Basic knowledge 2

동영상
 Thermodynamic properties of a fluid1
The velocity field V is the most important fluid property because
it interacts closely with other thermodynamic properties of the
fluid.

The three most common properties

◆ Pressure(p): compression stress at a point in a static fluid
◆ Temperature(T): corresponds to internal energy level of a fluid
◆ Density(): mass per unit volume
◆Specific weight: =g
◆Specific gravity(SG): Ratio of a fluid density to a standard
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
reference fluid ex) 𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Four other intensive thermodynamic
properties become important when work,
heat, and energy balances are treated:

◆Internal energy(u)
◆Enthalpy(h=u+p/)
◆Entropy(s)
◆Specific heats: cp, cv
Transport properties: friction and heat conduction effects

◆Coefficient of viscosity(), thermal conductivity(k)

◆All nine of these quantities are determined by the thermodynamic
condition or state of the fluid.
◆For a single-phase substance, two basic properties such as pressure
and temperature are sufficient to fix the value of all the others.
 Thermodynamic properties of a fluid2
The total stored energy per
unit mass in fluid mechanics:
e=u+1/2V2+gz

State relations for gases (for

ideal gas) 
◆p=RT, R=cp-cv=specific gas Rgas =
M gas
constant
8314𝐽
◆Each gas has its own gas (Λ: 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
)
constant.
◆u=u(T), cv=du/dT
◆h=u+p/=u+RT=h(T), cp=dh/dT
◆Specific heat ratio: k=cp/cv
State relations for liquids
◆Liquids are nearly incompressible and have a single,
reasonably constant specific heat.
◆Density of a liquid usually decreases slightly with temperature
and increases moderately with pressure.
◆𝜌 ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑐𝑝 ≈ 𝑐𝑣 ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑑ℎ ≈ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇
◆Empirical pressure density relation
𝑝 𝜌 𝑛
◆ ≈ 𝐵+1 −𝐵
𝑝𝑎 𝜌𝑎
B~3000, n~7 for water
 Viscosity
 Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
 Water has 50 times higher viscosity than that of air.
 Viscosity of gas: due to momentum exchange between molecules
 Viscosity of liquid: Momentum exchange between
molecules+cohesive forces between molecules. Cohesive forces
dominate.
 Effect of temperature change: gas-up, liquid-down
 Variation of viscosity with temperature
• Little dependence on pressure
• Strong dependence on temperature
• Gas: increase with temperature

𝑇 𝑛 Power law
𝑇0
𝜇
– = 𝑇 2
3
Sutherland law
𝜇0 (𝑇0 +𝑆)
𝑇0
𝑇+𝑆
• Liquid: decrease with temperature, 𝜇 ≈ 𝑎𝑒 −𝑏𝑇
𝜇 𝑇0 𝑇0 2
– Better fit: 𝑙𝑛 ≈𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐
𝜇0 𝑇 𝑇
 Newtonian fluid1

𝛿𝑢𝛿𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿𝜃 = = 𝛿𝜃
𝛿𝑦

Relationship between shear strain rate and velocity gradient

 Reynolds number
primary parameter correlating the viscous behavior of all Newtonian fluids

𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = = , V:characterisic velocity, L:characteristic
𝜇 𝜈
length
𝜇
𝜈 = :kinematic viscosity, no mass unit, {L2/T}
𝜌
One of the most important non-dimensional numbers
in fluid mechanics
Low Re: creep flow (similar with solid movement)
Medium Re: laminar flow
High Re: turbulent flow
 Fluid between plates
in laminar flow regime
• Fluid sandwiched between plates
• No slip on the plates:
Fluids have the same velocity
With solid boundary
• By the force balance, shear
stress is uniform
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝜏
• 𝜏= 𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 -> = =𝑐
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝜇
• By integration, 𝑢 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑦
𝑦
• By boundary conditions, a=0, b=V/h, 𝑢 = 𝑉
ℎ
(BCs: u=0 at y=0, u=V at y=h)
Example problem
Area of the plate: 0.3mX0.6m

0.01
Nonnewtonian fluids

𝒅𝒖
𝝁=𝝁 𝒐𝒓 = 𝝁(𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞)
𝒅𝒖
Ex) suspension in corn starch, sand in water, quicksand
Ex) polymer solutions, colloidal suspensions, syrup, etc

Deformation starts only when the applied stress is above

critical value. Ex) toothpaste, catsup
 Surface tension
• A liquid will form an interface with a second liquid or gas
• Molecules on the surface have bonds with less molecules than deeper
ones: to keep equilibrium, they attract
• γ = coefficient of surface tension
• 0.073N/m for air-water, 0.48N/m for air-mercury
 Surface tension
If a cut of length dL is made in an interfacial surface,
equal and opposite forces of magnitude γdL are
exposed normal to the cut and parallel to the surface.
Liquid cylinder
Weight of liquid
is neglected.
Spherical droplet

Soap bubble

- Pressure change across a curved interface due to surface

(
p =  R1−1 + R2−1 )
tension (Fig. 1.11)

Contact angle
<90°: wetting - hydrophilic
>90°: nonwetting - hydrophobic
 Ex. 1.8
• Derive an expression for the change in height h in a circular tube of a liquid with surface
tension and contact angle
Capillary tubes in tree

~50m

Stem
Leaf
 Surface tension phenomena

Tear of wine

Soak of paper towel

 Vapor pressure =

Vapor pressure atmospheric pressure

The pressure at which a liquid boils and is in

equilibrium with its own vapor – If the liquid
pressure is greater than the vapor pressure, the
only exchange between liquid and vapor is
evaporation at the interface. If, however, the
liquid pressure falls below the vapor pressure,
vapor bubbles begin to appear in the liquid

Cavitation:
When the liquid pressure is dropped below the
vapor pressure due to a flow phenomenon, we
call the process “cavitation”.

𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑣
𝐶𝑎 (𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟) =
1 2
𝜌𝑉
2

𝑃𝑎 : ambient pressure
𝑃𝑣 : vapor pressure
V : characteristic flow
velocity
Examples of erosion by cavitation

Temp >10,000 C
Pres > 1000 bar
Cavitation bubble by pistol shrimp
No slip, no temp. jump
 When a fluid is bounded by a
solid surface, molecular
interactions cause the fluid in
contact with the surface to
seek momentum and energy
equilibrium with that surface.
 No-slip condition
 No-temperature-jump
condition

Upper flow: turbulent

Lower flow: laminar
 Slip flow in gases
• Wall slip occurs in rarefied gases, whose mean free path
lengths are long enough
• Slip velocity at the wall by Clerk Maxwell
𝜕𝑢
• 𝛿𝑢𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≈ 𝑙 ȁ𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝜕𝑦
• When Knudsen number 𝐾𝑛 = 𝑙/𝐿 is small, slip velocity
is ~zero.
• Example: nanoscale gas flow, aircraft at high altitudes
 Speed of sound
• Compressibility effect (significant density changes
caused by the flow) – It becomes important if the flow
velocity reaches a significant fraction of a
(Ma=V/a=0.3)
• Speed of sound a is the rate of propagation of small-
disturbance pressure pulses (“sound waves”) through
the fluid
 p   p  cp
a =
2
 =k  ,k =
   s   T cv
• Mach number: Ma=V/a
aideal = kRT
For air at 20C, 𝑎 =
1.4 × 287 × 293 = 343𝑚/𝑠
Basic flow analysis technique
(Chap. 3)
(Chap. 4)

(Chap. 5)
Flow pattern

Streamlines, pathlines,
and streak lines are
identical in steady flow
 Flow patterns
at t4

p1
p3 p2
p0

t2
t1 t4
t0 t3

pathline
 Streamline
Timeline

Streakline
 Streamline & pathline
- Streamline: most
common mathematical
result for visualization
purpose
- If the elemental arc
length dr of a streamline
is to be parallel to V,

× ×
Pathline, or displacement of a particle, is defined by

for 3-D
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑢, = 𝑣, =𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Example
• Given the steady two-dimesional velocity distribution
𝑢 = 𝐾𝑥 𝑣 = −𝐾𝑦 𝑤=0
Where K is a positive constant, compute and plot the streamlines of the flow, including
directions, and give some possible interpretations of the pattern.
 Flow visualization
Dye, smoke, or bubble discharge
Surface powder or flakes on liquid flows
Floating or neutral-density particles
Optical techniques that detect density
changes in gas flows: shadowgraph,
schlieren, and interferometer
Tufts of yarn attached to boundary surfaces
Evaporative coatings on boundary surfaces
Luminescent fluids, additives, or
bioluminescence
Particle image velocimetry (PIV)
Visualization example
 Smoke tunnel
Tin-oxide particles

Shadow graph

Air bubbles in water

Schlieren method

Bernard-cell:
natural convection

Ink drop in water

 Visualization examples

• Fluid mechanics-turbulence-cool science trick

[Link]

• Fluid mechanics-cool science experiment

[Link]

• ePIV demo: Flow around various obstacles

[Link]

• NCSU Supersonic Wind tunnel

[Link]