Science Study Guide for Term-2

Chapters: 3+4+5 (3.1 excluded)

____________________________________________

Chapter 5: Reactivity

5.1: Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

Introduction

Reactivity in chemistry refers to the tendency of substances to undergo chemical change, forming new
substances with different properties. Understanding reactivity is crucial for predicting how elements and
compounds interact in chemical reactions. One of the most illustrative types of chemical reactions
demonstrating reactivity is displacement reactions, where a more reactive element displaces a less reactive
element from its compound.

Reactivity of Metals and Non-metals

Metals

The reactivity of metals generally depends on how easily they lose electrons to form positive ions (cations).
Alkali metals, such as sodium and potassium, are highly reactive because they have a single electron in their
outermost shell, which is easily lost. Transition metals, in contrast, are less reactive due to their more stable
electron configurations.

Non-metals

For non-metals, reactivity is linked to their ability to gain electrons and form negative ions (anions).
Halogens, like fluorine and chlorine, are highly reactive because they require only one electron to complete
their outermost shell.

Key Point: Reactivity trends can be observed across periods and down groups in the periodic table.

Displacement Reactions

Definition

A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive element replaces a less reactive element in a
compound. These reactions provide clear evidence of relative reactivity among elements.
 1. Metal Displacement:
o A metal higher in the reactivity series displaces a metal lower in the series from its
compound.
o Example:

Zn+CuSO4 → ZnSO4+CuZn + CuSO

Zinc displaces copper from copper sulfate solution because zinc is more reactive.

2. Non-metal Displacement:
o A more reactive non-metal displaces a less reactive non-metal from its compound.
o Example:

Cl2+2KBr→2KCl+Br2Cl_2 + 2KBr \rightarrow 2KCl + Br_2Cl2+2KBr→2KCl+Br2

Chlorine displaces bromine due to higher reactivity.

Factors Affecting Displacement

 Position in Reactivity Series: Higher placement increases displacement ability.

 Concentration and Temperature: Higher concentration or heat can accelerate the reaction.

Practical Applications

 Extraction of Metals: Displacement reactions are used in metallurgy, e.g., extracting iron from its
oxide using carbon.
 Bleaching and Water Treatment: Chlorine displacement reactions help in disinfection and
cleaning.
 Battery Chemistry: Redox displacement reactions form the basis of galvanic cells.

Rank Element / Metal Notes/Reactions

1 Potassium (K) Extremely reactive; reacts violently with water
2 Sodium (Na) Very reactive; floats and fizzes in water
3 Calcium (Ca) Reacts with water, less violently than K/Na
4 Magnesium (Mg) Reacts slowly with cold water; faster with steam
5 Aluminium (Al) Forms protective oxide layer; reacts with acids and hot alkalis
6 Zinc (Zn) Reacts with acids to produce hydrogen gas
7 Iron (Fe) Slowly displaces less reactive metals; rusts in moisture
8 Tin (Sn) Low reactivity; displaces only very weak metals
9 Lead (Pb) Very low reactivity; reacts mostly with strong acids
10 Hydrogen (H) Not a metal; metals above it can displace it from acids
11 Copper (Cu) Unreactive with water and weak acids; easily displaced
12 Silver (Ag) Very low reactivity; reacts only with strong oxidizing agents
13 Gold (Au) Chemically inert; rarely reacts
14 Platinum (Pt) Extremely unreactive; used in catalytic converters
15 Carbon (C) Non-metal; reduces metal oxides below it in the series
 Element /
Ran Notes / Displacement Ability
Metal
k
1 Potassium (K) Can displace all metals below it
2 Sodium (Na) Can displace all metals below it except K
3 Calcium (Ca) Can displace all metals below it except K, Na
Magnesium
4 Can displace all metals below it except K, Na, Ca
(Mg)
Aluminium Can displace metals below it (Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag,
5
(Al) Au, Pt)
Non-metal; reduces oxides of metals below it (Zn,
6 Carbon (C)
Fe, Sn, Pb)
7 Zinc (Zn) Can displace Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt
8 Iron (Fe) Can displace Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt
9 Tin (Sn) Can displace Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt
10 Lead (Pb) Can displace Cu, Ag, Au, Pt
11 Hydrogen (H) Metals above H can displace H from acids
12 Copper (Cu) Can displace Ag, Au, Pt
13 Silver (Ag) Can displace Au, Pt
14 Gold (Au) Can displace Pt only
15 Platinum (Pt) Cannot displace any metal; inert

Conclusion

Reactivity and displacement reactions offer essential insights into chemical behavior. By understanding
which elements are more reactive, chemists can predict reaction outcomes, design industrial processes, and
apply chemistry in everyday life, from metal extraction to energy storage.

5.2: Using the Reactivity Series and Displacement Reactions

Introduction
The reactivity of metals determines how they are extracted from their ores. Highly reactive metals require
more energy-intensive methods, while less reactive metals can often be extracted with simpler chemical
reactions. Understanding displacement reactions and the reactivity series helps explain why certain
extraction methods are chosen.

Methods of Extraction

1. Metals Less Reactive Than Carbon

 Metals below carbon in the reactivity series (e.g., iron, tin, lead) can be extracted by reduction
using carbon.
 Example: Extraction of iron from iron(III) oxide:


Key Idea: Carbon displaces the metal because it is more reactive in the reduction context.

2. Metals More Reactive Than Carbon

 Metals above carbon in the reactivity series (e.g., sodium, magnesium, aluminium) cannot be
extracted with carbon.
 Require electrolysis of molten compounds.
 Example: Extraction of aluminium:

 Energy-Intensive: Because these metals strongly hold onto oxygen.

3. Displacement Method

 A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound, similar to lab-scale
reactions.
 Example: Zinc displacing copper from copper sulfate solution:

Practical Applications

 Metallurgy: Choosing the right extraction method saves energy and cost.
 Industrial production: Aluminium, iron, and copper are extracted using methods suited to their
reactivity.
 Laboratory demonstrations: Displacement reactions help teach reactivity in a visual way.

5.3: Salts
Introduction
Salts are ionic compounds formed when the hydrogen ion (H⁺) of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or
another positive radical. They are neutral compounds and play a vital role in chemistry, biology, and
industry.

General Formula:

Example:

Types of Salts
1. Normal Salts
o Formed when all hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by metal ions.
o Example: NaCl (from HCl and NaOH)

2. Acid Salts
o Formed when only part of the hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced.
o Example: NaHSO₄ (acid sodium sulfate)

3. Basic Salts
o Formed when not all hydroxide ions of a base are replaced.
o Example: Cu₂(OH)Cl (basic copper chloride)

4. Double Salts
o Contain two different cations or anions.
o Example: KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O (potash alum)

5. Hydrated Salts
o Salts that contain water molecules in their crystal lattice.
o Example: CuSO₄·5H₂O (blue vitriol)

Preparation of Salts
1. Direct Method (Reaction of Metal with Acid)
  How it works: A reactive metal reacts directly with an acid to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
 Reaction Example:


Notes:
o Works for metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series.
o Produces normal salts.

2. Neutralization Method (Reaction of Acid with Base)

 How it works: An acid reacts with a base (metal hydroxide) to form a salt and water.
 Reaction Example:

Notes:

o Works for strong and weak acids/bases.

o Produces normal salts.

3. Direct Combination of Elements

 How it works: Some salts can form by direct reaction of a metal with a non-metal.
 Reaction Example:

Notes:
o Usually involves highly reactive metals and non-metals.
o Produces normal salts directly without water.

Properties of Salts
 Usually crystalline solids at room temperature
 High melting and boiling points (ionic bonding)
 Conduct electricity when molten or in solution
 Generally soluble in water, except some (BaSO₄, AgCl)

Applications of Salts
 Table salt (NaCl): flavoring, preservation
 Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O): plaster and cement
 Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃): glass manufacturing
  Potassium nitrate (KNO₃): fertilizers and explosives
 Copper sulfate (CuSO₄): fungicide and electroplating

Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water to release OH⁻ ions, while bases in general may or may not
dissolve in water. Hydroxides form when metals react with oxygen and water or when bases dissolve
in water, producing OH⁻ ions.

Common Acids (5)

1. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – Used in cleaning metals and in stomach digestion (diluted).
2. Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) – Used in car batteries and making fertilizers.
3. Nitric acid (HNO₃) – Used in making explosives, dyes, and fertilizers.
4. Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) – Used as vinegar in food and in chemical manufacturing.
5. Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) – Used in fertilizers, soft drinks, and rust removal.

Common Bases and Alkalis (5)

1. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) – A strong alkali; used in soap making and drain cleaners.
2. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) – used in fertilizers and soft soaps.
3. Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) – used in plaster, cement, and water treatment.
4. Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) – used as an antacid and laxative.
5. Ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH) – Weak base/alkali; used in cleaning agents and fertilizers.

Common Salts (5)

1. Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Table salt; used in cooking and food preservation.
2. Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) – Used in glass making and detergents.
3. Copper sulfate (CuSO₄) – Used as a fungicide, algicide, and in electroplating.
4. Potassium nitrate (KNO₃) – Used in fertilizers and explosives.
5. Calcium sulfate (CaSO₄) – Used in plaster, cement, and building materials.

Salts are important because they are widely used in daily life, industry, and agriculture
—for example, as food preservatives, fertilizers, and in making glass, soap, and
medicines. They also help maintain chemical balance in nature and in living organisms.

5.4: Other Ways of Making Salts

Introduction

Salts can be prepared in many ways besides the usual direct reaction of metals with acids or neutralization.
These methods are particularly useful when working with less reactive metals, metal compounds, or when
certain salts are insoluble in water.
1. From Metal Oxides

 How it works: Metal oxides react with acids to form a salt and water.
 Example:

Notes: Works for less reactive metals; produces normal salts.

2. From Metal Carbonates

 How it works: Metal carbonates react with acids to form a salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas.
 Example:

Notes: Commonly used for carbonate ores; effervescence of CO₂ is a key indicator.

3. Precipitation Method

 How it works: Two soluble salts react in solution to form an insoluble salt, which precipitates out.
 Example:

Notes: Used when a direct acid reaction isn’t practical; produces salts that are insoluble in water.

Conclusion

These alternative methods expand the ways salts can be produced depending on the reactivity, solubility,
and availability of metals or compounds. Understanding these methods is essential for laboratory
experiments and industrial applications, making salt preparation versatile and practical.
5.5: Rearranging Atoms

Introduction
Chemical reactions involve atoms being rearranged to form new substances. No atoms are lost or gained—
they are just reorganized. This is why balancing chemical equations is important: it shows that the same
number of each type of atom exists before and after the reaction.

1. Word Equations

 Shows reactants and products in words.

 Example 1: Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
 Example 2: Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas

2. Symbol Equations

 Uses chemical symbols and formulas.

 Example 1:

 Example 2:

3. Balancing Equations

Steps:

1. Write the unbalanced equation with correct formulas.

2. Count the atoms of each element on both sides.
3. Adjust coefficients (numbers in front) to balance the atoms.
4. Check that each element has the same number of atoms on both sides.

Example: Combustion of methane:

 Word equation: Methane + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water

 Unbalanced symbol equation:

 Balanced equation:
4. Tips for Balancing

 Start with elements that appear in only one reactant and one product.
 Leave hydrogen and oxygen last because they often appear in multiple compounds.
 Never change chemical formulas; only change coefficients.

5. Common Reactions to Practice

1. Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

2. Iron + Sulfur → Iron(II) sulfide

3. Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

4. Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen chloride

5. Sodium carbonate + Phosphoric acid → Sodium phosphate + Water + Carbon dioxide

Conclusion

Balancing chemical equations is a way of showing that atoms are conserved during reactions. Using word
and symbol equations helps us understand what reacts, what forms, and how many atoms are involved.
Practice with common reactions makes balancing easier and builds a strong foundation for more advanced
chemistry.

💡 Quick tip:

 Binary acids: H + non-metal (HCl, HBr, HF) → no oxygen

 Oxoacids: H + oxygen + non-metal (H₂SO₄, HNO₃) → oxygen present
Guide to Crystallization
1. What is Crystallization?

Crystallization is the process where dissolved ions or molecules arrange themselves into a solid, orderly
lattice (a crystal). It’s a way to purify a substance or extract it from solution.

2. Types of Crystallization

Type How it Works Example Tips

Slowly evaporate solvent → solute NaCl from Slow evaporation → bigger
Evaporative
becomes concentrated → crystals form seawater, CaCl₂ crystals
Dissolve solute in hot solvent → cool →
Works best if solubility
Cooling solute can’t stay dissolved → crystals Sugar or alum
drops with temp
form
Mix two solutions → insoluble salt forms BaCl₂ + Na₂SO₄ Control mixing rate for
Precipitation
→ solid crystals → BaSO₄ bigger crystals
Purify a solid: dissolve in hot solvent → Purifying sugar, Cool slowly, avoid rapid
Recrystallization
filter → cool → pure crystals lab chemicals formation for pure crystals
Solid → vapor → solid crystals upon Rare, requires special
Sublimation Iodine
cooling conditions

3. General Steps for Crystallization

1. Choose the solvent: Usually water, but depends on solute solubility.

2. Dissolve solute: Heat may help dissolve more.
3. Filter (optional): Remove insoluble impurities.
4. Concentrate solution: Either by slow evaporation or cooling.
5. Crystals form: Let them grow undisturbed.
6. Separate crystals: Filter or decant.
7. Dry crystals: Air dry or gently heat, depending on hygroscopic nature.

4. Key Tips

 Slow is better: Slow growth → bigger, purer crystals.

 Don’t disturb: Moving solution can break crystals.
 Watch hygroscopic salts: Some absorb water from air (like CaCl₂).
 Purity: Recrystallization can remove impurities.

5. Quick Notes

 Water molecules often act as solvent during crystallization—they aren’t lost chemically.
 Oxygen in water stays in H₂O, helping ions float until crystals form.
 Some salts (like CaCl₂) are very soluble, so evaporation is more effective than cooling.