INTEROFICE MEMORANDUM
THE METROPOLITAN SANITARY DISTRICT OF
GREATER CHICAGO
DEPARTMENT: Engineering DATE: April 6, 1978
TO: Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami, P.E.
Engineer of Local Sewers
From: Joseph R. Rakoczy, P.E.
Senior Civil Engineer
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTION FACILITES
______________________________________________________________________
Introduction: Several types of fluid flow devices are commonly used as outflow control devices
of stormwater detention facilities. These include pipes and culverts; short restrictor pipes that
are inserted into the ends of outlet pipes of larger diameter (these are sometimes also called
choke or throttle pipes); orifices (generally circular or rectangular opening in walls); weirs and
spillways; pumps; and specialized devices such as flow control roof drains.
Which device to use for a particular detention storage facility depends on the type of storage
facility and the elevation and location of its outlet with respect to the elevation and location of
the receiving drainageway. However, there are certain useful guidelines applicable to all
outflow control devices, and these are presented below under “General Recommendations”.
To further aid engineers and designers, acceptable methods for calculating size and discharge
of two commonly used outflow control devices – orifices and pipes – are also presented herein
under the section entitled “Sizing”.
General Recommendations:
1. Outflow control devices should be constructed of durable materials and should be
installed in a structurally sound manner that discourages misadjustment or removal.
For example, the MSD recommends that a restrictor pipe be at least two feet long and
be cemented securely in place over its entire length. Orifice restrictor plates made of
thin sheet metal can be removed or enlarged too easily by unauthorized persons.
Similarly, drilled holes serving as orifices in manhole covers can be enlarged, or
additional holes may be drilled, or the entire cover can be removed or it may be replaced
by a perforated type cover, thus precluding the function of the detention facilities.
2. Outflow control devices should be as self-operating and self-maintaining as possible.
Whenever possible, facilities should empty by gravity. Pumps and other devices which
may become inoperable during power outages should be avoided (usually power outages
occur when the flood control facilities are needed most – during the most severe
storms). Also avoid manually operated valves and sluice gates, which may be left in
wrong positions at inopportune times.
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -2-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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3. In order to help prevent clogging, its is generally advisable not to specify outlets that are
smaller than 4” diameter. Where an initial project design calls for multiple outlets, any
one or more of which is less than 4” diameter, try redesigning and combining facilities
so that no outlet is less than 4” diameter.
4. For larger detention facilities, if it is anticipated that debris will enter a system and
cause clogging problems, provide special debris racks, grids, or fins. Make sure,
though, that these devices themselves don’t promote problems, as might occur by
installing window screening or other fine-mesh material on the entrance of an outlet
pipe.
5. Provide safe and easy access and working space for maintenance personnel and
equipment so that the facilities can be readily inspected and maintained. Install
restrictors in a manner which facilitates cleaning and helps prevent blockages; for
example, it is generally better to install restrictors in manholes on the upstream end of
a sewer run.
6. Safety bars or grids (maximum 6” spacing) should be installed wherever there is a
possibility of children or large animals entering drainage conduits. Fences, railings, life
preservers, warning signs, and other safety equipment should be employed as deemed
necessary.
7. Where high flow velocities capable of causing erosion or other problems are expected,
provide rip-rap, concrete aprons, or other stabilization as may be necessary. Severe
cases may call for energy dissipators such as baffles or stilling basins.
8. Under certain conditions, excessive vortexing (swirling) may occur which may erode the
sides or bottom of a detention facility or may damage the outflow control structure.
Although this is not a common occurrence, it should be taken into consideration with
larger detention facilities especially when vertical outflow devices are involved (e.g.,
standpipes). Appropriately placed vanes or baffles in the area immediately upstream of
the outflow control device will help prevent or eliminate this problem.
9. As a safeguard in the event that outflow devices become clogged or actual inflows
exceed design inflows, emergency outflow devices such as overflow weirs, spillways, or
scuppers (in the case of roof detention) should be provided. The inverts of these devices
should not, of course, be lower than the maximum required highwater elevation (the
elevation at which the required or desired storage volume is achieved). As with the
design of all other outlets, make sure the discharge from the overflow device is directed
to an area or facility capable of safely handling the flow.
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -3-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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Sizing:
Permissible Discharge Rate Typically the designer of a flood control facility determines or is
given a maximum permissible discharge rate which, under a set of given conditions, is not to
be exceeded. This permissible discharge rate is usually based on the capacity of the receiving
drainage system.
Head Proper sizing of the outflow control device so that the permissible discharge rate is not
exceeded involves taking into account the differential head (difference in water levels) across
the device. The water level used in calculating the head on the upstream side of the device
should not be lower than the maximum highwater elevation of the detention storage facility (as
mentioned previously, the maximum highwater elevation is the elevation at which the required
or desired amount of flood storage volume is reached in the storage basin).
The water level on the downstream side of the device may exist in the form of a standing pool or
backed-up water which submerges the outlet, or discharge may be made to the atmosphere
(free discharge or unsubmerged outlet) in which case it is usually acceptable to take the water
level at the crown (top) of the pipe as the outlet. In the case of free discharge from orifices, the
head would be the centerline of the orifice if the opening was in a vertical plane, or to the
entrance of the orifice if it is in a horizontal plane.
Fluid Flow Equations After determining the upstream and downstream water levels, a
suitable fluid flow equation must be applied. The type and design of the outflow control device
and the conditions it will be subjected to will dictate which equation is appropriate.
In the case of weirs and spillways, there are numerous variables involved, and a great number
of discharge formulas have been developed. The reader is advised to consult the literature for
equations suitable to his particular case. One recommended reference is Handbook of
Hydraulics by King and Brater.
Similarly, equations and nomographs have been published for discharge rates from culverts
based on different pipe shapes and materials, entrance shapes, exit conditions, etc. The reader
may consult manufacturer’s literature or a publication by the U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Public Roads entitled Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts
(Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 5), or similar publications available from state highway
agencies.
Discharge rates of orifices and simple pipes may be calculated by the use of rather simple
formulas applicable to many cases. The sizing of these two types of outflow control devices is
discussed herein.
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -4-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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Orifice Discharge An orifice is an opening having a regular form and closed perimeter. Note
that if the perimeter is not closed at the top, or if an orifice opening is not flowing full, the
device is, or behaves as, a weir, and the orifice formula presented below does not apply.
Common examples of outflow control devices which behave as orifices include circular or
rectangular openings in retaining or manhole walls; hole in metal “orifice plates”; and holes in
metal collars around roof drains. The general rule is that if the length of the opening is not
more than twice or thrice its diameter, the orifice formula is suitable. Otherwise, friction in the
barrel of the device comes into play, and the orifice formula will no longer apply. For the sake
of simplicity, the MSD has accepted use of the orifice formula in calculating discharge through
restrictor pipes (if 2 feet in length or shorter) even if the length exceeds the diameter by more
than a factor of two or three.
The orifice formula can be written as
(Eqn 1) Q = CdA 2gh
where Q is a discharge rate, ft3 /sec
A is a cross-sectional area of orifice, ft2
G is acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
H is available head of water, ft
Cd is a discharge coefficient, dimensionless
The value of the discharge coefficient, Cd , primarily depends on the shape of the orifice rim
(entrance). Rounded or beveled entrances allow greater flow and thus have larger Cd values
than square edged entrances. Figure 1 shows various types of entrances and corresponding Cd
values.
Figure 1. Discharge coefficients, Cd, for
Various entrance types.
(Note: For required discharge coefficient values, Cd for various entrance types to used for
MWRDGC Sewer Permit Application Detention Designs, Click Here .)
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -5-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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In cases where the downstream side of the orifice is submerged, the value of h in the formula
will be the differential head, or difference between the water levels on the upstream and
downstream sides.
Where discharge is made to the atmosphere (unsubmerged outlet), h is the head of water to the
centerline of the orifice.
Example Problem 1.
Calculate the discharge from the circular orifices show in Figures
2a and 2b.
The outlet of the orifice shown in Figure 2a is not submerged, so h is to the centerline of the
orifice; 698.00 – (695.30 + 0.5) = 2.20 ft. A = π D2 /4 = .785 ft.
Then Q = CA 2gh = (0.79) (0.785) 2(32.2) (2.2) = 7.38 ft3/sec.
In figure 2b, the outlet is submerged, hence h is the difference in water levels.
h = 698.00 – 697.00 = 1.00
Then Q = (0.79) (0.785) 2( 32.2) (1.00) = 4.98 ft3/sec.
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -6-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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Pipe Discharge Discharge rates of simple sewer pipes or short restrictor pipes can be
calculated by use of an equation based on the Bernoulli equation:
v2 v2 2.87 n 2 Lv 2
(Eqn 2) H = Ke + Ko +
2g 2g D 4/3
where H is available head of water, ft.
v is average velocity, ft/sec
g is acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
n is roughness coefficient, dimensionless
L is length of pipe, ft
D is diameter of pipe, ft
Ke is the entrance loss coefficient, dimensionless
Ko is outlet loss coefficient, dimensionless
The first and second terms on the right-hand side of the equation express the head loss due to
the entrance and exit conditions, respectively. Generally Ko equals 1.0, but Ke varies
considerably and depends on the shape of the entrance. Table 1 gives Ke values for various
entrance shapes.
The third term on the right-hand side of the equation represents the head loss due to friction of
the pipe barrel. In this case the expression is based on Manning’s formula of fluid flow, but
other friction-flow formulas could be used as well (e.g. Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-Williams
formulas). Table 2 lists values of n, Manning’s roughness coefficient, for various pipe
materials.
To calculate the discharge rate from Eqn 2, the continuity equation [ Q = vA ] is used. After
substitution and rearrangement, the following equation results
1/ 2
H
(Eqn 3) Q = A
Ke + Ko 2.87n 2 L
+
2g D 4/3
where Q is discharge rate, ft3 /sec
A is cross-sectional area of pipe, ft2
L is length of pipe, ft
If the pipe is relatively long and the head is relatively small, the contribution of the entrance
and exit head loss terms may be negligible. Then Manning’s formula may be used directly.
Substituting the continuity equation into Manning’s formula for circular pipes yields
(Eqn 4)
0.464D8/3
Q = (H/L) 1/2
n
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -7-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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The value of H is the difference in liquid level elevation at the entrance and the exit. If there is
no standing water on the outlet side (i.e., unsubmerged outlet), the liquid level at the outlet can
be assumed to be, in most cases, at or just below the crown of the pipe at the outlet.
Example Problem 2.
Calculate the discharge rates from the pipes shown in Figures 3a and 3b.
In figure 3a the pipe in its entirety is used to control the flow. The figure 3b a short restrictor
pipe is used to control the flow. Since the head is large and the pipe is relatively short, use
Equation 3.
For the problem, shown in Figure 3a, H equals the pond highwater elevation less the elevation
of the water at the outlet, which can be taken as the elevation of the crown of the pipe because
the outlet is unsubmerged. Hence, H = 664.30 – (654.05 + 0.50) = 9.75 ft. From Table 1, Ke =
0.43. From Table 2, n = 0.013 Ko is usually taken to equal 1.0. L = 20ft. D = 0.5 ft. A = D2/4 =
0.196 ft2
Substituting into Equation 3.
1/ 2
Q = (0.196) (9.75)
(0.43) + (1.00) 2.87 (0.013) 2 (20)
+
2(32.2) (0 . 5 ) 4/3
Q = 2.83 ft3 /sec
Note that if Equation 4 were used, which does not take into account the entrance and exit head
losses, the discharge rate would be calculated to be, Q = 3.92ft3 /sec. Therefore, use of
Equation 4 was warranted since the entrance and exit losses were appreciable.
In Figure 3b, H will be the pond elevation minus the elevation of the crown of the 2-foot long
restrictor at its outlet. H = 664.30 – (654.25’ – 2’ (0.01) + 0.50’) = 9.57 ft. L = 2 ft. A, n and Ko
are the same as in the previous problem. Ke for rounded lip entrance is 0.10 (from Table 1).
Substituting into Equation 3 we get
1/2
Q = (0.196) (9.57)
(0.10) + (1.00) 2.87 (0.013) 2 (2)
+
2(32.2) (0 .5 ) 4/3
Q = 24.34 ft3 /sec
If Equation 4 were used, Q = 12.29 ft3 /sec, which is a very high value since the entrance and
exit head losses were not considered.
If the orifice formula were used Q = 0.93 (0.196) 2(32.2) (664.3 - (654.25 + 0.25))
= 4.57 cfs.
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -8-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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TABLE 1
*Values of Entrance Loss
Coefficients Ke
Ke
**Concrete pipe in headwall:
Socket or bevel entrance 0.19
Rounded lip 0.10
Square edge 0.43
Concrete pipe projecting, square edge 0.46
Corrugated metal pipe in headwall, square edge 0.43
*Values shown are from Handbook of Concrete Culvert Pipe Hydraulics,
Portland Cement Association, 1964
**No data available for cast iron, clay, or plastic pipes. Use of the concrete Ke values for other
materials having similar entrance types will be acceptable until better information is obtained.
TABLE 2
Values of Manning’s Roughness
Coefficient (n) for Various
Pipe Materials
Material n value
Abestos-Cement 0.012-0.013
Cast iron 0.012-0.013
Concrete 0.012-0.013
Corrugated metal pipe:
plain 0.024
paved invert 0.020
Plastic pipe (ABS or PVC) 0.012
Mr. Ayoub Y. Talhami , P.E. MEMO April 6, 1978
Engineer of Local Sewers Page -9-
Subject: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF OUTFLOW CONTROL DEVICES
OF STORMWATER DETENTINON FACILITES
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Fine-tuning Sometimes a value for actual discharge rate is arrived at which falls
unacceptably in-between the discharge rate of pipes of nominal sizes. For example, given a
hypothetical case, an 8 inch outlet pipe has a discharge rate that is slightly higher than the
permissible discharge rate. But using a smaller pipe of the next nominal size [ 6” ] results in a
release rate that is too low (extra flood storage volume would have to be provided, and the
potential for clogging is larger). A 7” pipe would be almost perfect, but this size is not available.
One obvious design approach may be to lower the slope of the 8 inch pipe, but sometimes this
is not possible. Another, less frequently used tactic is either to select a pipe entrance shape
that causes a greater head loss, or use a pipe material which has a higher barrel roughness
(e.g., use corrugated metal pipe instead of clay or cast iron).
JRR/rp