Cambridge IGCSE Geography – Full Learner Notes (MIXED STYLE)
Chapter 12: Structure of the Earth
1. Introduction to the Structure of the Earth
• The Earth is made up of different layers with different physical and chemical properties.
• Understanding the structure of the Earth helps explain natural hazards such as
earthquakes and volcanoes.
• The Earth’s structure influences plate tectonics, mountain building and volcanic
activity.
• Exam focus: be able to name and describe the main layers of the Earth.
2. The Three Main Layers of the Earth
• Crust:
– The thin outer layer of the Earth where we live.
– Thickness ranges from about 5–10 km (oceanic crust) to 30–70 km (continental crust).
– Made mainly of solid rock.
• Mantle:
– The thick layer beneath the crust, extending to about 2,900 km deep.
– Made of semi-molten rock (magma).
– Responsible for convection currents that move tectonic plates.
• Core:
– The central part of the Earth, very hot and dense.
– Divided into outer core (liquid) and inner core (solid).
– Made mainly of iron and nickel.
• Exam tip: Always state depth, state (solid/liquid) and material when describing layers.
3. Continental Crust vs Oceanic Crust
• Continental crust:
– Thicker (up to 70 km).
– Less dense.
– Older rocks.
– Forms continents.
• Oceanic crust:
– Thinner (5–10 km).
– More dense.
– Younger rocks.
– Forms ocean floors.
• Exam tip: Compare thickness, density, age and location.
4. Evidence for the Structure of the Earth
• Scientists cannot drill to the Earth’s core, so they use indirect evidence.
• Seismic waves from earthquakes change speed and direction as they pass through
different layers.
• P-waves travel through solids and liquids; S-waves only travel through solids.
• The absence of S-waves in the outer core shows it is liquid.
• Changes in wave speed show boundaries between crust, mantle and core.
• Exam tip: Link seismic wave behaviour to the physical state of each layer.
5. Heat from the Earth and Convection Currents
• The core is extremely hot due to radioactive decay and residual heat from Earth’s
formation.
• Heat rises from the core into the mantle, creating convection currents.
• Hot magma rises, cools near the crust, then sinks again.
• These convection currents cause tectonic plates to move.
• Plate movement leads to earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building.
• Exam tip: Explain convection currents step-by-step.
6. Link Between Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics
• The crust is broken into tectonic plates that float on the semi-molten upper mantle
(asthenosphere).
• Movement of plates is driven by convection currents in the mantle.
• Plate boundaries are zones of earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Destructive margins: plates collide; volcanoes and earthquakes occur.
• Constructive margins: plates move apart; magma rises to form new crust.
• Conservative margins: plates slide past each other; earthquakes occur.
• Exam tip: Link structure → convection currents → plate movement → hazards.
7. Diagrams and Labelling (Exam Skills)
• You may be asked to label a diagram of the Earth’s structure.
• Key labels: crust, mantle, outer core, inner core.
• You may also be asked to annotate thickness or physical state (solid/liquid).
• Practise drawing simple labelled diagrams.
• Exam tip: Always label clearly and write short notes next to each layer.
8. Exam Technique & Common Mistakes (Earth Structure)
• Do not confuse crust, mantle and core.
• Remember: outer core is liquid, inner core is solid.
• Explain convection currents clearly, not just mention them.
• Link Earth structure to plate tectonics and natural hazards.
• Use labelled diagrams where appropriate.
• Structure answers clearly with definitions and explanations.