition arrived at by seeking to establish the conditions that must be
present for the concept to occur is the analytic definition.

(a) Belief Condition

∙ Belief is a mental or psychological state of conviction. It is a state where one is

psychologically convicted that something is the case. However, this conviction,
though held by the person, is subject to proof. In this regard, when one says X
knows that spirits exist; it then appears that X has certain beliefs concerning
the existence of spirits. Beliefs therefore form a starting point towards
knowledge.
∙ More often, it becomes a contradiction to claim that you know X and at the
same time deny this claim an element of belief. Rather, we believe first before

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we claim to know or see the claim as worthy of knowing (knowledge). For

instance, consider the claim; I know that Kenyatta University is in Kenya but I
do not believe it. Such a claim lacks the belief element and as such, it may not
be assimilated as part of its producer’s cognitive content (knowledge).

∙ However, as we have noted earlier, it is not always that all our beliefs are
eventually assimilated to become part of our knowledge since sometimes
certain beliefs can be mistaken.
∙ Arising from such an argument is the fact that beliefs can only be assimilated to
become part of our knowledge if they are regarded as true. This is because
merely believing is never sufficient for knowing something though a necessary
condition.
∙ In this way, for one’s claim to become an intrinsic element of knowledge the
person needs to be aware of having entertained the claim as truthful. In this
way, truth comes out as another one of the conditions that have to be satisfied
by a claim contesting for the status of knowledge.

(b) Truth Condition

∙ Following from the above discussion of the belief condition, one thing that
comes out clearly is that beliefs which are not true are not elements of
knowledge.
∙ In other words if one is mistaken in believing something, then we say that
he/she does not know. Indeed, when beliefs do not survive tests of truth, they
are not taken as elements of knowledge.
∙ However, it appears easier to assert that beliefs can be truthful or mistaken
than it would be for instance, to state what it means by a claim or a belief being
true or false.
∙ In other words, one may ask; when is something described as true? Is it when
there are adequate reasons for believing it to be the way it has been stated or
just when we cannot find any other reasons to falsify it? Simply put, what does
it entail to ascertain the truth in a given claim?
∙ Certainly, it appears convincing that before we accept any claim, proposition or
belief as worthy of knowing we tend to assess it or make judgments either
conscious or unconsciously.
∙ This assessment is perhaps based on the need for a firm basis upon which
these claims can be comprehended.
∙ Before getting into the analysis of what it takes for claims or beliefs to be said

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to be said to be true, it is important to try and understand the notion of truth.

∙ In its usage the term truth confers a kind of quality on a proposition. This
quality is such that, that which is claimed in the proposition or belief, that is,
that which is to be known is in fact the case.
∙ Within this understanding, it would appear logically impossible for anyone to
make a proposition or claim that has been proven, false.
∙ In which case, knowledge claims are defensible, and at the same time, often
dismissed as not genuine contents of knowledge, particularly when it is found
out that the truth runs counter to such claims.
∙ There are, however, those who argue that truth, as a condition is too stringent.
Such people often remark that since every proposition is subject to correction,
it therefore follows that knowing is not tenable that is, we can know nothing.
However, some propositions are certainly correct.
∙ Perhaps one important aspect for this argument would be the implicit caution
that there is need for us as knowers to be cautious about what we claim to
know.
∙ This therefore introduces another condition; that which addresses the question
of the evidence that forms the grounds of the evidence that forms the grounds
of the truthfulness of a claim.
∙ We shall examine the evidence condition in more details shortly after
examining the theories of truth.

Theories of Truth

∙ In the introduction of the truth condition we had started reflecting on what it

takes to qualify a claim or a belief to be true. Also, following the foregoing
argument, it appears that knowing in not compatible with being wrong or
mistaken.

Consider the following example;

I know you name is peter, but I may be mistaken

∙ In this situation, it would appear more meaningful to say I believe your name is
peter but I may be mistaken. This is all because knowledge appears to
presuppose the truth of a given belief or claim.
∙ In so trying to go about the task of ascertaining the truth in a claim, three

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theories have been put forward thus correspondence theory, coherence theory
and pragmatic theory.

(i) The Correspondence theory

∙ When two objects have a direct mapping onto one another, we say they are
corresponding.
∙ To correspond would then be rightly described as being in a direct relationship
with another thing. For instance, when one makes the claims:

[Link] is located on the eastern part of Africa

[Link] is raining in Kisumu today

[Link] is a snake in that football pitch

∙ One may be interested in pursuing these claims. Taking an example of the first
claim, one would proceed to check it up from a map.
∙ When this happens, the person would certainly be checking to see whether the
claim is in direct relationship with the presentation on the map. If he/she finds
it to be so, then we say that the claim corresponds to the reality or fact. In this
way, we would begin to acknowledge the claim as truthful.
∙ In any case, supposing the person, on checking on the map, located Kenya
within the western region of Africa then the person would certainly not regard
the claim as true.
∙ The other two claims can also be ascertained using the same procedure of
checking their correspondence with the real states of affairs. In other words,
the truth in them can be ascertained through observation of the real states of
affairs. According to the correspondence theory, truth is a property or
character of belief or claim to the effect that the belief or claim corresponds to
reality or facts.
∙ In this way, a belief or proposition is true if and only when it corresponds to
reality or facts.
∙ This theory appears to be based on the assumption that human beings are able
to pay attention to physical objects and confirm their independent existence.
Under such circumstances therefore, the test of truth would then appear to be
based on whether or not a belief corresponds to the real or the fact or simply
the objective state of things as may be confirmed by our senses.

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∙ Seen in this way therefore, knowledge would be taken to be true belief where
truth means representing the object as real Knowledge is therefore a function
of the correspondence of objective states of affairs to claims, propositions or
beliefs.

(ii)Coherence theory

∙ The verb ‘cohere’ has the implications of getting into finer agreement or links
with something or someone. In physics for instance, we talk of cohesion as
forces of attraction between molecules of the same kind.
∙ In this way, the molecules say, of water, get into some finer links with each
other to the extent of filling up any observable separatedness or boundaries
between them. In a way, throughout the agreement or linkage in question,
there is some consistency running across.
∙ According to the coherence theory of truth, beliefs or propositions are true to
the effect that they are consistent with others already confirmed or known to
be true. Consider the following propositions:

1. Since 3+3 = 6 then 6-3=3

2. I am older than my father

∙ In the first proposition, it appears to have been confirmed and known that
three added to three gives us six and it is within the same line of argument that
three subtracted from six would give us three.
∙ This second operation involving subtraction is not necessarily the same as that
of addition but rather is consistent with it. It is this logical strand that connects
the two expressions that propound the truth of the expression 6-3= 3 in such a
way that, once we accept the first proposition of 3+3=6 and assimilate if as
truthful then the proposition 6-3=3 logically follows from the first one since
they are consistent and thus truthful.
∙ Presented in this manner therefore, truth according to this theory becomes a
property of a proposition to the effect that the proposition is consistent with
others already confirmed and known to be true.
∙ As such, the test for truth would certainly go beyond mere correspondence to
consistency. The coherence theory of truth however assumes that beliefs or
propositions evolve or are constructed in such a away that culminates in logical
order. In other words, the theory presents the view that beliefs or propositions
are related to each other by links of logical implications. Seen in this way, the
test of truth does not therefore rely on correspondence but consistency.

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(iii)Pragmatic theory

∙ To describe something, say, an idea, as pragmatic is basically to imply that the

idea is workable, practical or has some practical consequences. For that matter,
the pragmatic theory of truth states that beliefs or propositions are true to the
effect that they have practical consequences or simply, they are useful in
predicting events or facilitating inquiry.
∙ Such propositions would include theories which are not yet proven as laws.
Such theoretical positions are taken for granted in inquiry and often facilitate
successful prediction of events.
∙ A good example of such a theory would be Darwin’s theory of evolution whose
truth is to be reckoned in terms of how offsprings of animals and even plants
would posses certain traits as prescribed by the theory.
∙ In general therefore, the truth of a proposition can be established by
application of the theories discussed above. However, it is unnecessary to
apply all the three theories to one particular situation but rather, the nature of
the proposition would call for a certain theory. For instance, a proposition
regarding empirical or observable situations would necessarily call for the
correspondence theory while a theoretical claim may call for a truth of a
proposition in certain circumstances unless evidence is supplied.
∙ This dependence of proposition on evidence or justification, so as to be
assimilated as intrinsic elements of knowledge, brings us to the third and
perhaps, the last conditions of knowledge, thus the evidence or justification
condition.

(c) Evidence or Justification condition

∙ It has already been mentioned that knowers would require a substantive

amount of evidence for full conviction. In other words, it appears that the full
conviction of a knower depends on the extent to which the proposition is
justified or backed by evidence.
∙ In this way, evidence or justification comes out as another of the conditions
that a proposition has to satisfy if it has to be assimilated as knowledge.
∙ True beliefs propositions must be supported by adequate evidence if they are
to survive the test of validity and subsequently qualify as contents of
knowledge.
∙ Evidence refers to the grounds reasons or the justification that one offers to
support his/her claim for knowledge. For that matter, the evidence given must
be adequate and relevant, that is, it must be substantive and consistent with

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the subject matter in question.

∙ There is therefore a way in which beliefs or proposition can be classified

depending on the nature of evidence used to justify them.

Definition of Knowledge

∙ In the foregoing discussion, we have been examining the concept of knowing,

in terms of what it entails to know. This has been done as a means towards the
understanding of the concept of knowledge.
∙ So far, three conditions have been identified and discussed, thus, belief
condition. These are truth condition and the evidence or justification condition.
As already mentioned at the onset of the examination of these conditions,
knowledge would therefore be defined in terms of these conditions.
∙ At this point therefore it is time enough to assert that we can define knowledge
in terms of beliefs, truth and evidence. We thus say:

X knows P if X believes that P is the case and X has adequate and relevant evidence
(reasons or grounds) to believe P as true.

∙ For that matter, for a claim to be assimilated as knowledge, it must be true, it

must be believed to be true and the knower must have adequate and relevant
grounds for believing it to be true.
∙ For instance, taking an example of a claim such as it is raining in Nairobi today;
for this claim to be knowledge it must indeed be raining, the knower must
believe that it is raining and must have adequate and relevant grounds for this
belief. The grounds would certainly include things like; I can see the rain falling;
I can fell the wetness etc.

Taking knowledge to be an expression of what has been described above; it would

then be rightly defined as a justified true belief.

Knowledge and Education

∙ Knowledge in educational contexts is generally seen as marking the whole

content of our intellectual heritage, which education is concerned to pass onto
succeeding generations.
∙ In the previous section, a philosophical understanding of the concept of
knowledge was developed, the process of which three conditions were

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examined. These are the conditions, which any claim contesting for the status
of knowledge has to satisfy.

∙ Implicit in this approach to the concept of knowledge is the fact that when
passing this knowledge to the learners, recognition has to be ensured for all
these conditions.
∙ However, studies have shown that there has always been a tendency, in
systems of education, to cater for one condition, mainly the belief condition, at
the expense of the other two. This has always been attributed the three main
factors of content, time and ability.
∙ Done in this way, a situation is created where students appear to believe in the
word of their teacher and that of the textbooks, without any question.
∙ While in cognitive terms education involves inducing beliefs in the learners, the
induction certainly needs to be done in such a way that it results in the
individual’s change of consciousness as a form of transformation.
∙ Education would thus be an active process that involves the transformation of
the learner’s cognition. However, done in such a passive manner as earlier on
mentioned, learning becomes a process of conditioning thus through the
cognitive dimensions not adequately accounted for.

In addition, such as approach would certainly lead learners to acquiring the ideas
being taught without internalizing them fully.

ACTIVITY

a) Make brief notes on the basic conditions necessary for defining the concept of
knowledge.

b) Why do you think educators need to be aware of these conditions in their pursuit
of Education?

c) Do you find these conditions to be adequate in giving a comprehensive view of the

concept of Knowledge?

SUMMARY

In this chapter, you have been introduced to number of things. In the main, you have
learnt the philosophical concept of knowledge. In explicating this concept, you have
learnt that:

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∙ Knowledge can be defined in terms of the three main conditions: the belief, the
truth and evidence or justification condition.
∙ Belief is a mental or psychological state of conviction with regards to a given
claim.
∙ Truth is a property of claims or propositions as expressed in correspondence,
coherence or pragmatic terms.
∙ Justification refers to the evidence or grounds provided in support of the claim
or the propositions for knowledge.
∙ Knowledge is defined as a justified true belief.
∙ Knowledge is related to education in such a way that cognitively, education
involves the development of knowledge and understanding on the part of the
learners.

FURTHER READING

Hirst, Paul, 1974: Human knowledge and the Curriculum, pergamon press, Oxford

Langford, G 1968: Philosophy and Education, Macmillan Education Limited, London.

Peters, R.S 1987: Philosophy and Education Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Scheffler, I 1965: Conditions of knowledge: An introduction to Epistemology and

Education. The University of Chicago Press. Oxford.

Woolman, Michael 2000: Ways of knowing: An introduction to theory of knowledge,

IBID, Press, Victor.

EMPIRICISM AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson we have been examining the concept of Knowledge. The
concept of knowledge, as earlier on explicated presents a model comprising of the
knower and the object of knowledge. In most cases, the object of knowledge is
assumed to be situated externally to the knower. The knower therefore reaches out to
the object in the quest for making it part of his/her cognitive content. But how exactly

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does the knower reach out to this object to make it part of his/her cognition? There
are a number of philosophical traditions or theories that try to explain how
knowledge is acquired, or rather, the basic sources of knowledge. In this lesson, we
shall examine two of these theories thus; Empiricism and Rationalism (theories of
knowledge).

OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, we seek to attain these objectives:

∙ To examine the question of the basic sources of Knowledge

∙ To interrogate the Empiricist view of knowledge acquisition
∙ To illustrate how the theory of empiricism has influenced the practice of
education.

Empiricism as a Theory of Knowledge

∙ The term empiricism comes from the word Empirical which means observable.
∙ As a theory of knowledge it is the view that knowledge is acquired through
sensory experience/contact. It is an epistemological view that sensory
experience is the fundamental source of knowledge.
∙ Senses, in this case, are the empirical facilities through which the mind
interacts with the environment. Accordingly, if senses are negated in an
experiential encounter within our environment, then knowledge acquisition
becomes almost impossible.
∙ In justifying this theory, empiricism relies heavily on sciences to explain how
knowledge finds its way into human cognitive life as an experience.
∙ As a theory of knowledge, empiricism assumes that objects in the environment
have the capacity of causing impressions in human beings which are processed
to become contents of human knowledge. This has been argued to be giving
the impression that knowledge is outside the knower and the mind only acts as
storage.
∙ The theory also asserts that human knowledge is verified through observation
or experiment. The word observation as used here is expanded in its meaning
not just to refer to visual experiences but also experiences by other senses
such as hearing, tasting, feeling and smelling.
∙ It is in this sense that empiricists argue that in the absence of senses,
knowledge cannot be acquired. This view therefore, generally argues that, the

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environment is the foundation of human knowledge; and without objects in

our environment, our knowledge would be limited.

∙ In the same way, this would imply that if the environment is rich with objects,
then knowledge is also enriched.

NOTE

According to the empiricist account of knowledge acquisition, the senses are more
active while the mind is passive as it only stores the already constructed knowledge.

Empiricist Assumptions and their Influence on the Practice of Education

Empiricist ideas have been taken up by educational practitioners and as such, they
influence the way in which the activities that make up the process of education are
carried out. Here are some of the ways in which the practice of education can be said
to have been influenced by empiricists’ views:

∙ Children are born with an empty mind (tabula rasa) and as they grow feeling
the world around, making observation, sensory experience feeds them with
concepts and they begin to acquire and validate knowledge.
∙ Empiricism appears to locate knowledge outside or external to the knower.
Therefore, if knowledge is to be understood within such a model then the
overriding attribute of the school curriculum would be that comprising of facts,
principles and theories to be transferred into the learners.
∙ Still within the same model, teaching and learning would then be a process of
assimilating these facts and principles and as such, emphasize methodologies
of teaching and learning that favour memorization, conditioning and
programmed learning.
∙ Empiricism justifies the presence of science subjects, especially physical
sciences as the core curriculum.
∙ Examples of empiricist manifestations in various levels of education include the
following:

1. In pre-school all the way to lower primary level we find a lot of objects within
the learning environment for children to manipulate using their senses thus
maximizing on knowledge acquisition.

1. Even in primary school, a lot of learning emphasizes observation especially in

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science lessons.

2. At tertiary levels of learning, we still find observation being emphasized

especially in empirical sciences and even in social science research as a basis of
knowledge development and acquisition.
3. Still at both the secondary and tertiary levels in Kenya you find a special
emphasis on science and technology subjects thereby emphasizing on the
empiricist foundations of knowledge.

ACTIVITY

Think of and discuss the various things that a system of education that is conceived of
on the basis of the empiricist theory of Knowledge acquisition would exhibit.

SUMMARY

We have learnt in this lesson that:

∙ Empiricism is the view that knowledge is acquired through sensory

experience/contact. It is the view that sensory experience is the fundamental
source of knowledge.
∙ From the empiricist point of view, to educate implies providing experiences
which enrich a learners’ empirical database, and so, learners should be
afforded opportunities to observe for themselves (i.e. smell, see, touch, hear
taste) especially if this does not endanger the life of the learners after all
experience is the best teacher.

FURTHER READING
Hirst, Paul, 1974: Human knowledge and the Curriculum, Pergamon press, Oxford
Langford, G 1968: Philosophy and Education, Macmillan Education Limited, London.
Peters, R.S 1987: Philosophy and Education Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Scheffler, I 1965: Conditions of knowledge: An introduction to Epistemology and
Education. The University of Chicago Press. Oxford.
Woolman, Michael 2000: Ways of knowing: An introduction to theory of knowledge,
IBID, Press, Victor.

RATIONALISM AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

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To develop knowledge and understanding as already seen implies assimilating new

beliefs into one’s cognitive system. In the foregoing lesson, we have examined the
empiricist way of explaining knowledge acquisition. However, empiricism is not the
only theory that has attempted to explain the knowledge acquisition process. In this
lesson, we examine the other theory of knowledge, the rationalist theory.

OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, learners are expected :

∙ To examine the Rationalist view of knowledge acquisition

∙ To illustrate how the theory of Rationalism has influenced the practice of
education.

Rationalism as a theory of Knowledge

As earlier noted, in order to be accepted as knowledge, beliefs often ought to be

justifiable. This is in line with the earlier definition of knowledge as a justified true
belief.

It should however be noted that there are at least three ways in which truth can be
ascertained i.e. by, correspondence (agreement between existing situation/fact and
our idea/claim, by coherence (agreement between two ideas) and by pragmatism
(agreement between idea or claim and its practicability).

In ascertaining truth by coherence, one does not only rely on sensory experience to
ascertain the truth of a claim but mainly relies on ability to establish the logical
connectedness between the ideas in question. It is hence a rational exercise.

For that reason, there appears to be some kind of knowledge that is not necessarily
based on sensory data i.e. rational knowledge. Accordingly, reason takes a central role
in the way human beings acquire knowledge.

Those who propound this view are referred to as rationalists.

The term rationalism comes from the Greek ratio meaning reason or thinking.

Rationalism is therefore the view or theory that reason is the primary source of
human knowledge.

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In other words, rationalists maintain that the source of the human knowledge is the
human mind and not the experience out there brought to us by the senses.

Accordingly, knowledge is also verified through rational deduction.

The strength of this view draws from an obvious observation that if reason is nullified
in ones experience, then it may be difficult to make sense of that experience. For
example:

-Reason is often used to correct mistakes made in sensory perception, that is, reason
prepares a context within which reality is perceived by the senses in a way that the
effects of illusions are eventually corrected. [eg. Mirage, reflection, perspective,
horizon e.t.c]

-Reason is central in the interpretation process in which sensory data is rendered

meaningful and intelligible, for instance, consider the expression:

5+7=12

Here, the plus symbol (+) is a symbol (an idea) which is a mental construction. The
meaning attached to the symbol originates from the mind, that is, the mind interprets
it to mean “add or put together” and that is why the answer is 12. In the same way,
concepts such as God may not exist in the physical world but in our mind.

Interpretation is a mental or a rational process and as such, the mind is always active
in the process of knowledge construction.

Accordingly, reason creates a meaningful order even in sensory experience. It

achieves this by constructing structures within which data received from senses is
interpreted, recognized, explained and formalized.

Beliefs in this case become valid data of experience only after appropriate
interpretation has taken place.

In this, sense, education becomes a rational experience, that is, a process of learning
to reason, to think, to understand and to see things in a meaningful way.

If in the course of education, learners are not provided with opportunities for
exercising their rational faculties, then knowledge acquisition is limited and the
education process is clearly faulty.

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Influence of Rationalism on the Practice of Education

Knowledge acquisition understood from the rationalist point of view would imply an
education that:

Emphasizes the active role of the mind/reason/intellect in knowledge acquisition-thus

teaching methods that enhance the learners’ reasoning abilities with discussion and
evaluation of certain pieces of information.

Demonstrates the need to acknowledge innate capacities in the acquisition and

production of human knowledge. This is done by use of mental exercises that seek to
develop such capacities that are innate in knowledge construction and acquisition.

Justifies the presence of subjects like mathematics and liberal Arts in the school
curriculum.

ACTIVITY

Discuss the weaknesses that would be present in a system of education that is built
on the rationalist understanding of knowledge acquisition.

SUMMARY

We have established in this lesson that:

∙ Rationalism is another one of the theories of knowledge and it maintains that

knowledge is acquired through reasoning.
∙ In the light of the observations made in the course of the discussions in the
lesson, education can therefore be seen as a process of initiating the learners
into the rational structures or schemes with which reality is interpreted,
recognized and explained.

FURTHER READING

Hirst, Paul, 1974: Human knowledge and the Curriculum, Pergamon press, Oxford
Langford, G 1968: Philosophy and Education, Macmillan Education Limited, London.
Peters, R.S 1987: Philosophy and Education Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Scheffler, I 1965: Conditions of knowledge: An introduction to Epistemology and
Education. The University of Chicago Press. Oxford.
Woolman, Michael 2000: Ways of knowing: An introduction to theory of knowledge,

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IBID, Press, Victor.

FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge as we have seen comes through both rational and empirical facilities. In
other words, reason and sensory experience are arguably the primary sources and
foundations of human knowledge. They are the basic conditions which make
knowledge acquisition and understanding possible. It is important, however, to note
that knowledge and understanding are in the long run, structured and organized in
different ways.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, learners should be able:

∙ To explain the notion of a form of knowledge

∙ To provide an explanation for teaching the different disciplines such s science,
mathematics, history etc in the curriculum.

The Notion of a Form of Knowledge

∙ The form that knowledge takes depends partly on the nature of realities one is
paying attention to at any point in time. For instance, numerical reality calls for
a mathematical understanding; physical realities call for scientific
understanding while religious realities are to be understood in religious terms.
At the same time, a given reality may have different facets to it.
∙ For instance, HIV/AIDS reality has a statistical dimension which can be
understood when organized in numerical/mathematical terms, an
epidemiological dimension that can be understood from a scientific point of
view and a developmental trend that can be well understood within a historical
framework of time and event.
∙ This is to say that science, History and Mathematics are different ways in which
reality can be understood and explained. They are therefore examples of
forms of knowledge.
∙ There are different forms of knowledge and understanding each of which
constitutes a frame of mind.
∙ In other words, there are various ways of explaining and understanding

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realities or phenomena. Consider for instance, the phenomenon of rubber

production.

∙ If a rubber tree does not yield latex, the biologist would blame sapling, the
geologist blames the soil, the contractor blames the unskilled laborer while the
superstitious owner says it is fighting back at being controlled.
∙ In such a situation, biology, Geology, Technology (science) and even
superstition may be seen as the various ways in which the reality of rubber
production can be understood and explained. They are conceptual frames of
mind.
∙ There are different forms of knowledge and understanding each of which
constitutes a frame of mind. In other words, there are various ways of
explaining and understanding realities or phenomena. Consider for instance,
the phenomenon of rubber production.

NOTE

A form of knowledge is a particular frame of mind thus a way of explaining and

understanding reality or phenomena

Examples of Forms of Knowledge

In his book, Human Knowledge and the curriculum (1974) Paul Hirst gives seven
forms:

1. Logic and Mathematics

2. Physical Sciences (physical, chemistry)
3. Human sciences (History,, Geography, Literature)
4. Aesthetics (fine and visual arts)
5. Ethics/Mortality
6. Religion
7. Philosophy

Nature of Forms of Knowledge

A form of knowledge can be distinguished from the others by a number of aspects

that include concepts validation/truth test, method and logical structure.

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(a) Concepts

Each form of knowledge has terms peculiar to it. For instance, the term gravity is
peculiar to physics, trigonometry to mathematics, and photosynthesis to biology while
phrase is peculiar to linguistics. Whenever used appropriately, these terms are readily
rendered meaningful but when used elsewhere their meaning is inferred from its
usage in the form in which it first appeared.

(b)Validation/Trust test

Each form of knowledge has statements and experiences whose truth is testable by
particular criteria. For instance, the correctness of a sentence is tested against certain
grammatical rules and not against any scientific experiment or mathematical formula.

(c) Method

Any given form of knowledge has ways and techniques of exploring experience,
investigating realities within its scope and thereby developing that form of
knowledge. Science for instance, has its own method that involves experimentation,
observation, deduction and conclusion.

d) Logical Structure

A form of knowledge displays some kind of internal consistency. This is the

interrelationship of ideas within a form of knowledge between topics, sub-topics and
concepts such that they are not distinct entities but interrelated in such a way that
certain topics are built on certain concepts in that form of knowledge. For example, in
elementary science, you learn about ‘Matter’ and then later you learn about
‘Molecules’ whose understanding builds on the knowledge of the topic on Matter and
even later the topic ‘Atomic structure’ whose understanding will to some extent rely
on the topic or concept of molecules

Why Teach Various Disciplines or Subjects?

As already mentioned a form of knowledge and understanding refers to the distinct

way in which human experience has been organized, structured and validated in a
meaningful and intelligible way.

Following from this view of knowledge, to acquire knowledge is therefore not merely
to acquire facts but also to learn to see things and experience working in a
meaningful and intelligible way. For that reason, a curriculum would therefore be

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justified to have the different subjects since experience or reality is understood,

organized and structured differently.

Such a multifaceted conception or view of the curriculum enables reality to be studied

and understood from a variety of perspectives. This ensures a comprehensive view of
reality.

ACTIVITY

Prepare a list of about ten forms of knowledge (you may include those you mentioned
in the question above) and for each form, describe the nature of each form.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have learnt that:

∙ Forms of knowledge are the different ways in which reality can be understood
and explained.
∙ A form of knowledge can be distinguished from he others by a number of
aspects that include concepts validation/truth test, method and logical
structure.
∙ A school curriculum consists of different disciples/subjects because experience
or reality is understood, organized and structured differently thus such a
multifaceted conception or view of the curriculum enables reality to be studied
and understood from a variety of perspectives.

FURTHER READING
Hirst, Paul, 1974; Human knowledge and the Curriculum, Pergamon press,
Oxford
Peters, R.S 1987: Philosophy and Education Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Scheffler, I 1965: Conditions of knowledge: An introduction to Epistemology and
Education. The University of Chicago Press. Oxford.
Woolman, Michael 2000: Ways of knowing: An introduction to theory of knowledge,
IBID, Press, Victor

UNIQUENESS OF HUMAN BEINGS AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

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Having discussed several issues of education, including axiological and

epistemological, this section or lesson falls within the metaphysical realm. For us to
understand the uniqueness of human beings, I propose that we examine its opposite
first in the sense of what I call “un uniqueness” of human beings.

While uniqueness denotes aspects that put man apart from the rest of beings, ‘un
uniqueness” denotes aspects that make man similar to other beings and this will be
clear through an analysis of the concept of ‘Nature’. First, however, we examine the
etymology of the concept ‘unique’ and ‘human’

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to: -

∙ Show the characteristics that make man unique to other beings.

∙ Show how man’s uniqueness affects or is manifested in the education system

UNIQUENESS

∙ The English term “unique” is traced to the Latin word ‘unicus’ whose root ‘inus’
means ONE as opposed to MANY. Humanness, therefore suggests a state of
being ONE of a kind
∙ This – ONE OF A KIND- stands out among other beings.
∙ The term ‘HUMAN’ on the other hand, is a derivative of the Greek word “HOMO”
which means “child of the earth”. Consequently, humans are particular beings
who are born of our earth.
∙ For us, therefore, to understand man as a unique being, a discussion of the
concept of ‘nature’ – one that shows man as similar to other beings may be very
helpful

THE CONCEPT OF NATURE

∙ ‘Nature’ as a word is derived from Latin verb ‘nascere’ meaning ‘to be born’. It is
suggested by Njoroge and Bennars (1986) that the original meaning of ‘natural
world’ means the world in which one is born, finds himself in and probably
leaves it behind after death.
∙ This being the case, man has no alternative but to accept it and become part of
it, since he finds himself in it (world). At birth, man is confronted by the
“THERENESS” of both himself and the world; the world of nature.

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∙ According to ‘nature’, man is an insignificant material object in the midst of

others including plants, the outcome of which is as a result of a long process of
evolutionary process.
∙ With classification, man is a living being who biology classifies as belonging to a
species known as mammals.
∙ Among mammals, man does not display features that are different from other
mammals. For example, like any mammals, men group together in particular
environment for survival purposes; environment that determines and
conditions their life, growth and development depending on their natural
needs.
∙ In such a world, therefore, similar to other objects, man is predictable and
must accept the world as it is. Man is, therefore, “un unique” or not unique, he
is like any other mammal or object.
∙ Opposed to the above view is the concept of culture, one that sets man a part
from the rest and one that we must discuss after the following activity.

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE

∙ Modern Philosophers affirm the view that man is unique. The argument is that
man stands out (ex-sists) from other beings, is not a mare passive object in the
world, but a SUBJECT in a cultural world. We need to explain.
∙ ‘Culture’ as a concept is derived from Latin verb COLERE and its perfect tense
CULTUS – which means “to farm” or “to cultivate”.
∙ To farm implies acting upon the land, transforming it for cultivation. CULTURE,
therefore, implies action, one that calls for an actor who creates a new world.
This points to a dynamism signifying that human action involves a creative
subject consciously engaged in the world.
∙ Man is, therefore, unique in this sense; he is a producer, an actor, a creator
who is conscious of his creative capabilities. Man is a being who transcends or
goes beyond the physical or natural world, not a machine or just a mammal.
Man, it is true, finds himself in the natural world, but through his creative
capabilities he is able to transform the world he finds himself in, and this
makes him unique from other beings in the world.
∙ Other areas where man appears unique from the rest of beings include the
conception of time and space. Man looks at the past, Present and conceives of
the future. Man can also look at the present and map for the future, plan
ahead. This apparently, is something not discerned in other beings.

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NOTE

When Philosophers argue that man is unique, it is not because he does not exhibit
some characteristics similar to other beings. It is because apart from such similarly,
man manifests other characteristics that other beings don’t show.

ACTIVITY

Discuss and note down any characteristic that you think is unique to man

HOW DOES MANS UNIQUENESS IMPACT ON EDUCATION?

∙ Given the uniqueness of man, Education subsequently, must be tailored to suit

this. This may have to take into cognisance the environment in terms of space
or where the education is being given.
∙ Is the education being given in tandem with, for example, the Kenyan
environment?
∙ Does Education being given recognize that man is an actor, conscious creator
and not just a mere object? This should therefore, be reflected in the
curriculum.
∙ The question of environment and uniqueness can also be brought down to the
class level and the facilities needed for proper education.
∙ Given that man is unique, what methods of teaching should learning
institutions adopt? The school may need to balance between collective teaching
and one that is personalized.

SUMMARY

This lesson has discussed the uniqueness of man and Education. It acknowledges that
despite man being similar to other beings in the world, he however stands out. This
has been shown by discussing the concepts of nature and culture. Whereas the
concept of nature takes man as any other object in the world, the concept of culture
shows that man is a conscious actor and creator. He is, consequently, not an object
but a subject, actively involved in transforming the world for his benefit. The
education of man, it is suggested must reflect this uniqueness.

FURTHER READING

1. Burke, C. 2007: Man and Values: A personalist anthropology. Scepter Publishers

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U.S.A

2. Freire P. 1972: Pedagogy of the oppressed, London

3. Njoroge R, and Bennars G. 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa Press, Nairobi
4. Sifuna D. et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of The Foundations of Education.
Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, Nairobi.
5. Van der Poel, C: 1971: The Search for Human Values, Paulist Press, New York

HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In discussing the uniqueness of man in the previous lesson, it was suggested that
human beings are subjects who are conscious of their capabilities. They are conscious
beings in this world. We need, in this lesson, to delve into the aspect of consciousness
and how it may be related to Education.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

∙ Describe what human consciousness is

∙ Identify and correctly characterize levels of consciousness
∙ Show the relationship between levels of consciousness and categories of the
same
∙ Show how consciousness is linked to education

CONTENT

HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS

∙ Consciousness is derived from a Latin verb. “Con-scire” which means “to know”.
It therefore has to do with knowing.
∙ Being conscious, Philosophers argue, is not a general state, but one that directs
an individual to be conscious of something.
∙ The consequence of being conscious of something is the redirection of ones

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attention or intellect to that something. In other words, attention is directed

outside the self to the object of attention.

NOTE

Consciousness, it must be noted, denotes a relationship, a relationship between the

person, who in this case is the subject, and the “something” which is the object. Such
a relationship ought to lead to reflection and action.

∙ That notwithstanding, human consciousness can conveniently be acquired in

related four levels as discussed below

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

∙ The 1st level is what is referred to as the empirical level.

∙ Associated with this level is the aspect whereby man experiences things
particularly through the senses.
∙ This level is shared with animals, i.e. it is a level that is found in both animals
and human beings.
∙ The 2nd level is referred to as the intellectual level; a level where the formation
of concepts is core and helps man to begin naming the world.
∙ The 3rd level is known as the rational level.
∙ This level is associated with making of judgments aided by the process of
reasoning. There is a rational explanation of their place in this world.
∙ It is here that human beings give meaning to the world and this helps them to
make choices and decisions as they live in the world with a purpose of trying to
overcome limitations.
∙ The 4th and final is the responsible level. Having come to particular judgments,
man then responds to them in the way of actions.
∙ Man now becomes a conscious actor having prepared his actions through
reflection.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND LIMITATIONS

∙ Given that man is a conscious being, we must realize that he is a “conscious

being in the world”.
∙ This means that his consciousness is limited to the world, particularly in the

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sense of a given time and place.

∙ At the same time, his consciousness of the world is through his body.
Consequently, his consciousness is what Philosophers refer to as “embodied
consciousness”, a consciousness that is not pure but limited to nature.
∙ This being the case, man is a limited subject; limited by both physical as well as
social factors. In other words man is an incomplete being.
∙ It is however, a credit to and a very positive aspect of man that as an
incomplete being, man is aware or conscious of his incompleteness.
∙ Man knows that he is not complete, which to him is a limitation. One of his
basic tasks, therefore, is to overcome his limitations. And how does he
accomplish this?
∙ Man tries to overcome his limitations by becoming aware of his possibilities
and opportunities; a process that makes him more human. As Njoroge and
Bennars say, MAN AS A CONSCIOUS BEING IN THE WOLRD IS ALWAYS IN THE
PROCESS OF BECOMING – because we have not yet become.
∙ Perhaps, the Kiswahili saying KABLA HUJAFA, HUJAUMBIKA! Literally meaning
“BEFORE YOU ARE DEAD YOU’RE NOT YET FORMED”, illustrates this better.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND EDUCATION

∙ The last point above – the fact that we are in the process of becoming – links
modern Philosophy and Education
∙ Because we are not yet complete and we are aware of this incompleteness, we
strive to get there; we are ‘becoming’.
∙ We realize, however, that in the process of ‘becoming’, we need education.
∙ Educations’ overall aim, it is now evident, is to help us ‘become’ more human.
If, as it is, education implies a process of learning to be human, how does this
take place?
∙ To let us ‘get there’, become more human, education should let us become
more conscious of human limitations as well as show us the possibilities of
‘getting there’
∙ Education is, therefore, a process of consciousness, awareness, always
remembering that consciousness implies reflection and action.
∙ As a process, education is not merely a natural process of growth, but a
cultural process leading to human action. Remember our discussion on the
concept of ‘nature’ and cultural world earlier?

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∙ Now, since human action involves an actor, a producer, etc. we realize that
education that leads to human action involves creativity, an invaluable
characteristic of man.
∙ The question of education and creativity will be dealt with in the next lesson.
However, we need to say something more about consciousness at this point to
reinforce what we have already said about it.

PAULO FREIRE AND CONSCIOUSNESS

∙ Paulo Freire – in his Cultural Action for Freedom, describes education as a

process of liberation. He sees education as a process which sets man free from
inhibitions in order for one to become and act humanly.
∙ According to Freire, there is therefore, a link between education and
consciousness, one that he categorizes into Magic, Naïve, and critical. A word
about each of these:
∙ Magic consciousness is associated with man apprehending facts and problems
but being unable to explain them rationally. Instead, such facts and problems
are attributed to a supernatural powers or magical forces. Man in this category
operates at the first two levels of consciousness discussed earlier viz, the
empirical and intellectual levels. Man produces a magic response characterized
by fatalism and resignation to the situation. For instance, in the case of HIV and
AIDS when the problem started affecting people in this country, many called it
a taboo disease implying that it is a disease whose cause is so mysterious and
almost unexplainable. They have such a magical consciousness of the HIV
problem.
∙ Naïve consciousness, on the other hand, operates at the levels of ‘intellectual’
and ‘rational’ Here the assumption is that man controls facts and problems
because he understands them. However, the problem is that man’s
understanding in this category has a tendency of becoming academic, abstract
and detached from reality. In a word, naïve consciousness produces a naïve
response, based on idealistic or unrealistic solutions, thereby not helping him.
In the same case of HIV and AIDS, there are people who despite having enough
information about HIV and AIDS, they still exhibit behavior that puts them at
risk of HIV infection. They thus have a naïve consciousness of the HIV and AIDS
problem.
∙ Critical consciousness tries to judge situations realistically – by analyzing facts
and problems in light of fundamental human values.
∙ Being rational and critical, this leads to concrete responses that involve both
reflection and action (Praxis). For Paulo Freire, liberating education is education

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for critical consciousness that operates at the rational and responsible level.
Consequently, creativity, which helps bring about human liberation, both
physical and mental, must be emphasized in our curriculum.

ACTIVITIES

With respect to the levels of consciousness above, evaluate yourself by suggesting the
level to which you think you belong. Do this together with a few friends: Does it make
sense that you’re still becoming? Clarify your position

SUMMARY

This lesson started by explaining what human consciousness is. As it proceeded, four
levels of consciousness were identified and discussed in terms of their characteristics.
It was also realized that human consciousness is limited and that infact, man is in the
process of being since he is not complete. The suggestion was that this in
completeness, a matter of fact, needs to be overcome and Education is key to
overcoming this incompleteness, since, it is a process of consciousness guided by
reflection and [Link] ideas of Paulo Freire with regard to the categories of
consciousness and how they relate to the levels of consciousness were discussed
towards the end of the lesson.

FURTHER READING

1. Freire P 1972: pedagogy of the oppressed, London

2. Freire P. 1973: Education for Critical consciousness: Seabury Press, New York
3. Njoroge R & Bennars G. 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa. Trans-Africa
Press – Nairobi
4. Sifuna D; et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of the Foundations of Education.
Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, Nairobi.

EDUCATION AND HUMAN CREATIVITY

INTRODUCTION

This lesson examines the relationship that entails between education and human
creativity. Creativity has to do with bringing forth something that was not present or
even modifying the one that already existed by injecting new ideas into the old ones.
For us to be able to understand the relationship between education and human

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creativity, we have to revisit the concept of culture, its etymology and assumptions.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

∙ Define creativity and map its characteristics

∙ Authoritatively show the relationship between education and creativity
∙ Suggest reasons why creativity is essential in the education systems.

CULTURE: MEANING AND ASSUMPTIONS

∙ Culture as a word is derived from Latin verb ‘colere’ which means ‘to farm’, ‘to
cultivate’. Farming, as you will realize, has to do with transforming some land
unfit for cultivation to one that is fit for cultivation.
∙ It follows from this that culture implies some action, and an actor who must be
the subject.
∙ The process of action guided by a conscious actor brings new things into being;
new things are created.
∙ The creator, who in this case is man, in a way creates a new human world, a
cultural world.
∙ Man, therefore, is a producer, an actor; this giving us a basis of human
creativity that must be viewed vis-à-vis education.

EDUCATION AND CREATIVITY

Going by what we have said above, we must by now realize that education, which we
agreed makes man more human, must involve creativity. Through education, man
must act upon the world to create new things or modify them. Consequently,
education must, therefore, be oriented towards human action that is reflective.

Education, being action-oriented, must logically be productive and effective. This, it is

argued, cannot take place if it only stresses [Link] this, education must
be able to let the learner know his task as an actor, a producer and a creator who
must be effective and productive in terms of human needs and requirements. The
question is how this is to be inculcated into the learners. It would seem that we will
have to concentrate or choose our learning methods and content very carefully and
deliberately.

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NOTE

Creativity in education entertains new thoughts, as Dr. Fatuma Chege, in Sifuna et al,
(2006) [Link] is also responsive to new knowledge reflections as well as responding
to old knowledge. This encourages search for new knowledge and is open to scrutiny
and [Link] thinking behind all this is that, in a way, students must be
encouraged to become very critical in order to create a new order and revisions
where this is [Link] then becomes the work of progressive education, an
agent of change, an education where students are encouraged to seek solutions to the
current problems and alternatives of doing [Link] being so, creativity in
education becomes a way of transforming the world, to make it more [Link] this is
accepted, we shall necessarily have to re-examine what Paulo Freire calls the “banking”
concept of education where students are made to “bank” knowledge as given by
elders or teachers in an authoritarian manner, the assumption being that they
(learners) know nothing. This will be discussed further when dealing with education
and dialogue.

ACTIVITY

Discuss and note down modes of learning that promote creativity among the learners
in an education set up.

SUMMARY

The present lesson has discussed two issues basically – creativity and its assumptions
and the relationship between creativity and education. We have shown that creativity
is associated with bringing new things into being as well as modifying what already
exists. Given the dynamic nature of issues in the world, creativity is inevitable if we
have to survive. Our learning, we have therefore suggested, must be inclined towards
encouraging this creativity.

FURTHER READING

1. Freire P. 1972: Pedagogy of the oppressed London

2. Freire P. 1973: Education for Critical consciousness, Seabury Press, New York.
3. Njoroge R. and Bennars G. 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa Press Nairobi
4. Sifuna D. et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of the Foundations of Education
Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, Nairobi

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EDUCATION, LEISURE AND WORK

INTRODUCTION
The previous lesson emphasized the idea of creativity in education as being essential
in helping man become more human. Creativity brings in an actor who acts in order
to produce something new. The production by this conscious actor, we realize,
involves “work”. To be creative, man must, therefore, work. This is an aspect that we
emphasize and, education must inculcate in the minds of the [Link]
acknowledging work as one that makes man more human; one that defines human
creativity, it has been regarded negatively and taken as unpleasant or a necessary evil.
Njoroge and Bennars (1986) believe that this is as a result of defining work in terms of
hard physical labour. There is need therefore, to correct this conception and posit
work in a more positive light.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: -

∙ Give several positive characteristics of work

∙ Show the relationship between Education and work
∙ Show how work is capable of bringing leisure

WORK AND SELF-FULFILLMENT

∙ Philosophers concur that work leads to self-realization or humanization. While

many people yearn for self-actualization or realization, they must also
appreciate that this will never take place in the absence of work. It is through
work that one can get self-actualized in whatever sense.
∙ Work, therefore, makes man human. We realize that through work, man
creates a new world, a cultural world which includes the world of Science and
Technology. The very technological breakthroughs we see today in the
telecommunication industry, medicine, transport etc. are as a result of work.
∙ It is a truism that the products of work make our lives better in certain areas.
Assuming that this is so, then it underscores the idea of work as being a
positive idea rather than being considered negatively. In a way, therefore,
work, which leads to creation, confirms the uniqueness of human beings in the
world. This gives hope and confidence as opposed to resignation in the face of

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nature; work overcomes the natural world.

∙ Apart from the benefits that work brings about, Philosophers argue that there
is something intrinsic in work; that it is a good in itself, leading to the aspect of
“work for its own sake”.
∙ Ordinary examples abound, for instance, that manifest the value of work. Man
himself, for example, has working parts, the malfunctioning of which, would
create a lot of problems for him. The human heart as an organ for example,
works day in day out to sustain man’s life. The digestive system in man must
work if man has to be man. There are many other familiar parts.
∙ As a living man, therefore, he is sustained by parts that must work. Man, we
can say, is a ‘working’ man. Without work, it’s like he is dead. It seems a
contradiction, therefore, that man should consider work negatively when infact,
it is work that keeps him alive. Man ought to derive fulfillment and satisfaction
from work.
∙ Njoroge and Bennars (1986) posit that work creates and recreates society in the
sense that when one works, he also works for others, a form of mutual help. In
this sense, through work, bonds are created among people leading to a more
human world.

NOTE

Given what we have said above with regards to work, it is evident that a little thinking
will show that work is positive. The negative notion of work as mere labour needs to
be discarded.

WORK, LEISURE AND EDUCATION

∙ We need to stress some issues here. The fact that work makes man human,
creates a new world, points to the suggestion that education must be work
oriented. Education must cultivate a liking for work among the learners so that
they create new things in a human way.
∙ In other words, taking work seriously will mean that our education system
must not be merely academic. Creativity through work is seriously within reach
of all learners. Work needs to be fostered in education to enable learners to
effectively operate both theoretically and in practice.
∙ The consequences of work are that creativity will be enhanced. With creativity
new and better creations in several respects will be the result. Thus, work
ought to bring the best in us as we discover our world. This can only take place

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and bring satisfaction if we consider work in the same way as ‘playing’. It’s an
activity for its own sake; people enjoy it not because of the benefits, which will
be there anyway, but simply because work is enjoyable and part of being
human. The argument is that when work is combined with play, the need for
leisure can be fulfilled. Work and leisure then become two sides of the same
coin.

ACTIVITY

Suggest the range of activities in the form of work that, if given a chance, you would
like included in an education system.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have discussed education in relation to work and leisure. We have
suggested first that work is a form of a catalyst towards self-actualization; that without
work, self-fulfillment may not be realized. Moreover, it is through work that new
creations are produced, this also being a process of humanizing the world. It is work
that moves man away from the natural world to a cultural world, and so
re-emphasizing the uniqueness of man. This being very crucial, the suggestion given is
that the education process has vital role in making learners appreciate instead of
shunning work. Taken as and end in itself, work, we have argued, is capable of
bringing leisure.

FURTHER READING

1. Njoroge and Bennars G. 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa. Trans –

Africa Press, Nairobi
2. Njoroge G. 1992: Education, Leisure of work. Unpublish PhD. Kenyatta
University
3. Sifuna D et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the Study of The Foundations of Education.
Jomo Kenyatta Foundations, Nairobi.

EDUCATION AND DIALOGUE

INTRODUCTION

Man, it has been argued, is not an Island. Whatever, he does, and particularly in
dialogue, other people come into the picture. Man is, therefore, a social being and is

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best fulfilled in the company of others. From a very extreme position, where man is
either a thief or a rapist, other people must nevertheless come on board. A thief will
not steal from oneself; he will need other people with property to steal from. A rapist
on the other hand will need a lady to rape. Man, we can say, is social either positively
or [Link] sometimes has a tendency to emphasize on the individual
targeting competition and good performance. Taken to the extreme this positively
creates a highly developed, critical, creative and autonomous being but negatively
creating one who may be impossible to live with socially. Something will have gone
wrong; the ability to cultivate the culture of dialogue among learners. This lesson,
therefore, discusses education with particular reference to dialogue.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to: -

∙ Correctly define what dialogue is

∙ Give several characteristics of dialogue
∙ Relate dialogue to the process of education
∙ Suggest reasons why dialogue is necessary in education

DIALOGUE AND EDUCATION

∙ A point with dialogue is that education is a form of public experience. It

therefore, needs to be a positive social or public affair, a social institution.
∙ Given this social dimension, we may be wrong to speak of education in
individualistic terms. As man exists in this world, he exists with others, an
aspect philosophers term co-existence.
∙ If man co-exists with others, there is need for mutual understanding and
respect that ought to be realized through positive encounter, communication
and dialogue. What, then, is dialogue?
∙ Etymologically, dialogue is derived from the Greek work “dia-logos” which
implies communication between two people, at least. It denotes “people
speaking words (Logos) to each other. You will realize that dialogue is a radical
departure from monologue where just one person speaks. What implication,
then, does this have in education?
∙ As dialogue, education presupposes that teachers and learners will speak or
communicate on equal terms. This, therefore, is against authoritarianism,
where learners are forced into acceptance devoid of any questions. This would

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be an extreme teacher centered approach and a denial of dialogue.

∙ On the other hand, an extreme learner centred approach would also negate
dialogue. Both teachers and learners, it must be appreciated, are different
modes of being that are necessary in the teaching – learning experience. A
balance has to be struck for effective learning.
∙ For us to appreciate this concern, we have to examine what ‘teaching’ is thus
showing the dialogical relation between the teacher and the learner.

NOTE

What is being stressed so far is that for an effective education, dialogue between the
teacher and the learner must be fostered. Concentrating on the learners at the
expense of teachers or vice-versa, denies dialogue and this affects the quality of
education.

TEACHING AND LEARNING: THE DIALOGICAL RELATIONS

∙ ‘To teach’ is associated with the old English word ‘taecan’. This means a ‘sign’ or
‘guide’ to show the way or to indicate the direction
∙ To indicate or show direction, it must be noted, is not to force one into that
direction. The one being shown the way must be ready and willing to follow the
direction. He or she has a role to play in getting to the directed point.
∙ A teacher, therefore, is one who is a sign, a guide and his/her purpose is to
provide guidance and direction.

NOTE

It must be appreciated that traditionally this was seriously taken. Every adult was
viewed as a teacher and hence expected to give guidance to the youth on their way to
adulthood. Unfortunately, this was sometimes done in an authoritarian manner. We
also recognize situations where learners were allowed to discover for themselves
under the guidance of the community.

∙ Today, teaching must be understood as a mode of ‘being-with’ and must show

positive care, concern and more so, availability of the guide among the guided,
since in his absence the learners get lost on the way.
∙ The teachers availability is crucial because the learners depend on them for
their self-realization, to become conscious beings, conscious of their

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possibilities and limitations.

∙ This must directly and actively involve the learners. Consequently; this
discourages docility and passivity in the parties involved. Accordingly, the
teacher can’t act as a master or a dominating character because this would kill
the expression of the learners, contradicting the very concept of dialogue. What
are we getting to?
∙ That teaching that induces slave mentality or a sense of impotence is not
education. It is an attack on the minds of the learners and a disrespect to the
same. The opposite of this requires dialogue between people who respect and
understand each other as conscious subjects engaged in humanizing the world
through critical and reflective actions.
∙ Looked at from that angle, dialogue then does not undermine either the
teacher or the learner.A question of grave importance then immediately comes
up. As a guide, one who shows direction to the learners, what direction is the
teacher required to give? In what areas does this direction point to?
∙ There are suggestions that teachers should not only direct cognitively but also
in morals and [Link] represent the adult community, and must,
therefore, be familiar with the ethics of the community, and lead by example.
∙ An immoral teacher, for example, cannot be a guide and must not be allowed
to mislead [Link] may be the case of a blind guide not being useful as a
guide.
∙ A teacher, as said, must lead by example. He must not be authoritarian
because without dialogue, there is no communication, and where
communication lacks, there is no education. Dialogue enhances proper
guidance and helps learners become subjects, actors and creators in the world
through mutual agreement, cooperation and respect that tolerates other
peoples expressions. One undertakes dialogue when he/she is open minded,
ready to receive the other person’s ideas where they are well grounded. A
closed mind is anti-dialogical. Teachers as guides should then be able to be
very receptive to ideas from the learners, because ideas are ideas irrespective
of the source.

ACTIVITY

Organize yourselves into small groups and together discuss the following question:
Discuss the claim that a dialogical relationship in education enhances humanization
of the world.

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SUMMARY

∙ This lesson has discussed education and dialogue. We have stated that due to
the fact that man is social, he needs others as he lives in this world. The mere
presence of others however, is not sufficient. He needs to speak with them,
hence the need for dialogue in his relationship.
∙ Several characteristics for dialogue to take place have been discussed including
the necessity of being open to other people’s ideas, respecting others as fellow
actors and basically the need for tolerance. Most importantly, we suggested
that dialogue does not thrive well in an authoritarian climate.
∙ The question of teaching with reference to dialogue was extensively discussed
focusing on who a ‘teacher’ is and his role in the teaching/learning process. It is
here, that dialogue is mostly required. The argument was that any
teaching-learning process may not be successful without a dialogical
relationship.

FURTHER READING

1. Freire P. 1972: Pedagogy of the Oppressed – London

2. Freire P. 1973. Education for Critical Consciousness: Seabury Press New York
3. Njoroge R and Bennars G. 1986: Philosophy and Education in Africa.
Trans-Africa Press, Nairobi
4. Sifuna D. et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the study of the Foundations of Education.
Jomo Kenyatta Foundation – Nairobi

EDUCATION AND HUMAN RIGHTS

INTRODUCTION

It is very common these days for people to talk of their rights. Often we hear of
children rights, human rights, the rights of a citizen and so on. In this section, we are
talking about human rights. It is, perhaps important to understand the whole idea of
rights and more importantly, how education as a phenomenon harmonizes with the
whole issue of human rights.

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OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, learners are expected to be able to:

∙ Explain the concept of human rights

∙ Explain the nexus between education and human rights.

The Constitution of Kenya chapter V sections outlines the following rights:

70 : Rights of an Individual for instance, to life, personal liberty from forced

labour and slavery from inhuman treatment etc.

71 : Right of life

72 : Right to personal liberty

73 : From forced labour and slavery

74 : From inhuman treatment etc.

NOTE

While talking about rights here, we shall focus more on education as a right
and discuss its relationship with education.

CONTENT

Contextualizing Human Rights

∙ The right to Education is spelt out in Article 13 of the Covenant on the

economic social and cultural rights. This section outlines these rights in various
sections. For instance:

∙ Section 1 states that States are required to recognize the right of everyone to
Education.

∙ That “…education shall be directed to the full development of the human

personality and the sense of dignity and shall strengthen the respect of/for
human rights and fundamental freedoms”.

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∙ That “…education shall enable all persons to participate on effectively in free

society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations
and all racial, ethnic or religious groups.

∙ In order to achieve their goal, in section 2 states that all states are called upon
that:

2a “primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all”.

2b “secondary Education in its different forms including technical and vocal …, shall
be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means and in
particular by the progressive introduction of free education.”

2c Higher Education shall be made equally accessible to all on the basis of capacity, by
every appropriate means ...”

2d “Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for

those persons who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary
education”.

∙ In general, Section 3 talks about the distribution the Rights to participants in

Education, that is, parents, the state, children, e.t.c. The covenant therefore
provides for:

(i) An official statement on the recognition of Education (worldwide) as a fundamental

Human Right. It is not a privilege. It is not to be donated or offered to children as an
alm or a gift. It belongs to them by right.

(ii) A guiding framework for policy initiatives that are geared towards provision of
Education as a Human right.

But still, all these clarification does not really tell us what a right is. For that reason,
we may need to take some time to understand this concept.

What is a Human Right

∙ A human right is a condition, situation, a thing or an opportunity to which a

person (as human) is entitled in a very basic/fundamental way. This
entitlement is such that if a person is denied access to it, his/her basic
humanity is either degraded, compromised, humiliated or even destroyed. In

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other words, if a basic human right is not guaranteed, the worth of the human
person is devalued; his /her dignity is lowered.

∙ Education as a basic human right (in this context) elevates the worth of a
human person both in attitudes and knowledge. The non-provision of
education is at the same, the devaluation of human dignity and personality.
∙ Education, in this way becomes a human phenomenon, not in the sense of
proportioning human potentiality but in the sense of promoting and sustaining
human value/worth and personhood.
∙ The provision of education as a matter of human rights is, for that reason, a
moral [Link] this, the dignity of the human person is reaffirmed;
faith in the potential equality of persons is enhanced. Respect for fundamental
freedoms of a person and the realisation of human beings’ full potential as a
moral being is encouraged.

Education as a Basic Human Right

∙ Education affords opportunities for the full development of cognitive abilities,

that is, its content and procedures provide an occasion for the development of
knowledge and understanding. Access to society’s knowledge and schemes of
rational/intellectual behaviour is declared in this case as a matter of right.
∙ If a person is not afforded the opportunity/access to knowledge, his/her basic
humanity is degraded. It is because of this, that is, access to knowledge, that
education is a basic human right.
∙ Access to society’s values is another basic right. Man is naturally a moral being
and a full conception of a human being is not complete without an explicit
recognition of this fact.
∙ Education provides access to society’s values; it provides opportunities for the
full development of human moral well-being. Access to values through
education is therefore, a matter of right. It is not a privilege.
∙ Full development of the human person cannot be achieved without
appropriate and sufficient assimilation of social and psychomotor skills. Access
to social and psychomotor skills is in this sense a matter of right.
∙ The content and practice of education provides opportunities for access to
these skills.
∙ In this way, by embodying skills for full development of the human personality,
education becomes a basic human right.

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ACTIVITY

What do you understand by the concept of human rights? Explain how your
understanding of this concept informs teaching as a profession.

SUMMARY

Human rights requirements, therefore, suggest that education is a life long process. It
is tied to the full development of human personality and affirmation of the worth of a
person. Basic education for all as a worldwide policy is meant to
provide/ensure

∙ Basic knowledge and understanding for all.

∙ An appreciation of the basic role of values in the guidance of human conduct
and the preservation of human dignity and worth.
∙ The full development of skills necessary for full participation of the human
person in society’s and personal growth.

FURTHER READING

Njoroge, G. K., & Rutto, S.K. 2001: The democratization process in Africa. Nairobi:
Friends of the Book Publishers.

Sifuna, Daniel 2001: Education for Democracy and Human Rights in African Schools:
The Kenyan Experience, Nairobi, Quest and Insight in association with Friends of the
Book Foundation.

Ong’ong’a, J.J. 1999: Challenges towards democratisation in Africa. In Magesa

&Nthamburi, Z. (Eds.), Democracy and reconciliation. Nairobi: Action Publishers.

EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY

INTRODUCTION

Democracy is a concept that is common in political discourse. However, its meaning

is as varied as the contexts within which it is used. We therefore seek to understand
this concept and more importantly, in so far as it relates to the practice of education.

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OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, learners are expected to be able to:

∙ Explain the concept of democracy

∙ Explain the nexus between the practice of education and democracy.

The Concept of Democracy

∙ Etymologically, the term democracy comes from two Greek words ‘Demos’
meaning ‘the people’ and Kratein meaning to ‘rule’. Then two words are joined
together to form the word democracy, which literally means rule by the
people.
∙ However, the term rule is also not very obvious in its meaning. We may
therefore understand ‘rule’ to mean the exercise of power, authority and
influence. Despite this, there still is a task to interpret and understand the
term ‘the people’.
∙ In Feudal Europe, for instance, democratic movements were denounced, as
they were perceived to be ‘subversive’ of the rule by God’s Vicars and
representatives who ruled by divine powers in aristocratic and absolutist
monarchies.

NOTE

∙ In this lesson, we are more concerned with the concept of democracy insofar
as it finds application in the practice of education.
∙ Today, the need to include the governed in their governance is often received
negatively by administrators and rulers. Perhaps, this is a potential or possible
source of the problem of the conceptualization of democracy.
∙ Following from the historical development of the concept of democracy, there
is an apparent difficulty in ascertaining whether it should refer to a few
individuals taking decisions indiscriminately on behalf of others or to those
who are elected and therefore empowered to lead as representatives of the
society in question.
∙ However, when used to refer to a government, it implies one that is popularly
elected, enjoys the mandate of the majority population or one established on
the wishes of the majority.
∙ Used to refer to a voting exercise, it implies allowing everyone (without any

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discrimination) to participate in expressing their will and then respecting such

an expression and using it as a guide to making decisions regarding losers and
winners.

∙ A popular vote, majority vote, decides the winner as a sign of popular wish or
view of person.
∙ A democratic rule is therefore one that has an explicit respect for diversity of
views, faith in majority wish and enjoys popular support.
∙ It encourages extensive consultation in decision-making and fair distribution of
power and participation.

Democracy in Education

∙ The application of Democracy in Educational Practice was first attempted by

the American Educational Philosopher and Educator, John Dewey (1952-1959).
∙ Traditional Education, against which Dewey reacted, was too authoritarian, too
conservative and lacked the influence of science/[Link],
democratization was a movement that was targeted at political totaltarianism;
Dewey argued that the same could be done from Education.
∙ There was need to liberalise educational relations by giving more freedom to
the child and offering more opportunities for self-expression and
self-determination.
∙ The needs and interests of the child were to take priority as those of society
and the teacher.
∙ Democracy in Education draws its origin from the promotion of equity, fairness
and civil liberties in the political arena.
∙ As such, it was used to describe expectations, standards or norms of political
behaviour and in this context it is an ethical/axiological concept.
∙ Here it is related to liberty/freedom, equality, fairness and justice, that is, to be
democratic implies to allow more freedom of expression, Association and
movement.
∙ It means to distribute opportunity/participation equitably and to distribute
power fairly and justly.
∙ This is intrinsically applicable to education because it draws primary
participants from many social groups (children, teachers, parents,
administrators etc).
∙ These groups have competing/conflicting interests which often require

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democratic solutions.

∙ Democracy is also an epistemological concept in that it is related to

open-mindedness; tolerance independence of mind, that is, democracy has
faith in individual expression and self-directed behaviour where a person
makes decisions, choices and judgements for himself/herself.
∙ It involves accepting oneself and asserting oneself ad a self-directed agent. In
other words, Democracy has to do with cognitive attitudes, beliefs and
dispositions that promote objectivity, open-mindedness and independence of
thought.
∙ Democracy is an organizational concept. It has to do with organising
society/people/institutions in a way that ensures equitable participation of
members.
∙ It is rooted in the belief in the tapping of diversity/variety of talents, abilities
and suggestions.
∙ Used properly, democracy has the capacity of motivating human action and
enhancing a sense of belonging and ownership. In this way, /democracy is
opposed to autocracy and totalitarianism.
∙ It is a process of distributing power in an organisation in a way that ensures
fair participation and appropriate commitments.
∙ It promotes collective entitlements to do things.
∙ Democracy is an ontological concept. It refers to a mode of life/existence.
Here it involves recognising others as human beings and not objects. One can
not have faith in majority participation/ view unless he/she first recognises
individuals (in this majority) as human beings.
∙ Democracy involves respecting others and taking all interests as mutually
important. One’s own interests are constantly referred to as those of others,
that is, democracy is opposed to selfishness and egocentricism. It is a process
of living others lives, sharing in the joy and frustrations of others. That is, it
involves empathising with people.

∙ As an axiological/ethical concept, democracy provides an occasion(s) for the

practice of the principles of justice, equality, freedom and liberty and fairness
in an educational context.
∙ It is the ideal/goal of education to promote Democratic attitudes and behaviour
through its content and practice, attitudes and behaviour that constitute a
mode of existence that is founded on the above mentioned values.
∙ There are various levels at which this can happen in educational contexts.

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Specifically, this can happen amongst the stakeholders in education. For

instance: Among Teachers, Students and Students, Students and teachers/
School administration, school heads and Teachers/ PTA, BOG etc All these are
stakeholders in education who ought to learn to practice ideals of democracy
in order to promote effectiveness and efficiency in their interactions/joint
tasks.

∙ As an ontological concept, Democracy promotes a caring environment. People

tend to feel a sense of closeness and togetherness because they live each
others lives.
∙ Such a situation also tends to promote a sense of belonging and enhances
active participation and high levels of commitment. Active participation and
commitment of staff, students and parents may be enhanced through
Democratization practices.
∙ Organizational features of Democracy also have a tendency of promoting
effectiveness and efficiency of institutions if applied appropriately. They also
tend to promote a sense of belonging and active participation.
∙ In general, therefore, Democracy occurs as a viable ideal of Education. It also
defines the nature of relationships that enhance the true spirit and practice of
education, in particular, those aspects of educational behaviour that promote
dialogue and fair participation in the practice of education.

ACTIVITY

Discuss the various ways in which democratic attitudes and behaviour can be
promoted amongst the various stakeholders in education.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have learnt that:

∙ It is the ideal/goal of education to promote Democratic attitudes and behaviour

through its content and practice, attitudes and behaviour that constitute a
mode of existence that is founded on the above mentioned values. There are
various levels at which this can happen in educational contexts.
∙ Specifically, this can happen amongst the stakeholders in education. For
instance: Among Teachers, Students and Students, Students and teachers/
School administration, school heads and Teachers/ PTA, BOG etc All these are
stakeholders in education who ought to learn to practice ideals of democracy

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in order to promote effectiveness and efficiency in their interactions/joint

tasks.

FURTHER READING

Njoroge, G. K., & Rutto, S.K. 2001: The democratization process in Africa. Nairobi:
Friends of the Book Publishers.

Sifuna, Daniel 2001: Education for Democracy and Human Rights in African Schools:
The Kenyan Experience, Nairobi, Quest and Insight in association with Friends of the
Book Foundation.

Ong’ong’a, J.J. 1999: Challenges towards democratization in Africa. In Magesa &

Nthamburi, Z. (Eds.), Democracy and reconciliation. Nairobi: Action Publishers.

EDUCATION AND THE ETHIC OF CARE

INTRODUCTION

In lesson eight, we learnt about teleological theories and deontological theories of

moral obligation. In the course of that discussion, we distinguished between the two
sets of theories while maintaining the commonality that both of them guide us in
trying to identify and justify the criteria of what is morally right, wrong, obligatory etc.
These two sets of theories therefore try to approach moral discussion from an
impartial point of view in a bid to ensure justice. However, in the 1970s and 80s,
feminist writers began to question the assumptions behind many of such traditional
normative ethical theories as teleologism and deontologism. They challenged such
"justice-based" approaches to moral discussion as lacking in the aspect of care by
their emphasis on remaining detached from the moral situations. Our main concern
in this lesson therefore is ethics of care either as an alternative or complementary
moral theory.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Lesson, the student should be able to:

∙ Explain the ethics of care as a moral theory

∙ Identify the characteristics of ethics of care as a moral theory
∙ Correctly relate ethics of care to the process of education

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CONTENT

What is Ethics of Care?

∙ The ethics of care, as presented in the introductory section of this lesson points
to a normative ethical theory; that is, a theory about what makes actions right
or wrong.
∙ It is one of a cluster of normative ethical theories alongside with teleological
and deontological theories and which was developed by feminists in the late
twentieth century.
∙ While teleological (consequentialist) and deontological ethical theories
emphasize universal standards and impartiality in making moral judgments on
human actions, ethics of care emphasizes the importance of response that is
characterized by care.
∙ Accordingly, this shift in the moral perspective is manifested in the change in
the moral question from "what is just?" to "how to respond?”. Put in this way,
ethics of care does not readily embrace the application of universal standards
as it is "morally problematic, since it breeds moral blindness or indifference."

NOTE

The notion of ‘ethics of care’ derives its name from placing the phenomenon of care at
the centre of ethical reflection. Point of departure is the observation that human
existence is characterized by all kinds of informal care which are as undervalued as
important for the well-being of human beings.

∙ Accordingly, morality must also embrace notions of caring and responsibility

rather than rights and rules. This ethic of care and responsibility develops from
an individual’s feeling of connectedness with others hence responsibility to
others.
∙ It therefore emphasizes the position of a person as part of an interdependent
relationship that affects now decisions are made
∙ It somewhat contrasts with an ethic of justice which emphasizes autonomy that
arises from application of objective principles that emphasize individual rights

Characteristics of Ethics of Care as a moral theory

One Philosopher and educator of the 21st century who has devoted some time on
exploring the notion of ethics of care and its manifestations in the process of

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education is Nel Noddings. Her argument starts from two main premises thus:

∙ Care is basic in human life and that all people want to be cared for.
∙ Human beings are guided by some ‘natural’ form of caring that does not
require an ethical effort to motivate it. However, it may require considerable
physical and mental effort in responding to needs. This ‘Natural caring’
assumes the character of a moral attitude, that is, ‘a longing for goodness that
arises out of the experience or memory of being cared for’
∙ It is on this basis that Nel Noddings explored the notion of ethical caring that is
essentially a state of being in relation, characterized by receptivity and
relatedness. Nel Noddings together with others as proponents of an ethic of
care emphasize;
∙ The role of mutual interdependence and emotional response that play an
important part in our moral lives, after all, many human relationships involve
persons who are vulnerable, dependent, ill, frail and voiceless.
∙ The desirable moral response is attached attentiveness to needs and not a
detached respect for rights since acting from rule-governed obligations without
appropriately aligned feelings such as worry when a friend suffers seems to
have a moral deficiency.

Insight into the needs of others and considerate alertness to their circumstances
often come from the emotions more than reason in such a way that emotions seem to
have a ‘cognitive role.’ This allows grasping a situation that may not be immediately
available to one arguing solely from a ‘justice perspective.’

NOTE

The characteristics of care ethics can be summarized in three points: First, it views the
human being as an interdependent being who values caring relationships. Second, it
recognizes the moral value of emotional feelings and emotion-based virtues such as
benevolence, empathy, receptivity, and sensitivity and finally, it recognizes the moral
value of partiality in intimate relationships, such as those defined by family ties and
close friendships.

Ethic of Care and Education

§ Education is partly a moral process where moral thinking is developed and also
exercised as well as making of moral decisions. An ethic of care applied to the
process of education provides an alternative form of moral reasoning that

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recognizes and defines the nature of relations in the practice of education both
within and outside the formal setting of the school.

§ Education is certainly a social process; a true spirit of education must recognize

the need to forge relationships between subjects engaging in personalized
endeavors of mutual benefit but which tries to balance emotion and reason.
§ In practice therefore the moral thinking and response exercised in an
educational context must seek to promote attentiveness and sensitivity to the
experiences that children bring with them to class.
§ And in such circumstances, a caring relationship between the teacher and the
learner must be guided by, according to Chege (2006), the question: ‘what is the
right thing to do under the specific circumstances’, rather than ‘what is the
objective expectation of this of circumstances’.
§ In other words while the teacher is guided by elaborate codes of conduct
he/she is obliged to treat each moral behaviour in its own merit and thus
personalize his/her response to it accordingly. This promotes the feeling of
being valued on the part of the learners.

ACTIVITY

Demonstrate how an ethic of care as a mode of moral thinking relates to the practice
of education.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have learnt that:

∙ While teleological and deontological ethical theories emphasize universal

standards, objectivity and impartiality in making moral judgments on human
actions, ethics of care emphasizes the importance of response that is
characterized by care.
∙ As a social process; education must recognize the need to forge relationships
between subjects engaging in personalized endeavors of mutual benefit but
which tries to balance emotion and reason

FURTHER READING

Sifuna D. et al (Ed) 2006: Themes in the study of the Foundations of Education.

Jomo Kenyatta Foundation – NairobiBennaars, G.A. (1998). Schools in Need of

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Education: Towards an African Pedagogy. Lectern Publications Limited, Nairobi.

Noddings, Nel. Caring, a Feminine Approach to Ethics & Moral Education. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1984.
Noddings, Nel (1999) ‘Two concepts of caring’, Philosophy of Education,
[Link] Accessed December 6,
2004.

∙ LECTURE 20:SELF-TEST Quiz

EDUCATION AND THE PROBLEM OF HIV AND AIDS

INTRODUCTION

In lesson fourteen, we learnt about education and human consciousness. In the

course of our study, we noted that education is essentially a process of development
of human consciousness. Consciousness is commonly expressed as awareness hence
education as a process of raising human awareness of the happenings within the
environment. It is thus in this sense that we talk of gender awareness. In this lesson,
we shall focus on HIV and AIDS awareness within the school context. In other words,
the lesson seeks to make reflections on the process of HIV and AIDS awareness as
done within the school from a philosophical perspective.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

§ Explain the notion of HIV and AIDS awareness

§ Critically examine the position that despite possession of high levels knowledge
about HIV and AIDS people still exhibit behavior that puts them at risk of HIV
infection.
§ Explain how HIV and Awareness efforts can be organized so as to promote a
responsible action on the part of the people.

The HIV and AIDS situation in Kenya

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§ The problem of HIV and AIDS has been such an overwhelming one especially in
the so-called developing countries with various efforts such as scientific
(medical), educational and even religious, has been made and continue to be
made with varying degrees of success.
§ Nevertheless, the hard impact of this problem still continues to be felt around
the globe indiscriminately
§ While education is one of the dimensions of the efforts to mitigate the spread
and effect of HIV and AIDS, such educational efforts have taken the form of
dissemination of HIV and AIDS information to people in various ways and
contexts
§ However, in view of the observation that these educational efforts have not
quite succeeded in developing the desired levels and types of awareness in
people, various questions abound as to why this is so.
§ Philosophically speaking, in conceptualizing HIV and AIDS awareness process
as an educational process, it is necessary to seek to ascertain whether the
approaches and presuppositions that have defined the practice of HIV and
AIDS awareness are authentic versions.
§ To do this, we need to examine the process of HIV and AIDS awareness (AIDS
Education) in terms of its conceptualization and approaches versus the relative
levels/types of awareness (consciousness) the process has promoted in the
people.

NOTE

Despite possession of high levels knowledge about HIV and AIDS people still exhibit
behavior and attitude that puts them at risk of HIV infection.

Common Practices in HIV and AIDS Awareness as

§ When the first case of HIV and AIDS was detected and reported in Kenya
around 1984, many people were uninformed about it hence their awareness
(consciousness) of the problem of HIV and AIDS constituted such a magical
type of consciousness.
§ Later, enough information was generated about HIV and AIDS and was
disseminated to the people as HIV and AIDS awareness (conscientization)
§ However, an examination of this process of dissemination reveals that for quite
some time, this information has been presented on the billboards and
signposts and in occasional campaigns out there as well as in the media.

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§ At the same time, as part of the curriculum, aspects of HIV and AIDS were
integrated in some subjects such as Biology and even SEE. However, the
teaching approaches used often tended to be teacher-centered.
§ Despite all these efforts, studies such as MOEST (2001) indicated that despite
evidence of adequate HIV and AIDS knowledge as well as awareness efforts,
people still exhibit behavior and attitudes that put them at risk of HIV infection

§ In such a situation, we can argue that the knowledge has not promoted in the
people full awareness of HIV and AIDS awareness but just a partial and short
term type of awareness that only draws their attention to the problematic
reality of HIV and AIDS without empowering them to act on it. It is a naïve type
of awareness.

§ There is need to work beyond this type of awareness (consciousness) to a more

critical one that is transformative in nature.

§ Awareness (consciousness) is one of the attributes of the human mind. As such,

to develop critical consciousness on the part of the learners implies that we
aim at developing knowledge and understanding of the HIV and AIDS reality on
the part of the learners as well as their attitudes, skills and dispositions.

§ For this reason, HIV and AIDS awareness processes must seek to enable the
learners perceive the content of learning as a tool for their own liberation

§ In the light of these two considerations, the content of teaching/learning

should consist of dispositions and the right attitudes as well as life skills that
learners need to develop beyond the usual facts and statistics about HIV and
AIDS.

§ Teaching and learning approaches must be carefully selected prioritizing those

that provide experiences through which learners can be guided in seeking to
foster the acquisition of the relevant dispositions.

§ The approaches should also be capable of providing learners with the

opportunity to search for the knowledge they are in need of thereby filling the
gaps in their knowledge and consequently building confidence in applying it.
§ The approaches should also be those that promote the development of critical
thinking skills and reflexive tendencies on the part of the learners
§ All these approaches, in totality, ensure that learners develop the capacity to

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apply the theoretical knowledge learnt in class thereby bridging the gap
between knowledge and practice.

SUMMARY

In this lesson, we have learnt that the educational efforts that have so far gone into
making people aware of the HIV and AIDS problem have not quite succeeded in
developing the desired levels and types of awareness in people, HIV and AIDS
awareness must seek to develop knowledge and understanding that leads people to
critical awareness of the HIV and AIDS reality thus enabling them adopt lifestyles that
are compatible with preventive practices in relation to the HIV and AIDS problem
(AIDS Education as conscientization

ACTIVITY

How should HIV and AIDS Awareness be organized so as to develop critical

consciousness on the part of the people (learners) concerning the problem of HIV and
AIDS?

FURTHER READING

Freire, P. (1974), Education for Critical Consciousness, Sheed and Ward Limited,
London.

K.I.E (1999a), AIDS Education: Facilitator’s Handbook, An AIDS Education Project for
Youth In and Out of School, Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi.

_____ (1999b), AIDS Education Syllabus for Schools and Colleges,Kenya Literature
Bureau, Nairobi.

Ministry of Health (MoH), (2001), AIDS in Kenya: Background, Projections, Impact,

Interventions, Policy (6th Ed), (NASCOP), Nairobi.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST) (2001), Education for All (EFA)
in Kenya.

A Handbook on EFA 2000 and Beyond, [Link], R. (1996), AIDS - Understanding

the Challenge, ACE Communications Limited, Nairobi.

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